Albright - The Goddess of Life and Wisdom

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THE GODDESS OF LIFE AND WISDOM
BY W. F. ALBRIGHT
The American School of Archaeology, Jerusalem
I. SIDURI SABITU
The misty panorama of event and mirage which passes before us

in the dawn of human history is lighted here and there by scenes of
unusual vividness. Of all the episodes in extant literature which
reach the heights of imagination or sound the depths of pathos in
so effective a way that they possess undying appeal, none offers a
more romantic theme than the search for youth and happiness, none
more thrilling than the struggle for power, and none sadder than the
final failure. All these motives enter harmoniously into the pro-
duction of that remarkable work of early Babylonian genius, the
Gilgames-epic, which attains its culmination in the hero's vain quest
of eternal life. Stricken, it would seem, with blues, despairing of
life and in terror of the underworld, whose gloomy secrets have been
revealed to him by the shade of his erstwhile companion, Engidu,
he turns toward the setting sun, hoping against hope that he may
chance upon the abodes of the immortal demigods and quaff life
at their tables. Passing beyond the dwellings of men, he undergoes
countless hardships in the wilderness, but at last reaches the gate
of the sun, guarded by monstrous scorpion-men. The giants, rec-
ognizing the divine blood inherited from his mother Ninsun, admit
him without demur, and Gilgames finds himself in a dark tunnel,
"the road of the sun," through which he trudges for twenty-four
hours (twelve b&r8). All at once a dim light is visible-a few more
paces and he emerges into a garden of dazzling beauty,' prototype
of the gem-laden orchards of Aladdin (NE,2 63, 47-50):
' Mackenzie, Myths of Babylonia and Assyria, p. 188, has noticed an interesting
Hindu parallel to this episode in the journey of the monkey-king, Hanuman, to the seaside
palace of the nymph (her characterization as female ascetic is secondary) Parbhivati.
2Note the following abbreviations: AJA = Ameri'can Journal of Archaeology;
AJSL =American Journal of Semitic Languages; ARW =Archiv fiur Religionswissen-
schaft; BA =Beitrdge zur Assyriologie; CT = Cuneiform Tablets; GE =Gilgames-epic;
JAOS =Journal of the American Oriental Society; JBL =Journal of Biblical Literature;
KAT =Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament; KB =Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek;
258
THE GODDESS OF LIFE AND WISDOM 259
sdmtu nadt inib'al
ig unnatum ullulat ana dagdla t(bat
ukn?dna•i haqalta
inba na'i-ma ana amdri Ca'dh=
Malachite2grew as its fruit;
A grapevinehung down, fair to behold;
Lapis-lazuligrew as clustersof grapes;3
Fruit grew, dazzling4to see.
It is indeed a picture worthy of an artist's brush; the description
is simple but vivid, without the cloying accumulation of riches which
meets one in Arab fiction. Precious gems blend with luscious fruit
before our eyes; the rich green mass of malachite looks like the
luxuriant cluster of grapes; the dark-blue lapis invites to a feast
from the edible delicacy by its side.5 There were other trees and
other gems in the garden, listed in the mutilated lines which follow,
but the vine is the centerpiece; in the vineyard sits the nymph
Siduri-Sabiltu,on the throne of the sea (kussi tdmtim), with a veil over
her head (kutCmi kuttumat).6 To her Gilgames turns with his plaint,
but receiving no satisfaction inquires the way to the immortal sage
Atralasts. Though her reply is discouraging, the undaunted hero
finds means to cross the distant sea and the waters of death which
separate the demigod from his mortal children.
NE =Haupt, Das Babylonische Nimrodepos; OLZ =Orientalistische Literaturzeitung;

PSBA =Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology; RA = Revue d'Assyriologie;
RHR =Revue de l'Histoire des Religions; RT=Recueil des Travaux; SGL=Delitzsch,
Sumerisches Glossar; ZA =Zeitschrift fir Assyriologie; ZA TW =Zeitschrift fir die Alttes-
=
tamentliche Wissenschaft; ZD MG Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft;
ZNTW =Zeitschrift fiir die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft.
1 The antecedent of the fem. suffix may be kirg, 'orchard,' a possibility supported
by the traces.
2 For the meaning of sdmtu see the indications, AJSL, XXXIV, 230; the evidence
for the rendering 'malachite' is convincing.
3 Since icgunnatu (for reading cf. Meissner, Assyr. Studien, VI, 33) means 'grape-
vine,' ba6baltu ought to mean 'grape-cluster,' a conclusion supported by etymological
considerations. UJac6altu stands for *hbaC6atu, like eldu, 'harvest,' for ecdu; ildaqqu,
'shoot,' for *ijdaqqu, and corresponds to Ar. hucpda, 'cluster of grapes left after the
vintage,' from the root bacca, 'pluck, pick,' also found in Ar. hucc, 'reed-hut,' the Assyr.
6uccu. Reduplication is very common in names of plants and their parts.
4 For Cdbu, 'be brilliant' (root d4, 'shine,' found in Ar. da44a, ddhdu, y4daba, etc.;
for the h, due to partial assimilation to the c, cf. 'cry out' =Ar. Qdia, and radguu =
rdhada), cf., e.g., Amarna 1, 98. •dbu,
The motive of the gem-laden orchard originated in artificial reproduction of fruit
trees, with precious stones in place of fruit.
6 The veil implies that she was a virgin; cf. KA T3, 432, and below.
260 JOURNALOF SEMITICLANGUAGES
THE AMERICAN
In my article, "The Babylonian Sage Ut-napi'tim riU^qu"(JAOS,

XXXVIII, 60-65), I have pointed out that Siduri's place in the early
Babylonian recension is more independent than in the later Ninevite,
and that there is a clear tendency to reduce her r le in favor of the
great deluge-hero. In the older form of the story Gilgames asks
her directly for the gift of life; the perilous journey to the Mouth
of the Rivers, the home of Ut-napistim, appears only as a dernier
ressort. Elsewhere'-see also below-I will show that the visit of
Gilgames to Siduri parallels to a certain extent the expedition of
Lugalbanda to the beer-goddess Sirls on Mount SAbu, and was,
therefore, primarily independent of the episode of Ut-napistim. If
Siduri was in one story the goal of the hero's quest of life, she must
have been regarded as the goddess or nymph in whose hands lay its
disposal, or, to employ the universally known symbolism, as the
keeper of the fruit of life and the fountain of life. In the incantatory
series, Surpu, II, 172, she is called 'goddess of wisdom, genius of
life' (a Siduri liptur al Itar nitmqi a lamassi baldti), and in a late
Assyrian letter (Harper, V, 476, 20) her name occurs between Anunit,
a name of Istar as queen of heaven (consort of Anu), and Mummu,
god of wisdom.
The throne of the sea, if correct, as probable, is a very curious
detail, which may point, as Jensen thinks, to syncretism with Ba calat
of Byblos, whom the Phoenicians identified with Igtar, as is estab-
lished by the fact that in the Amarna period her consort is Damu
(Tammuz).2 Long before this time the Egyptian Isis had been
identified with her as HIathor of Byblos, and Byblos had been
attracted into the Osiris myth. We may even find an Egypto-
Phoenician parallel to the throne of the sea in an Astarte legend from
a papyrus of the New Kingdom (Spiegelberg, PSBA, XXIV, 41 ff.).
Like Siduri, Astarte sits on the seashore (p. 44, 1, 4: iug hmsitihr
tst p'rnm), where she receives a throne (p. 47, 1, 3: iYtu hr dit nd
t3:i isbt). Spiegelberg suggests that Astarte was considered the lady
of the ocean (hnt yd-yr), like Neit of Sais; cf. also the similar figure
of Iihara tdmti", 'Ibhara of the sea.' The throne motive may
, For the present see especially my article "Gilgames and Engidu, Mesopotamian
Genii of Fecundity," appearing in JAOS.
2 Cf.
Schribder, OLZ, XVIII, 291 f.
perhaps be traced in Ijarran at a much later date.' Another possi-

bility will be discussed below, in connection with the story of Kalypso.
To Jensen we owe another important identification, with the
nymph Kalypso of the Odyssey. While such comparisons usually
awaken distrust, in this case Jensen appears to be correct, as will
presently appear. On an island in the far western ocean2 resides
the beautiful nymph Kalypso, whose name is connected with the
virginal KaXvIrrpa (Odyssey v. 232), in which she veils her head, like
Siduri. Like Istar, she sits at the loom, singing as she weaves
(&oL8xdovr' b0rl KaX,;. Igtar
is the tdbatrigma). She dwells in a grotto,
surrounded by luxuriant, grape-laden vines (v. 68 f.):
8`r'ao7•-7oe'
VLVTOV TCLaVVO O vsrcp'• Vo
t 7ELO o
XaAvpo
OLO
Like Siduri again,3 Kalypso's home is located at the source of the

four streams (v. 70 f.):4
Kp/VaLtS'C')a' ir773 vpL s peov Ma&nTL
XCVKL
'at XXrv
7rX7no-aL LME
cTTpajujuevat aXVSLS k
Finally, most significant of all, Kalypso is able to bestow immor-

tality, which can otherwise be obtained only through a draft
of the celestial ambrosia (Sk. amrta, 'deathless'), vouchsafed by
Zeus. Even Apollo and Aphrodite cannot save their favorites from
death. Yet Kalypso offers Odysseus the priceless boon (v. 135 f.):
IOa(TKOV
770'OLV cLvcLTa70V K
Katy7/O)V J/AaTa 7racV~ca.
1 En-Nedim (ed. Fliigel, p. 325), in describing the gods of Ijarrn, says of the goddess
S(?),apparently a name of 0 =b *, the virgin mother of the
twins Tammuz and Balti ( =Blti, i.e., Madonna, name of r. •'
the I-tar of Erech), kdna lahd
sittatu 'arydhin sariran (so I would read; B has sartrah, A has 8artratin, 'evil') yakdnat
tauavvahu bihim 'ild 'lbahri ='(who) had six spirits as a throne, and used to go with
sdhili
them to the shore of the sea.' The appellation " Persian " indicates perhaps, if not simply
a corruption, that there has been conflation with the Iranian water-goddess Ardvisftra
Anfhita. The Ijarranians are also said to have celebrated a festival of the 'daughter
of the waters,' who is represented apparently on local coins.
2 Odyssey v. 277; in sailing homeward Odysseus must keep the Great Bear on his
left; cf. also Kranz, Hermes, L (1915), 92 if., and Gruppe, Griech. Myth., p. 394, n. 6.
3 For the geographical localization of Siduri's abode see my article, "The Mouth of
the Rivers," AJSL, XXXV, 161-95.
4 It may also be noted that her island is the 'navel of the sea' (6AjaX& OaXaians)'
Odyssey i. 50. Since the 6jAaX~, stone is often the seat of the god (Apollo at Delphi)-
see Roscher, Omphalos, pp. 51, 53, 63, 91 f., 95 ff.-it seems not unlikely that this con-
ception is older than the puzzling kusss tdmtim, especially in view of the common fancy
that the waters issue from the navel of the earth (cf. Hoffmann, ZA, XI, 273), as well
as from beneath the throne of god (Osiris or Theos; see my article in AJSL). More
cannot be said at present.
262 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES
The story of Kalypso, therefore, produces a foreign impression upon

the reader. According to most Homeric critics (cf. Immisch in
Roscher, s.v. "Kalypso"), the episode styled by the rhapsodists
KaXvVoi3s&Pvrpop is quite independent of the rest of the narrative;
since she is not an "in Volksglauben und Sage lebendig wurzelnde
Gestalt," she is supposed to be a poetic fiction modeled after Kirke.
The foregoing comparison will show that she is not a "poetic fiction "
of the Hellenes, and it will be pointed out below that the story has
been imported from Anatolia-nymph, scenery, and all.
How did this enigmatic figure originate? The characteristics
of Siduri-Sabitu as analyzed place her in the cycle revolving about
Tammuz and IHtar, where we find virgin-goddesses and deities of
wisdom and healing, vine-goddesses and genii of life. Nor have we
far to seek. The name S(S)iduri cannot be separated from Sirtur
(Ze-ir-tu-ur, Sir-du), mother of Tammuz; the first r has been dropped
by dissimilation. Unfortunately we know nothing directly about
this divinity except her name, which means 'maid, virgin," a very
significant fact. While the circumstance that Tammuz' mother,
like the mother of Dusares, was supposed to be a virgin is only what
should be expected, in view of the countless parallels of more or less
rigor, a few words regarding the original conception may not be out
of place.2
Among most ancient peoples the source of fertility was traced to
a marriage between father-heaven and mother-earth, or between the
god of the fecundizing inundation and the goddess of the earth.
According to this conception the goddess lost her virginity in becom-
ing pregnant with terrestrial life. However, another set of ideas
was grafted on, producing that marvelous cycle of myths which we
associate with Adonis and Aphrodite. In lands where the date
palm flourished, as in Babylonia, there was a sharp differentiation
between unisexual and bisexual vegetation. Consequently, the sense
1 The name Siduri is explained (II R 32, 27cd) as ardatu, 'maiden.' Sir-tur evidently
is a word like kal-tur, 'young man, boy' (batilu), and ki-el-tur, 'girl,' from ki-el =ardatu;
sir, 8er is the proper reading of EZEN = kurummatu, 'womb, uterus' (JA OS, XXXIX, 69),
used for 'woman' like Sum. sal or g$me, 'womb.'
2 The following treatment will be as terse as practicable; I am presenting the results
of studies on the cycle of Tammuz and Itar in a number of articles, in advance of the
translations of the pertinent cuneiform texts in a volume to appear in the "Yale Oriental
Series."
of the sexuality of plant life, common everywhere, was very strongly

accentuated. Bisexual plants, which bore their own seed, were
regarded as androgynous or parthenogenetic. Hence the divinities
of vegetation were similarly fancied; both Tammuz and ITtar were
often androgynous; the bearded ITtar (=masculine cAgtar) is well
known; the planet Venus was male in the morning, and' female at
night. Similarly, several of the names of Tammuz are feminine-
in short, these gods of fertility are practically interchangeable when
considered in the light of their entire history and not in too narrow
a scope. The stalk of grain might be a virgin, who produced her
grain-child without direct fecundation (Kore, daughter of Demeter,
mother-earth; Jephthah's daughter),' or it might be a youth, in
which case reaping became castration. We must remember that the
stalk was severed with a short sickle just below the ear, and that the
latter was associated with the male member.2 Hence vegetation
always springs from the severed members of Attis and his congeners.
The idea of hermaphroditism was too abnormal to prevail, and so
remained very rare, being replaced by the conception of intimately
related individuals of opposite sex, usually brother and sister, espe-
cially since the god of fertility and his spouse were also often thought
to be the progenitors of the race.3 But with a primitive naivete of
logic, which was, none the less, rigorous, the virgin sister had to
become the brother's mother, and so the brother becomes his own
father. We need not assume, as has often been done, that these
conceptions go back to a period of sexual promiscuity; they may
naturally be referred to the observation of the apparent phenomena
of plant (and animal) life, whose reproductive processes were of vital
economic significance, and were accordingly the center of elaborate
religio-magical rites and beliefs. Now we can see how Bitis and
Sabazios can become their own fathers, why Am6n and Min are
1 Cf. JBL, XXXVII, 120. The virginal idea originated partly in the grain stalk
itself, conceived as a virgin (cf. rapO•ivoand rr6p0&s;virgo and virga; W6rter und Sachen,
I, 44), but mainly as a transferred attribute from mother-earth, who was a virgin until
plowed and irrigated. All these motives are almost inextricably intertwined.
2 The association of ideas is illustrated by Mehri senbelt, 'male member,' identical
with iubultu, sunbula, 'ear of grain,' in the other languages. The reaping of the ear is
the ultimate source of the castration of the god of fertility, the social and animal appli-
cations (JBL, XXXVII, 124), as well as the astral (JAOS, XXXIX, 88), being secondary.
3 Like the god of fertility, the archetype man was often considered as hermaphrodite;
cf. Iranian Magya and Ma~y8i in the rivas plant.
called by the remarkable title, 'bull of his mother,' and Joseph

'first-born of his bull' (i.e., bull, born of himself),' and why Tammuz
receives the liturgic appellation 'brother of (his) mother, Mutin-anna
(litanic form of Gestin-anna).'2 The most drastic, and at the same
time instructive, form of the myth is found in Phrygia. Zeus-
Sabazios, the ram-god of fertility, consorts with mother-earth in
the form of a bull. After ten months she bears Kore, whom her
father later approaches as a serpent, causing her to become pregnant
with a bull-like son (Sabazios himself). This process was liturgically
expressed by the formula ravpos ra'rpp phKoPvoSKaL rabpov
'rar?7p
8padKw (Roscher, s.v. "Sabazios," IV, 252 f.).
It is not, therefore, surprising to find the goddess of fertility both
mother, sister, and wife of Tammuz, or even identified with him.
Regularly, however, these functions are divided among the various
related types of the goddess, Sirtur becoming the mother of the god,
Geytin-anna (whom the Semites called Belit-9ri, 'lady of the under-
world,3 alluding to her chthonic aspects), his sister and wife (also
his mother; see above), while Ama-gestin-anna, a longer name of
the preceding, is identified with him! As 'the virgin,' Siduri (Sirtur),
is thus properly an appellation of Ama-gestin-anna, 'the mother-vine
of heaven,' it becomes immediately clear that the vineyard of the
former is not a casual ornament, but is her rightful estate as goddess
of the vine. The characteristics of ancient myths do not spring
from the pure Lust zum Fabulieren of a poetic fancy, but are sparingly
selected from available religio-magical motives, ordinarily with an
economic basis.4
How are we to explain the figure of Gestin-anna, the vine of
heaven ?" Most mother-goddesses with whom we are acquainted
represent the earth or the moon. Egyptian Nyt, however, is a
woman or a cow whose teats drip fertility, and who lies locked in
1See JBL, XXXVII, 118.
2 Most of the cases of fecundizing incest (JBL, XXXVII, 117, n. 3) occur in connec-
tion with gods of animal husbandry for obvious reasons; in the Tammuz liturgy the
lamb consorts with the ewe, his mother (see Witzel, RA, X, 159, 164).
3 Sum. edin = Cru is employed like Eg. Imnti, 'west, underworld'; see AJSL, XXXV,
171, n. 2.
4 Wundt's theory of the myth is inadmissible, though his views are useful as a cor-
rective to the older schools of comparative mythology.
5 Langdon's hypothesis, as set forth in Tammuz and Ishtar, p. 43, is interesting, but
is based on too speculative assumptions, and so is not convincing.
close embrace with her consort, the earth-god Gbb,' until S , the
god of the air, separates them. It is true that this pair does not
figure much in the cult, but ethnic parallels which may be adduced
show that we are not dealing with a crude philosophy of compara-
tively late origin, as seems to be assumed quite generally now, but
with a fossil bit of exceedingly primitive mythology. Gestin-anna
is not properly heaven itself, but the fertility which it exudes. We
are, fortunately, in a position to determine the meaning of the vine
in her cult, thanks to Anatolian and Mandaean parallels, and to the
analogy of the Indo-Iranian soma-haoma. West of Armenia the
vine is the center of the cult, eastward it is the sdma around which
myth and liturgy revolve. As sources of exhilaration and inspira-
tion, their roles are so similar that when Mithraism passed Azarbaigan
on its conquering road toward the Mediterranean, the vine auto-
matically replaced the traditional. haoma. In the V~da the soma-
plant is the source of rain,2 whence it is identified with the moon,
regarded by all peoples as the source of rain, Kar' oxYv. Naturally
the moon is also regarded as the bowl of s6ma, which spills the
fertilizing rain over the earth. The same notion that the cosmic
plant of life is the source of water appears explicitly in the Mandaean
1 The character of Nyt and Al is assured, both iconographically and etymologically;
Gbb is fixed.etymologically by Ember's happy combination with Ar. "abib, 'clod, soil,
earth.'
2 See Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, passim. Myths of the same character show
that the was also the symbol of the reviving rains; cf. Odyssey xii. 62 ff., where
&Appoo'la
the seven doves (rirhea) are the Pleiades, connected intimately in western Asia and the
Aegean with rainfall (cf. Roscher, Die Zahl Vierzig [Abh. Kan. Sachs. Ak. Wiss. Phil.-hist.
Klass., Vol. XXVII], pp. 124 ff.; cf. also the Arabic name of the constellation, Turaiid,
from Ldrd, 'be moist,' and the Assyr. Qappu, lit. 'inundation' [Kugler, Sternkunde, II,
152 f.]), who carry the ambrosia to Zeus, losing one of their number (the seventh Pleiad)
on the way, just as the storm-eagle Garuda (the Babylonian equivalents Im-dugud and
ZIQboth mean 'storm'; see below) carries the 86ma or amrta in India. So also Odin
steals the mead of wisdom in the form of a serpent (see below), and flies away with it as an
eagle. Zeus abducts his cupbearer, Ganymede, in the guise of an eagle, giving Laomedon,
father of the latter, a golden vine in recompense for his son; here the Anatolian sacred
plant, the vine, appears as the source of ambrosia. In a whole series of myths, first
explained by Kuhn in his pioneer work, Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des GOttertranks
(cf. also Bloomfield, JAOS, XVI, 1-24), still classical, though somewhat antiquated,
the storm cloud is a gigantic bird, carrying a load of rain, which the bolts of the storm-
god (see below) compel it to disgorge. These birds are sometimes combined with other
rain-giving heavenly bodies, especially the moon and the Pleiades, birds being, moreover,
regarded as the messengers of the gods. In ceremonies or charms concerned with the
production of fertility, the rain is praised as the celestial nectar, the exhilarating draft
of gods and men, renewing life. Finally, the 86ma motive is associated with the supposed
immortality of the eagle, a belief derived from its periodic molting (cf. Morgenstern,
ZA, XXIX, 294 f.).
266 THE AMERICAN
JOURNALOF SEMITICLANGUAGES
system, which contains many very primitive Mesopotamian and

Anatolian conceptions, worked into a unique cosmology and cos-
mogony. In Mandaean symbolism the vine (gufnd)1 is the incor-
poration of light, wisdom, and purity; the archetype (qadmdii)
vine is in the storehouse2 of the upper world. The interior of the
vine is water, its foliage is formed by the spirits of light, and its
tendrils are beams of light.3 From it flow the rivers, bearing holy
water to provide sustenance for man. The god of light and wisdom,
the Savior, Mandd d'haji (see below), is himself identified with the
vine of life (gufnd d'haiie). The underlying mythological nucleus
is the conception that the vine is the world-tree, a plant capable of
encircling heaven, whose.fruit the stars are. Both the Mandaeans
and the Manichaeans believed in the heavenly ocean, upon which the
solar and lunar barks were fancied to float. The idea evidently
had taken deep root somewhere in Mesopotamia, to reappear after
the debacle of the old culture.
The close relation that exists between the s6ma motive-as we
may call the association between the fertilizing rain and the
popular beverage-and the cycle of Geitin-anna will appear strik-
ingly on comparing her doublet, Siduri, with Ninkasi. The latter,
whose name means 'mistress of the intoxicating fruit' (Sum. ka=
'fruit,' as in gi kageitin= ig unnatu [see above], and si, 'be full,'
also= 8lakru, 'be intoxicated'), is the consort of dPA-GESTIN-
DUG (='the good vinestalk'),4 receiving in this capacity the
name d•A-BIL (='the one who causes burning,' i.e., Dame Alco-
hol), and the mother of nine children,5 the first of whom is Sirls,
1 Cf. especially Brandt, Manddische Religion, p. 63.
2 For this conception see JAOS, XXXIX, 71 f.
3 The cosmological system of the Mandaeans seems to contain much more of this
symbolism than is generally recognized. The fruit (pird) of the vine is the world and
its parts (madng); its luxuriance is hypostatized as the spirits (Cutre) who execute the
commands of Mandi d'haii&. He himself is the soul of the cosmic vine, "whose root is
water," i.e., which springs from water as the first principle--excellent Babylonian doctrine
(see below).
4 For these data see CT, XXIV, 10, 22 if., and cf. Langdon, Sumerian Liturgical
Texts, pp. 143 if.
5 Their names are SEM, SEM
+KAS" (KAS = sikaru, 'distilled liquor'), SEM-KAS-
GIG (GIG ='dark, black'), ME-GUS (a bahuvrihi compound, meaning 'possessor of
awe-inspiring revelations'), ME-K UG ('possessor of pure revelations'), EME-TEG
('possessor of eloquent tongue'), KI-D UR-KA-ZAL ('the abode of festivity'; ka-zal =
tafiltu), NU-SILIG-GA ('the image of prosperity'-evidently alluding to the fictitious
glow of well-being created by alcohol), and Nin-mada, 'lord of the land,' who seems to
'beer,' with the ideogram SEM = KAS+LIS, 'intoxicating drink of the

mountains,' i.e., 'beer,' always considered a barbarous liquor by the
cultivated peoples of the Mediterranean region; Xenophon (Anab. iv.
5. 26 f.) found it among the Armenian mountaineers.2 Since SEM
means 'aromatic plant' (Bab. riqqu= Heb. rdqah, 'spiced wine'), it
is probable that it refers, among other things, to the haoma plant,
supposed to be Asclepias acida or Sarcostemmaviminalis, and to the
beverage prepared from it. Siris was probably employed in at least
as wide a sense as our own 'beer,' to include almost any intoxicating
drink not made from the vine or the date palm. The goddess Siris is
sometimes identified with Ninkasi (see below), and sometimes
regarded as her daughter, in accord with. her more restricted scope
of action. From a hymn in honor of Ninkasi, published by Zimmern,3
we learn that she was the daughter of Nin-til (i.e., 'mistress of life,'
like Siduri), queen of the aps2 (the subterranean fresh-water ocean),
and of Enki (Ea), its king. She is glorified as the spirit of fire and
intoxicating liquor (see Agni and S8ma); her libations mingle with
the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates, giving them the power of
fertility-a species of sympathetic magic. Ninkasi is also an appel-
lation (Langdon, Sumerian Liturgical Texts, p. 144) of dKas'-tin-nam,
but Langdon is certainly mistaken in identifying the latter with
dGeitin-an-na ('vine of heaven'), as her name has an entirely different
meaning, 'liquor which fixes (the destiny of) life.' In character,
have been a god of sacrifice; to the references given by Langdon add Reisner, No. 48,
rev. 5, Umun-ma-da Azib-bi an-na =' U. who prays heaven.' The nine are called ilimmu-dm
dumu-mes dNin-ka-si-g? mus-lalag (SGI, 284) -e-ne an-na-g? ='the nine children of Ninkasi,
the snake-charmers (name of a class of temple priests) of Heaven.'
1 For sirdsu and SEM, 'beer,' cf. Hroznk, OLZ, XVII, 201 f., XVIII, 40 f., and
especially Haupt, in a paper to have appeared in the Vienna Oriental Journal (for the
present see Johns Hopkins Univ. Circulars, XXXV [1916], 694 f.).
2 Cf. Hroznr, OLZ, V, 141. Meyer, Chetiter, p. 55, shows a Hittite cylinder from
the third millennium, representing two seated figures, with the characteristic Hittite
queue, drinking beer from a jar through long reeds, just as described by Xenophon.
Above them the lunar bowl hovers, with arms stretched out toward the beer guzzlers,
while beneath a serpent crawls. As the scene is common on early cylinders (cf. Ward,
Seal Cylinders of Western Asia, Nos. 83-88), it must have a sympathetic magical or mytho-
logical significance (as do many of these representations). The moon may be explained
on the analogy of the s6ma motive (a shrub which appears at one side, in the Hittite
cylinder, may be the source of the beverage). It is curious to note from a comparison
of these cylinders with Ward, No. 900 (the "temptation" scene), that the motive became
misunderstood and was even amalgamated with the tree of life.
3 Sumerische Kultlieder, No. 14; for translation cf. Prince, AJSL, XXXIII, 40 ff.
268 THE AMERICANJOURNAL OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES
however, the two are evidently very similar; Kastinnam is goddess

of life, like Siduri and Ninkasi's mother, Nintil.
After the foregoing remarks we shall not be surprised to find
Ninkasi figuring in a myth of the s6ma type. As I have treated the
myth of Lugalbanda and Zai in another article,1 it will not be neces-
sary to devote space to it here. The gigantic bird Im-dugud (Semitic
Zai,both meaning 'storm'; see note above), who corresponds to the
Iranian Saena or Simurgh and the Indian Garuda, all of whom are
zodlogically eagles,2 carries off the tablets of fate, powerful amulets
by means of which the gods maintain their positions as lords of the
universe (cf. the story of Thor's hammer). To recover the dupgimdti
the gods finally delegate Lugalbanda, the sun-god of Marad, who
goes north to Mount Masius,3 where Za nests, and with the help of
the wise Ninkasi (Siris) succeeds in intoxicating the bird and regaining
the tablets.4 The goddess lives on Mount Sabu, probably one of the
Armenian mountains, and is introduced to us as 'the wise woman,
the mother who is versed in banquets'5 (CT, XV, 41, 24: game-tug-tug
dagar-ra me-te-gar= sinniltu itpistu, ummu sa ana simdti s'aknat);
the mention of her name is sufficient signal for a poetic outburst in
praise of wine:
ina kikarizzazz2taildti
ina sikar usabu ridti =
In brandy6abidesjoy;
In brandydwells rejoicing.7
1 "Gilgames and Engidu," appearing in JAOS.
2 Mythically these monsters, the prototypes of the Phoenix and Ruljb, have been
confounded with the cosmological dragons of all Asiatic peoples, whose origin I will
treat elsewhere. This is very evident in Mas Cfdi (ed. Barbier de Meynard, I, 263 ff.),
who says that the tinnin, 'water-spout' (supposed to be a dragon; tinnin is Heb. tannin,
'sea-monster'), lives five hundred years, the Phoenix period. The tinnin has also fallen
heir (p. 268) to the seven-headed muvruAvu of Babylonia.
3 In AJSL, XXXV, 179, it is shown that the Sum. Gagur (CT, XV, 43, 1) is Assyr.
Kagiari, Mount Masius, the southernmost of the Armenian ranges. Just as ZfI lives on
Masius, so Sa6na nests on Harl Berezaiti, Garuda on M6ru, and, it may be added, the
eagle of Zeus on Olympos.
4 For the proof see tentatively my article, "Gilgames and Engidu." A translation
of the available fragments of the Lugalbanda cycle is in preparation.
a Cf. Hrozni, OLZ, V, 139 f.; simtu is a synonym of tdkultu, used in our text (1. 19)
for 'feast.'
6 Assyr. sikaru and ]Ieb. akdr refer, as Haupt has shown, to distilled liquor in general;
he has suggested 'brandy' as a convenient rendering, though a little too specific.
7 Cf. Psalm 104:15, "Wine, which rejoices the heart of man," and Judg. 9:13,
"Must rejoices gods and men."
I shall demonstrate elsewhere that this story has arisen from the
fusion of two myths. Upon the primary motive, the struggle between
the monster of chaos and the sun-god, has been grafted the myth
of the seizure of the divine drink, under the guardianship of the
goddess of alcohol, by the thunder-eagle, who bestows it in the form
of rain upon the thirsty land;' the similarity of this to the Garuda
myth, as recounted in the beginning of the Mahdbhdrata,is evident.
The second motive is the one interesting us at present, since it shows
unmistakably that our divinities are associated with myths of the
s6ma type. This is true not only of Ninkasi but also of Siduri, whose
appellation Sdbitu must be explained as a gentilic from Sabu, the
residence of Ninkasi. Mythologically the two deities are equivalent,
as follows from the fact that their roles in the Gilgames and the
Lugalbanda cycles are closely related (the evidence is given in my
article mentioned above; contrast ZA, XXXII, 169).
Why were the homes of these wine-deities localized on Mount
SAbu? While it is undeniably hard to explain the origin of geographi-
cal nomenclature in mythology, in some cases it is quite possible.
After countless etiological myths had arisen explaining geographical
terms, the ingenuity of mythopoeists of a later generation began
applying the principle to the embellishment of other myths. Thus
Mount Nigir in KurdistAn was probably selected as the place of
landing of the Babylonian ark not only because of its height but also
with reference to the fancied derivation of the name from
nagdru,
'protect, save.' An excellent explanation of the same nature is at
hand for the localization of the home of the wine-goddess on Mount
Sabu: sabft means 'drink wine' (RUC),2 whence sabul, 'wine' (Ar.
sibd)., and sdb%, 'tippler' (Heb. s6bo), corresponding to Sum.
(SGI 279), lit. 'one who buys much liquor,' synonym
lb-kal`-sidm-s`dm
of 1U-kas-si-si-ki, 'a man who becomes habitually intoxicated,'
Assyr. sakar (= Ar. sakrd or sakrdn); sibl is 'wine-dealer' (Ar.
sdbi? or sabbd'), Sum. li-geitina (lit. 'man of wine'). Mount Sibu
was probably the name of a real mountain in southern Armenia or
the vicinity, beyond JJa'ur = Ka'iari-Masius, the home of ZA. The
city of Sabum, perhaps lying. eastward of Babylonia, mentioned in
1 Or disgorges it under the bolts of the thunder-god; see above.
2 Hardly 'deal in wine,' like Ar. sdbd, sdba'a, 'buy wine to drink.'
Babylonian texts of the third millennium, can hardly have any con-
nection with our SAbu, nor is it probable that the Anatolian wine-god
Sabos (see below) derived his name from the mountain, or conversely.
It is not an accident that the home of Sabitu is placed in the
northern mountains, which have been from time immemorial the
paradise of the vine. Cuneiform lists of the most renowned vintages
refer us to Syria and northern Mesopotamia, whence, in Herodotos'
time (Herod. i. 194), rafts laden with their precious cargo of wine
floated down the river to Babylonia, just as they doubtless had done
from the early period. In very ancient times, it is true, the vine
grew in lower Babylonia,' in Arabia,2 and even in Egypt,; but viticul-
ture was even then being banished by the rise in temperature which
has accompanied the progressive desiccation of these lands, a fact
now definitely established by the researches of Ellsworth Huntington.
At present the southern boundary of the vineyard zone is said to run
through Bakuba, northeast of Bagdrd.4 Viniculture never played
a part of any importance among the industries of Babylonia. The
mythological significance of the vine need not, however, surprise
us, as we have outgrown the chimera of a southern origin of the
Sumerians. It would be rash now to affirm that Eridu,5 originally
on the Persian Gulf, though settled in Neolithic times (cf. JAOS,
XXXIX, 127 ff.), is older than Assur, where the Deutsche Orient-
Gesellschaft found a prehistoric Sumerian stratum. Since such
place-names as Ijarrdn and HIdb'u2r6 are Sumerian, it is, at least,
certain that they occupied northern Mesopotamia, while it is very
reasonable to suppose that their original home was still farther north.'
1 Gudea planted vines in Lagah (2500 B.c.); cf. Meissner, Assyr. Stud., VI, 32.
2 Cf. Landberg, Datina, p. 1357, and N1ldeke, Neue Beitrage, p. 64. The origin of
Sem. ajin (also in South Arabian and Ethiopic) = Gr. oa5t is veiled in obscurity, though
the view (championed also by Meyer, GA, I3, 705) that it is a loan from Anatolia is plau-
sible. The word does not occur in Assyr. (against GBIe); ni alpi =GIS-GESTIN-IGI-
G UD means 'ox-eye (vine)'!
aFor viniculture in the Old Empire ctf. R T, XXXV (1913), 117-24.
4 So Lindl apud Hommel, OLZ, IX, 661, n. 1.
5 For the refutation of the modern Assyriological Eridu myth see my article, " The
Mouth of the Rivers," AJSL, XXXV, 161-95.
6 See my article, cited above.
7 The Sumerian language seems to present the closest affinities with Georgian (cf.
AJSL, XXXIV, 86 f.). The improbable Turkestan hypothesis, originated by King, in
his History of Sumer and Akkad, has attained portentous dimensions in Langdon's
Tammuz and Ishtar.
The relation between Anatolian and Sumerian religion is very close,
quite aside from the mutual influence exerted in historical times,
which fell rather heavily to the debit of Asia Minor. We will, there-
fore, turn to Anatolia in the following discussion for light on some
problems not yet cleared up by Assyriological investigation.
II. THE VINE AND THE SERPENT
Throughout Anatolia and the Aegean lands the vine was inti-
mately associated with the god of fertility, so closely, in fact, that
the vine became his principal symbol, as befitting its importance in
the economic and social life of those countries. For our purposes,
as might be expected, the European cult of Dionysos is not so pro-
ductive as the ritual and mythology of his Asiatic counterpart,
Sabazios, the head of the Phrygian pantheon. In view of the non-
Hellenic character of some phases of his cult, and his association
with the pre-Phrygian worship of Ma and Attis, we may regard him,
in nature if not in name, as a very ancient god of productivity. That
the Hittites worshiped divinities of a Dionysiac type is established
by the sculptured image of a god carrying large clusters of grapes,
found at Ivriz in Lycaonia, and by the representations of the Cilician
Sandon. The Phrygian Sabazios,1 or Sabos, whence his followers
were called Saboi, is the god of heaven,2 whose rains give fertility,
and is variously conceived as a bull, a ram, or a serpent (see above),
forms in which he consorted with mother-earth. His two principal
cult-symbols are the vine and the serpent, which appear in conjunc-
tion. The ophidian rites are described by Demosthenes, who in his
oration De corona (259-61) accuses Aeschines of having taken a
prominent part in the recently introduced mysteries of Sabazios:
-ros •4iELtsro s rapelas (reddish-brown snakes sacred to Sabazios;
cf. Theophrastos, Char. 28) OXM•pw Kal rp 7-sK^eaXKalXwp&W
s KrX.
t'
The sacred serpents were carried in a XLKvoP (winnowing basket; we
are dealing with a harvest festival)3 or Kto7r)by the XLKVo46pos,
and
1 For Sabazios see especially Eisele's article in Roscher. The explanations of the
name offered hitherto are speculative and do not commend themselves: e.g., Heb. sdbd,
'drink wine,' is proposed as an etymon by Levy; others prefer Lat. sabaja, 'Illyrian beer.'
2
Closely related to the Anatolian moon-god, also god of fertility, sometimes called
Men Sabazios.
3 In this connection it is interesting to note that in Egypt a section of grain was
always left standing by the harvesters as a propitiatory offering for the snake genii
fed on honey cakes and wine.1 To acquire fertility women drew

gilded serpents through their bosoms, receiving thereby the sym-
pathetic impregnation of the god of fecundity.2
Besides the male vine deity, female vine and serpent divinities
were worshiped in Asia Minor. On an Ionic vase four uL4o7?ap06voL
to
:XtLrat3are represented in a vineyard; two hold a basket or net
catch the grapes, a third plays the flute, and a fourth brings a jar
for the must.4 These nymphs are evidently the serpent-guardians
of the vineyard, just as the Egyptian harvest-goddess Rnnutt (utt=
'serpent') is portrayed in ophidian form (see above). Weber's
contention (Philologus, LXIX [1910], 201 ff.), adopted by Ktister
(p. 92), that the Anatolian Echidna was a form of Kybele, and that
Apollo Pythoktonos received his name from his victory over the
cult of the latter, is interesting; the demonstration is not sufficiently
rigorous to be convincing, especially since Apollo Pythoktonos
reminds one strongly of Horus the snake-killer, or Marduk, slayer
of the dragon, to say nothing of the Hellenic parallels. It is, however,
intrinsically probable that the Echidna was a form of the earth-
goddess as well as a type of fertility spirit. The nature of these
vineyard nymphs is amusingly illustrated by Lucian's parody (Vera
historia i. 7), in which the travelers come to a river of Chian wine
flowing from a vineyard whose vines were beautiful women from the
thighs up, sprouting grape-laden branches from their fingers.5 The
men who kissed them immediately began to stagger, and two who
which found refuge there, fleeing before the harvesters. The harvest fields of all lands
are full of snakes, who devour the vermin which prey on the grain and thereby render the
farmer a great service. Ancient superstitions usually had a real economic base, though
not always so clear as here:
1 Cf. Keller, Das Antike Tierleben, II, 287, for a reproduction of a silver vase (Stroga-
noff) figuring a maiden who gives a sacred serpent in the wine from a pitcher;
see below. X••vov
2 For the phallic symbolism see below.
3 Cf. Herod. iv. 9 for a description of the Scythian Echidna: rT AvAivo &*a ra
7"r
yXovr-w evaa 9
771U 4pOEv 65os. A Babylonian goddess is similarly formed (KB VI
tyvaLK6s•"
2, p. 2, 1. 12; 4, 39): qulipta ktma iri atdt, 'she is wrapped in a slough (see below) like a
serpent.'
4 Cf. Kiister, Die Schlange in der griechischen Kunst und Religion, Religionsge-
schichtliche Versuche und Vorarbeiten, XIII, 2 (1913), p. 143: " Im Siiden ist dieses
Tier der treueste Htiter der Girten und Weinberge, und wer es titet setzt sich noch
heutigen Tages Vorwtirfen und Scheltworten aus."
r Vegetation deities on Babylonian cylinders are represented sprouting branches
from their fingers.
accepted their advances grew fast, beginning with the genitals, and
were transformed into human vines themselves.
The ophidian deities of Babylonia have been treated with as
close approach to completeness as may reasonably be expected by
Langdon, Tammuz and Ishtar, pp. 114 ff. Though long opposed to
Langdon's explanation of the name Ama-usumgal-anna (= Tammuz-
Ge'tin-anna) as 'the mother-python' of heaven,' I have finally become
convinced of its correctness; the meaning 'great lord' for usumgal
is derived from 'great serpent, python.' To a European the meta-
phor may appear strange, but not to all orientals, many of whom
admire serpents greatly; in the South Arabian dialects (Landberg,
Datina, pp. 1239 f.) tucbdn, 'python,' Vill and "afpd,'viper,'
'serpent,' are employed to designate a brave man or warrior.h.dnas,We
may infer that the serpent of heaven represents the fertilizing
rain storm or the hurricane, often conceived in Babylonia as a
dragon,2 but beyond a conjecture we cannot go here. Besides
Ama-u'umgal-anna there are two other serpent deities belonging
to the Tammuz cycle: Ningi'zida ('lord of the steadfast tree')3,
a chthonic divinity (bil ergitim= 'lord of the underworld'), who is
represented on the cylinder of Gudea with serpents springing
from his shoulders, like Aii-dahak in Persian iconography ;4 and Esir
1Langdon would hardly have rendered 'viper' if he had bethought himself of his
remarks on p. 119; basmu has, moreover, nothing to do with Heb. pdten, or the doubtful
Ar. barn, 'viper.'
2"Assyr. ablbu, 'hurricane,' was plastically a dragon; cf. Sargon, Huiti~me campagne,
1. 373, ablbu mupparsu Aurbugu, 'a crouching winged dragon,' and 1. 379, qaqqad abAbi
n 6i u r9mi, 'the head of a dragon, lion, and bull' (similarly, Amarna 22, col. 3,11. 5 and 10,
ababg are mentioned with Calmdni, 'black snakes,' pgrg, 'bullocks,' and n486). The
name of the eclipse, antalM, fancied by the untutored to be a dragon, has passed into
Syriac as 'atalid, 'dragon' (cf. Nildeke, ZDMG, XLIV, 524).
3 This might remind us of Gestin-anna, but it is probably a name like Dumu-zi-abzu,
'steadfast child of the fresh-water sea,' which I have elsewhere explained as an auspicious
name (forming incidentally a striking parallel to the Indo-Iranian Apnm-Napat). The
giszida is hardly the vine but is rather the indestructible cedar, just as Tammuz, Osiris,
and Bitis were born from cedars, or closely associated with the tree (Attis was embodied
in a pine and Adonis in a myrtle); the cedar post, which is the last of all posts to decay,
may well have been called gi'-zida.
4 Ningiszida was symbolized by a caduceus, or a staff with two serpents coiled around
it (Langdon, Tammuz and Ishtar, p. 122); cf. Frothingham's important article, "The
Babylonian Origin of Hermes, the Snake-God, and of the Caduceus" (AJA, XX 11916],
175-211). As no attempt is made to establish the thesis implied in the first part of the
title, the suspicions it arouses are happily groundless. The suggestion that the two
serpents are male and female (p. 210) is improbable; they are simply symmetrical, like
the two genii flanking the tree of life, or the sprouts springing from both shoulders of a
deity. The proof (pp. 204-9) that zreuos, consort of Atargatis, was worshiped in the
(KA-DI),1 the goddess of Der, also a title of Tammuz. Esir is

sometimes called a serpent-goddess herself, and sometimes mother of
the serpent-god Sagan or Serag. In BA, III, 297, 1.42, she is addressed
as iltu rabitu sarrat (var. b lit) D r iSahan i"blit (var. bdl)
baldtti=
'The great goddess, queen (or lady) of Der, the serpent-goddess, lady
(or lord) of life.' For other material, some of it problematical or
erroneous, see Langdon's treatment, referred to.
After the preceding we can hardly avoid the conclusion that
Siduri Sabitu was also a serpent-goddess in one or more of her forms.
Her intimate association and virtual interchange with serpent deities,
her character as goddess of life and wisdom as vine deity and as
genius of life, like Esir, all point in that direction. As a virgin nymph
she is naturally to be classified with the snake nymphs ('inns) and
NAga princesses of the Orient. That the ginns, who appear as
serpents in the oldest Arabic sources, are so fundamental is clear
from Egyptian parallels of the Middle Empire (ca. 2000B.C.).2
The Arabs called a snake 'ildhat, 'goddess,'3 and the modern Syrians
still call one gabtle, 'maiden' (Wetzstein, ZDMG, XXIII, 312).4
form of a caduceus at Hierapolis is very good and provides new evidence of the close
connection between Hierapolis and Mesopotamia. Seimios is the Agima of Hamath
(cf. Grimme, OLZ, XV, 14); the third member of his triad was called zvAyervXos,or
nw)N'tCT (Grimme, loc. cit.), a deity related in name, at least, to E~mfin (a title of
Damu, like 'Ad6n, 'lord,' or BaSal, meaning 'possessor of a name, renowned': DE'mtn
is the late Phoenician form of *Egmdn, adjectival derivative of hem, eim, 'name'). Here
Frothingham might have considered the staff of ElmfLn-Asklepios, with one serpent
coiled around it, the Biblical Nebultan (cf. Baudissin, Nildeke Festschrift, pp. 729-55,
and his Adonis und Esmun, especially pp. 325 if.). The healing staff is also the emblem
of Asklepios' virgin daughter Hygeia, who may have some remote connection with Siduri.
In an earlier essay, entitled "Medusa, Apollo, and the Great Mother" (AJA, XV,
349 if.; XIX, 13 if.), Frothingham has established the existence of a Greek serpent-
goddess of fecundity and her connection with the pre-Hellenic serpent-goddess. The
decapitation of the Gorgon by Perseus is on a par with the slaying of Ummu Ijubur, the
mother of fertility, by Marduk, or the killing of the primordial bull by Mithra.
1 For a full discussion of KA-DI see Langdon, Tammuz and Ishtar, p. 16, n. 1, and
pp. 119 if.; for the reading Esir see his Sumerian Liturgical Texts, p. 177, n. 5.
2 Cf. AJSL, XXXIV, 243, n. 1.
3 Similarly the Egyptian hieroglyph for 'goddess' is a serpent.
4 The notions regarding the purity of snakes are illustrated by the Italian practice of
determining the chastity of vestals by ordeal, in which a serpent represented Juno Sospita
at Lanuvium; cf. Propertius iv. 8. 5 if.:
Ille sibi admotas a virgine corripit escas:
Virginis in palmis ipsa canistra tremunt.
Si fuerint castae, redeunt in colla parentum,
Clamantque agricolae, fertilis annus erit!
The serpent was often regarded as the embodiment of the god of fertility, to whom a
virgin was given in leas
y••yos.
Not only the Arab ginn' but also the Egyptian k61 (ka) and the
Roman genius' were embodied in serpents, especially in house
serpents. The Sumerian equivalent of the household genius is the
maskim (= rdbiqu, 'croucher'), 'guardian'; the snake-god Sagan
(Qiru) is the maskim Es'arraor Ekurra, 'guardian genius of the temple
EDarra.' The genius of a man is dlama(s), Assyr. lamassu or tindnu
(tundnu), representing his capacity, nature, or essence (mana), very
much like Eg. k6:.2 It is difficult, therefore, to avoid comparing
Siduri, the lamassi baldti, with Sagan, the mistress of life and guardian
genius of the temple. The serpent as a genius of life appears in
Egypt as the 'snake of good life(-time,' chC nfr), in an inscription of
the Old Empire.' Moreover, it is not easy to see how a genius of
wisdom, like Sabitu, can fail to appear in serpent form, as the snake
is the wisest of animals (Gen. 3:1) and the emblem of wisdom among
all peoples. Furthermore, our divinities of alcohol seem inevitably
to bring the serpent in their train; it is significant that the nine
spirits of alcohol, children of Ninkasi, a doublet of Siduri (see above),
are called 'the snake-charmers of heaven,' a designation pointing
to cult-practices in Mesopotamia paralleling the rites of Sabazios,
whose XLKo<bbpoLwere essentially snake-charmers. We may rest
assured that future discoveries will reveal many similarities between
the religions of Mesopotamia and Anatolia.
The partnership between wine and the serpent seems rather
bizarre, particularly since it appears in an entirely different light
from the modern caricature. Evidently the combination strikes
deep root into the popular fancy; the underlying bonds must be
strong to endure so persistently. Some of the factors which govern
1 Etymologically, Ar. ginn or gdnn (Eth. gdnen) belongs with &anna, 'hide, cover, be
dark' (&andn =veil); idnn is 'the hider,' and tinn 'the hidden one.' There is an inter-
esting parallelism between this stem and the group vfzb'o-nubere; vbgdj is 'the veiled one'
(cf. Siduri and Kalypso), whence 'bride.' The nymphs are fairies who dance in the
fountains and clearings, veiled, to all but the chosen few, in their robes of invisibility,
only laid aside for the bath. The view adopted in Roscher, III, 1392, note *, that vPb,4
means Nebelfrdulein, savors too much of cloud mythology. The ginns are dissipated--
but in smoke, like the Babylonian demons, in some respects their prototypes.
2 Cf. Keller, op. cit., p. 286.
3 The proof of this statement will appear elsewhere; contrast the ill-advised remarks,
AJSL, XXXIV, 85.
4 Sethe in Borchardt, Sahurtc, p. 98; for other Egyptian material on serpents cf.
Am~lineau, "R6le des serpents dans les croyances religieuses de l'gypte" (RHR, LI,
335-60; LII, 1-32).
the association of ideas may be enumerated: the appearance of wine,

sparkling and shimmering like a serpent;1 the similarity in nature,
first seductive, then cruelly striking (cf. Prov. 23:32); the fact
that both shed their skin, slough, or lees;2 both have the attributes
of life and wisdom, and were thus associated in cult and symbolism;
in Anatolia, where the two were most closely connected, the serpent
was the protecting genius of the vineyard. The two latter state-
ments are not axiomatic and require some elucidation, which may be
given briefly.
Wine, and alcoholic liquor in general, has been from time
immemorial the symbol of life and youth, the portal to heroic adven-
tures apart from the humdrum of ordinary existence. French
eau de vie and Gaelic whiskey (lit. 'water of life') find their oriental
counterpart in Persian mdie-i-sebdb, 'liquor of youth,' and Sumerian
getin, 'tree of life.' Pliny, Hist. nat. xiv. 8, says the Greeks called
wine /3os. The medicinal virtues of wine, antiseptic and stimulating,
known from the greatest antiquity, find expression in the Arabic
appellatives dayd&,'healer' (Tabari, 3, 902, 12), and cuqdr= cuqqdr,
'medicinal herb' (Sum. sem; see above). As healer and invigorator,
as restorer of youth and fecundity (alcohol is an aphrodisiac), wine
has received the adoration of poet and priest alike;3 a quotation
from the Rig-veda, VIII, 48, will illustrate the Indo-Iranian attitude
toward soma:
We dranksoma, becomingimmortal,
We attained glory, and found the gods.
Vanishedare my sicknessand debility.
Now we are there wherelife will long endure.

This may suffice; it would be easy to quote interminably from litera-
ture and folklore illustrating the virtues ascribed to wine, but it is
not necessary. It is not natural, nowadays, to regard wine as the
seat of wisdom, but we must remember that delirious ravings and
I The Sumerians named a certain snake 'wine-serpent' (M US-GES TIN = Cr qaranu,
SGI, 96).
2 Cf. Sdma Veda (2, 7; 3, 21), where S6ma's change of skin is compared to a snake
gliding over its dead slough.
3 Cf. Kircher, Die sakrale Bedeutung des Weines im Altertum (Religionsgeschichtliche
Versuche, etc., Vol. IX, 2 (1910).
narcotic exaltation were supposed by the ancients to reflect super-

human wisdom. Among the Persians (Herod. i. 133) serious delibera-
tions were undertaken over the wine; sober reflection might criticize,
but tipsy brilliancy was relied upon for inspiration.
The question of serpent-worship and the snake in folklore and
mythology is too complex to be considered in a few paragraphs, and
the material is for the most part not inaccessible; I will therefore
confine myself to a brief presentation of the outstanding West-
Asiatic phases of the subject. The serpent is universally regarded
by primitive peoples as supernatural, owing to its silence and stealth,
its legless movement, its magnetic power, and its sinuous luster, which
has led to the common association with flowing water and with light-
ning. Not least among the many reasons is its apparent capacity
for renewing its youth periodically by sloughing its skin. The direct
phallic significance of the snake has been greatly exaggerated, espe-
cially by Freudians, who maintain that all folklore and mythology
should be explained according to their psychological principles, based
mainly upon psychopathology. Folklorists will continue to believe
that the sexual imagery of the mind tends to originate in popular
symbolism, rather than the reverse. To be sure, a hysterical female
may associate the male member with snakes without knowing any-
thing about current symbolism, and so on. For the present, however,
without disdaining the useful aid of psychology, we must follow a less
subjective line of research. Cases where the phallus is symbolized
by a serpent will be mentioned below.
There is a widespread belief in snakes as chthonic spirits (ginns),
fertility demons, and as ancestral spirits, or their embodiment (cf.
Kiister, op. cit.); the latter conception is due to the fact that serpents
used to haunt the graveyards and devour the offerings to the dead.'
Because of their association with mother-earth, serpents are her
children; in Greece they were the offspring of Ge, in Ethiopic and
Assyrian the serpent is the 'beast of the earth' (larMemrnder,n*us~a
qaqqari,Hommel, Haupt). With the interplay of the phallic motive,
we cannot be surprised to see "TiP^mat" with a serpent phallus, or
the Mexican earth-mother with a serpent creeping out of her vagina,
1 For a very similar reason owls were regarded in Egypt, Arabia, and Greece as the
souls of the dead (Seelenvogel).
just as the serpent symbolizes the male member in Anatolia (see

above).
Recently our attention has been redirected by Frazer to the
importance of the sloughing of the skin as a mythological motive.'
Following him, Morgenstern pointed out (ZA, XXIX, 284-301) that
the episode in the Gilgames-epic, XI, 304-6, where the serpent steals
the plant of rejuvenescence, must be understood similarly to refer
to the theft of the power to slough one's skin from man by the snake.
This happy suggestion was proved by my reading quluptu, 'slough
of a serpent,'2 instead of qul(l)iltu, 'curse,' as hitherto done.3 The
passage runs as follows:
4iruiteiin nipis ammu
[ivtum]e1ld-mavammaisit
ina tdri'u ittddiquluptum=
A serpentsmelledthe fragranceof the plant,
Came up [fromthe wa]terand took the plant;
On its return,it shed (its) slough.
There can be no doubt that this is a syncopated version of the
Babylonian story of the Fall,' explaining man's loss of eternal life.
Frazer (loc. cit.) has collected many similar stories from various parts
of the world. This is also one of the motives at the bottom of the
biblical Fall (see below). The popularity of the slough-motive is
attested by philological considerations: Lat. senium and Gr.
"y7pas
mean 'old age,' and 'slough of a serpent.' Sk. jardyu= ,ypas also
is 'afterbirth,' just as Arabic ndsala applies both to bearing and to
sloughing. According to Ploss (Das Weib, I, 411), pregnant women
in Brandenburg sometimes bind the slough of a snake around the
waist to insure easy delivery.5
1 See especially Belief in Immortality, pp. 69 ff.
2 Quluptu is the same word as quliptu, 'slough' (see above), and is derived from
qaldpu, 'to peel,' whence also qilpu, 'skin.' Heb. qglef and qelifd have the same meaning.
3 My article, "The Sloughing of the Serpent's Skin," was received by the editor of
ZA in the summer of 1916.
4 Clear traces of a myth of this character appear in Sumerian texts from the third
millennium; see Langdon, Sumerian Liturgical Texts, p. 148, 1. 12, and n. 4; p. 183, 21,
and note. The serpent is represented as trying to rob the dead king of the food of life
which confers immortality upon him.
5 This enables us to understand how the plant of birth ('ammu la alddi) in the Etana
myth is ultimately identical with the plant of life (Aammu 'a baldfi); rejuvenescence is
2raXLyyeveraa.Just as the eagle advises the application of Caesarian section to R6dabah,
who is unable to deliver herself of her son Rustam (cf. Htising, AR W, VI, 188 ff.; Carnoy,
Iranian Mythology, p. 283), so the eagle guides Etana to the plant of birth. The eagle is
supposed to renew its youth at will (see above).
As observed above, the serpent was the guardian genius of the

vineyard in Asia Minor, a relation which led to further association
between them, as illustrated by a riddle from the TiArcAbdin (Mount
Masius), given by Prym-Socin (Der neu-aramdische Dialekt, II, 369,
No. 18): "I know something which does not die and does not grow
old; if one cares for it, it becomes young again every year--the vine-
yard." No. 12 deals with the serpent: "I know something that
takes off its shirt once a year and fasts forty days until it has come
off--the snake." Like the serpent, the vineyard casts its old skin
annually, is carefully pruned, and the old foliage is cleared away.'
If we may believe the sober Aristotle (Hist. anim. 594a, 9 ff.), Aegean
serpents developed Falstaffian habits: ol S' 6es Kal r'w oTbV
'rpbs
elaV aKparels, St 0pevbovUtL KaL rovs Exet s els brpaKLa s&artLOrVTes
7•Ves
otvov
' EL TlS aLtaiLas, Xa/AvovraL yap pIIetovres.
Another motive that may have influenced the association between
the vine and the serpent is the fact that the vine in coiling around a
tree undoubtedly does resemble a snake, especially since serpents are
very fond of climbing trees in search of birds. The motive of the
serpent coiled around the tree of life is very common, and was early
stereotyped in Babylonia in the form of the caduceus (see above),
while in the west it appears as the or staff of Asklepios.2
As the caduceus seems to have originatednehu.tanin Babylonia, it is hard
to overlook the paronomasia between Old Sumerian mu.', 'serpent,'
and mus', 'tree' (later gis), which may have aided the association
between the tree of life and the serpent.3 The association of the
snake and the plant of life, or healing herbs in general, is so widespread
1 It is to be hoped that no one will be tempted to combine Sdbitu with Ar. sabP,
'slough of a serpent,' which, incidentally, would appear as *gabz in Assyrian (Ar. sdbd,
'skin,' belongs with Heb. Sdbd, 'draw, drag'), though an s sometimes appears in place
of s before a b.
2A rather remotely similar motive is the serpent coiled around the 6AaXo6' stone
(see Roscher, Omphalos, Abh. Kon. Sachs. Ges. Wiss., Phil.-Hist. Klass., Vol. XXIX, 9
[1913], and Neue Omphalosstudien, Vol. XXXI, 1; Harrison, Jour. of Hellen. Stud.,
XIX, 225 ff.). Roscher is surely wrong in combating the view of Rhode and Miss
Harrison that the 6baXo~owere originally tombstones, and only combined with the
navel of the earth (see above) secondarily. The serpent is evidently the genius of the
hero, and the stone itself is, from the Semitic point of view, a modified macceba. Its
peculiar shape can hardly be dissociated from the placenta and navel string, which were
thought of as the life-index of the departed hero, as well as of the living one (see my
remarks at the close of the article, "Gilgames and Engidu," appearing in JAOS).
3 Similarly Pore Scheil has ingeniously suggested (Comptes Rendus [1915], pp. 534 f.)
that the story of the creation of Eve from man's rib may have been influenced by the
paronomasia between Sum. ti, 'life,' and ti, 'rib.' The tertium comparationis is obscure.
that it cannot be based upon the story of the loss of life but must
have some basis in observation, which escapes us at present. Thanks
to the serpent's assumed wisdom and knowledge of pharmacopoeia, it
became the healer and physician Kar' among the Mediterranean
C•ox•'v
peoples.
The conjunction between the vine and the serpent has been
explained; we have made it clear that Siduri-Sbfitu is a phase of
the syncretistic complex Sirtur-Gestinanna-Ninkasi-Esir, which was
merged on the one hand into the all-inclusive figure of ITtar, and on
the other gradually depotentized, becoming a wise serpent-nymph and
the genius of the vine of life. Elements in this cycle have become
detached and have entered upon a new career of conquest in the
world which succeeded oriental antiquity. It remains, therefore,
to consider the vineyard paradise of Siduri and its reflexes in later
story, after which we may study the metamorphoses undergone by
the goddess herself, and her indirect exaltation to the highest place
in the gnostic pantheon.
III. THE VINEYARD PARADISE
The vineyard paradise of SAbitu was situated, according to

Babylonian ideas (see above, and my article on "The Mouth of the
Rivers," AJSL, XXXV, 161-95), somewhere in the mountains of
the northwest, beyond Mount Masius, at or near the sources of the
rivers. The fact that Armenia and Anatolia have always been
accounted the home of the vine, where, according to Palestinian
tradition, almost certainly going back to Mesopotamia, the flood-
hero was said to have tended the first vineyard,' suggests the origin
of the conception. Other elements played a r6le as well. Vineyards
were usually planted on terraced hillsides, whence Assyr. karmu,
'mound,' also means 'vineyard,' Heb. kerem (cf. German Weinberg),
so that the garden of the goddess of conviviality naturally had to
be situated on a hill, at least. Moreover, the mountain paradise is
a well-known motive elsewhere, as the gods were supposed to dwell
on lofty peaks, Olympos, Meru, Aralfi, etc.; it is found in the unique
legend of Sargon I (Sarruk~n) and the battle-king (tar tamhari),
1 It is interesting to note that the Iranian flood-hero, Yimakha~ata, also introduced
viticulture (cf. Carnoy, op. cit., p. 319). In his terrestrial paradise (vara) the food of
immortality is eaten.
discovered at Tel el-Amarna,' as.a mountain in Asia Minor (?), where

gold and lapis-lazuli abound, as well as cedars and other trees,1includ-
ing the (a)murtinnu.2 In Anatolia the myth of the vineyard paradise
may have attained its fullest development, though it seems to be
Mesopotamian in origin, as appears from its localization at the source
of the streams. Its two most important offshoots are the story of
Kalypso, which wandered to the Aegean (see above), and the biblical
Eden. The garden of the Hesperides3 and its congeners are myths
of European origin (apples of Iduna, Avalon, Sonnendpfel, etc.),
and need not concern us; the future scholar may discover connecting
links or similar developments.
The problem of Eden is too complex to be treated in this paper,
nor is it necessary for our purpose. I hope to examine it in more
detail elsewhere and shall accordingly stress here only the elements
which belong to the cycle of conceptions under discussion. The
work of the literary critics has reached an impasse; in general, the
analytic methods which now must be employed are too subjective
to be of much value, as drastically illustrated by Albert (ZATW,
XXXIII, 161-91) and Robertson (AJSL, XXVIII, 254-73).
The principal mythological motives to be traced in the story of
Paradise are: (1) the Paradise in the west (so; cf. Gen. 3:24) at the
source of the four rivers ;4 (2) the tree of life and wisdom inhabited
by the serpent-genius; (3) the loss of immortality through the
cunning of the serpent; (4) the seduction of the archetype man by
the mother(-goddess), who induces him to eat of the fruit of knowl-
edge (=sexual intercourse);5 (5) the tree of life guarded by the
I Published by Schrader, whose work has not yet become accessible in this country.
Sayce has given an inadequate translation in PSBA, XXXVII, 227-45.
2 The amurtinnu is
perhaps also a plant of life (cf. GE, XI, 285). It is written
ideographically as GIS-GESTIN-GfR, lit. 'thorny grape vine'; murtinnu may be
derived from *multin, older form of gevtin. The thorn (sihlu) is mentioned in GE, XI, 285,
and Craig, Religious Texts, p. 26, rev. 1, reads, gQu aidbir-ma amurtinnu ana nipvi andpav =
'I will break the thistle (i.e., the enemy), and will card the amurtinnu to shreds.' The
latter can hardly be the rose (Aram. wardd), as Jensen thought, but may have been the
raspberry, or especially the gooseberry (Ger. Stachelbeere, Gr. oloos), from which an
excellent wine is made, and which grows all through the highlands of Eurasia.
3 The serpent coiled around the tree, which one of the Hesperides gives to drink,
comes doubtless from the Aegean.
4 As noted first by Weinheimer, ZA T W, XXXII, 33 f., the four rivers of Eden are
a learned combination of Mesopotamian and Egyptian elements. This thesis is supported
in a much fuller way in "The Mouth of the Rivers."
5 The sexual meaning of the fruit of the tree of knowledge is generally recognized.
Assyr. inbu, 'fruit,' has sexual force (cf. Thureau-Dangin, RA, XI, 153).
griffins and the whirling sword. While this list can hardly claim to
be exhaustive, it will give an idea of the complexity of the problem
and perhaps contribute materially to its solution. For our knowl-
edge of the Jewish myth we are fortunately not entirely dependent
upon the narrative in Genesis, chapters 2 and 3, which probably
dates from the seventh century in approximately its present form;
but we are able to draw upon later material, mostly in the Book
of Enoch and the rabbinical writings.
The last three of the motives just given require some additional
explanation. The theft of the divine gift of eternal life by the serpent
(see above) survives only in the framework of the Fall; loss of life
becomes a loss of innocence, and the snake appears as the instigator,
like Enki-Ea in the Adapa and Uttu myths, not as the thief itself.
The seduction motive (see JBL, XXXVII, 123 f.) is perhaps the
most popular oriental explanation of the origin of fertility; in a
large group of myths, extending from Egypt to India, procreation is
introduced into the world by the seduction of the god of fertility, or
the archetype man, often one and the same, by the mother-goddess,
or the first woman.' Finally, the kerlbim,2 who guard the tree of
life, are unquestionably the winged genii of fecundity who fertilize
the female date palm in Assyrian sculptures;3 they were easily
misunderstood and taken to be the guardians of the sacred palm,
the tree of life, Kar'
Yoxi9q, among all Semitic peoples. The flame of
the revolving sword, which in India appears as a revolving sun-wheel
with sharp spokes,4 originated, I believe, in a miscomprehension of
the purpose of the winged solar disk which the genii hold over the
palm to insure maturity of the crop. In a tableau from the eighth
1 The fact that both the first man and the first woman have two names suggests that
there may be fusion of two separate myths, one dealing with 'En6i and the other
iv'Id,
with >Adam and the latter pair being much more mythical in appearance. From
/Iayyd,
a different angle, Gressmann has also reached the conclusion that Adam "eine mythische
"
Gestalt verdringt hat und an ihre Stelle getreten ist (AR W, X, 363). As is known
/Iyt
to be the name of a Phoenician goddess (see below), it is not impossible that 'Adam
represents Damu, the name of Adonis in Byblos (see above), and is, to a certain extent,
a popular etymology. However, this is only a possibility.
2 The word is Assyrian; kirtbu, 'guardian genius,' is derived from kardbu, 'to bless,
a stem not found outside of Assyrian.
3 See the illustrations in Von Luschan, "Die ionische Siule," Der alte Orient, XIII,
4, 26 ff.
4 In the Mahdbhdrata, Garuda passes through the spokes of the wheel in reduced
size to get the s6ma, guarded by two terrible dragons with Medusa gaze.
century, figured by von Luschan (op. cit., p. 29), both palm and
winged disk are replaced by the revolving sun-wheel between the
genii.
The centerpiece of Paradise was the tree of life and wisdom
(Gen. 2:9), from which the four rivers sprang. In our document
the tree of life is secondarily distinguished from the tree of wisdom,
which is assimilated to the tree of the fruit of sexual knowledge,' a
motive of separate origin; the two motives are then patched together
so awkwardly as to suggest literary compilation.2 Moreover, the
tree of life has become a mere philosophical abstraction, whose
concrete background can only be found by a study of later records,
where popular ideas come to the surface again. Enoch 32:4, from
the second century B.C., states that the tree of knowledge, which
had replaced the tree of wisdom, is like a fir in height, with leaves
like the carob (also found in SAbitu's garden) and fruit like grape-
clusters, with a penetrating fragrance. In 24:2 ff. the tree of life
is said to be an evergreen, with fruit resembling the date, and a
wondrous aroma; this tree is a composition of the two principal
sacred trees of western Asia, the cedar and the palm. In these
passages the three most popular trees of life, the evergreen, palm,
and vine, are combined into romantic monstrosities. Rabbinic
sources make it clear that the vine was the most deep-rooted and
hard to eradicate of all the identifications. The Misna (Sanhedrin,
70a) states that the tree of knowledge was a vine, in which it is sup-
ported by the Berevit Rabba,3which also mentions the fig as a possi-
bility. In Enoch (loc. cit.) the tree of life is situated among the seven
mountains of gems in the northwest,4 just as in the Gilgames-epic,
and the tree of knowledge among the seven spice mountains in the
northeast.
1The tree of sexual knowledge in Genesis was certainly conceived as a fig, always
popular in sexual symbolism. See especially Paton, Revue Archeologique (1907), pp. 51-
57, and Reinach, Cultes, Mythes et Religion, III, 117, 361.
2 For our purposes it is immaterial whether the sources of JE were oral or written.
3 Third Baruch, a Jewish work with Christian revision in the second century A.D.,
identifies the tree of knowledge with the vine, which Sammael planted.
4 This is still the opinion of the Book of Jubilees, written about 100 B.c. (Charles).
In later sources the site of Paradise has been removed to the east, under the influence
of the Alexander romance. It is interesting to note that the Book of Genesis (seventh
century) agrees with Herodotus (fifth) in placing the sources of the Nile in the west,
while, after the time of Alexander, they were transferred to the east, thanks to the per-
sistent fancy that there must be a connection between the Nile and the Indus.
The fruit of the tree of wisdom is accessible to the serpent-

goddess Hja~gat,' who can hardly be separated from the serpent-
nymph Siduri who guards the vineyard of life and wisdom at the
source of the rivers. It is therefore probable that the Garden of
Eden was introduced into Hebrew cosmogony after the attraction
of into the Siduri-cycle, whose widespread popularity is
HaVuat
attested by the story of Kalypso. This explains the absence of the
motive of Paradise in other oriental cosmogonies.
Oriental literature has preserved some interesting echoes of the
vineyard of Paradise at the source of the rivers. Since the sources
of the Euphrates and Tigris were too well known in post-Christian
times to be romantic, Paradise was placed at the source of the Nile
(identified with Gihon), which was veiled in convenient obscurity.
The ascent of the Nile in quest of Paradise forms consequently a
popular romantic motive. Masc?udi, for instance, in the tenth
century, tells the story of cAmrAn,who visited the source of the Nile
and saw the river descending from castles of gold in the garden (of
Eden), whose king(!) gave him grapes which confer longevity.2
These wonderful grapes also appear in the Alexander romance
(Friedlander, Chadirlegendeund Alexanderroman, pp. 159, 219, 228);
an angel or bird (naturally more original) brings the hero a marvelous
bunch of grapes from heaven, or from the top of the world-mountain
(= Hard Berezaiti ?). According to one version this bunch renews
itself miraculously so as to feed the king's entire army. The wine
of Paradise in the Qur'dn comes from the same vintage; we hear
of its extraordinary qualities as an elixir of life, 'in which there is no
intoxication' (ld fihi gaulun, Suira 37, 46). The subject might be
pursued farther, but such comparative literary and folkloristic
researches, however interesting, are without bearing on our theme;
enough has been said to show the tenacious hold taken by the
vineyard of Paradise upon men's imagination.
1 On Eve and the serpent cf. Gressmann, AR W, X, 358 if. A goddess YJt is known
from Carthage. In Aramaic and Arabic, bimid, haijatun are the ordinary words for
'serpent,' lit. 'coiler,' from the root bi, 'collect' (cf. 'coil' from colligere, Haupt, AJSL,
XXIII, 228). The association of IfJt with life is greatly strengthened by the parono-
masia with 'life.' A remarkable parallel is the term 'snakewater' for 'water of
life' among the Aramaeans of the Tilr cAbdin (Prym-Socin, Der neu-aramdische Dialekt,
.haid,
II, 386); 'life' is die, 'serpent' is hafidt.
2 Prairies d'or, ed. Meynard, I, 269.
IV. THE GODDESS OF LIFE AND WISDOM
In the recently discovered Aramaic original of the romance of

Ahiqar we read (Papyrus Sachau, 53, 16-54, 1): " [Wi]sdom is [from]
the gods, and to the gods she is precious; for[ever] her kingdom is
fixed in he[av]en, for the holy lord (lit. lord of the holy things) ele-
vated [her - - -]."1 A counterpart to this is found in Enoch 42:1-2:
"Since Wisdom found no place to dwell, she received an abode in
heaven. When Wisdom came to dwell among men and found no
abode, she returned to her place, and dwelt among the angels." It
cannot be gainsaid that the passage in is remarkably "gnos-
Ah.iqar
tic" in sound for a work of the seventh century B.C., preserved in
a manuscript of the fifth. Nor can there be any doubt that the
book is purely heathen; immediately before our passage occur the
words, "Two things are good, and three are pleasing to Samak,"
which form a stylistic bridge between the cuneiform proverbs and
the thirtieth chapter of Proverbs.2 The descent and subsequent
elevation of the Sophia, in Ahldqarand Enoch merely alluded to, but
important dogmas of Gnosticism, are reflexions of such mythological
conceptions as the descent of Istar to Hades and her exaltation by
the god of Heaven to a position as his consort, as appears trans-
parently in the Valentinian Gnosis and related systems (see below).
Aramaic 'wisdom,' is evidently the source of Jewish
Hokmd, H.okmetdf,
which does not appear in the Bible until the post-Exilic
period. It has been observed by Gunkel that appears too
foreign and mythological in her garb to be a native H.okma
Jewish product.3
Apart from the fact that such hypostatizations are otherwise not
found in the Old Testament, though common in Egypt and Baby-
lonia,4 is the rich imagery in which our figure is clothed, apparel
which betrays a pagan origin. The first section of Proverbs, devoted
largely to praise of wisdom, is based ultimately on Mesopotamian
models, as appears from the constant repetition of the formula, "My
[(Braneth, Seidel) v i ?b mb fri

1
•[7? ~?]' [i]p ] [9Ii
Pjxi]i [ ml•[
2 Cf. also JAOS, XXXVIII, 62 ft., and especially p. 65.
3 See his Genesis, 1, p. 95.
4 For Egypt see Gardiner, s.v. " Personification" in Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion
and Ethics; for Babylonia cf. Zimmern in the introduction to his brochure Itar und $altu,
published in 1916.
son," rare elsewhere, but characteristic of cuneiform gnomic literature

(JAOS, XXXVIII, 62). Wisdom "is a tree of life to those who take
hold of her"; "longevity is in her right hand, riches and honor in
her left" (Prov. 3:16, 18). In the paean of Prov. 8:4 ff., Wisdom
declares that her fruit is better than fine gold (v. 19). The tree of
life and wisdom crops up here most unmistakably, but the climax
is reached in Ben Sira's magnificent ode to wisdom, xxiv, 13-21,
where wisdom, as the tree of life and wisdom, is compared to the
cedar of Lebanon, the cypress of Hermon, the palm, the oleander,
the olive, the sycamore, and, in culmination, with the vine (v. 17):
Cycyc? ,twrEXos cXLoTrq7Tra XaPLV, Kal irdLV?6077OV KapTro' 345 Kal
wrXo'rov. The grape is the symbol of the fruit of wisdom (Prov.
8:19), and the being who is symbolized as a vine is a reflexion of
the older goddess of the vine and of wisdom.
Some of the statements regarding wisdom are purely gnostic.
In Prov. 8:23 she says:
From of old I was emanated,from the beginning,before the earth;
Beforethe floodsI was broughtforth, beforethe fountainsof water.
In Sapientia Salomonis we read in the same vein:
aT/.N' a
yap n T7)s T eoS) V8vap~mos
OTt
KaL a7rOppOLr•
7p TO) 8O6 XLKpL vq.
7raVTOKparopOs 7/•L
From this it is evident that Heb. nissak does not mean 'be estab-
lished,' but is to be taken in its literal sense, 'be poured,' i.e., 'be
emanated,' and is the exact equivalent of darop''w (= rpopdaXXow) and
emanare. Similarly Ben Sira says (i. 8): 'God poured Wisdom out
(fixEev) on all his works.' Emanation is, of course, not a particu-
larly abstract expression, referring primarily to the outpouring of
generative semen. As the idea is very simple, it is probably unwise
to trace it to a given source yet; at all events, Reitzenstein might
have found much more promising material for his effort in Babylonia
than in Egypt. It is, however, clear that the conception that the
Sophia is emanated by God is excellent gnostic doctrine. In the
same way the temple of wisdom, with its seven pillars, cannot be
1 For the expression

&ibwobboacf. Reitzenstein, Poimandres, p. 16, n. 4. We cannot
be surprised to find Greek philosophy exerting an influence on the later books of the OT;
such influences have long been noticed in Ecclesiastes; cf. Levy, Das Buch Qoheleth,
pp. 11 ff.
separated from the celestial abode of the Sophia, with her seven
sons, planetary archons.
Through the wisdom of Solomon our path leads to Philo (cf.
Gfr6rer, Philo, I, 213 ff.; Bousset, Religion des Judentums2, p. 397;
Reitzenstein, Poimandres, pp.41i ff.), who regarded 2o4giaor 'Eru•oria
as the demiurge who created the world, and as the mother of the
Logos, semper virgo, since God does not generate in human fashion
(De ebrietate, 30; De profugis, 20). Under the influence of Hellenic
philosophy the oriental doctrine of a mystic wisdom yielded to the
Greek divine Reason,1 and survives in Philo only in traces. Reitzen-
stein (op. cit., pp. 44 ff.) has tried vainly to show that the Sophia
is a faded Isis; he has only succeeded in proving that the Valentinian
Sophia, a thoroughly syncretistic creature, receives epithets such as
'mother of the ogdoad,' which unquestionably belong to Isis. It is
entirely natural that the Hellenistic Isis should be called (jpbV6yces,
Moola, or lHpbvota,but these appellatives are foreign to her Egyptian
prototype. Reitzenstein's statement (p. 45, n. 2), "Die allmihliche
Ausbildung dieser Lehre von der aooLa im Judentum . . . . kann
den Gedanken nimmermehr als original-jiidisch erweisen," is quite
correct, but not in his sense; the AhBiqarromance has been discovered
since in Egypt, forming the connecting link between Jewish and
Assyrian gnomic literature, and, by the irony of fate, demonstrating
the Mesopotamian origin of wisdom and indirectly of Sophia, though
the cult of Isis certainly exerted some influence upon the gnostic
syncretism which gave rise to the figure of the great mother, Sophia-
Barbelo.
At this stage of our inquiry it is important to establish the fact
that not only the reflexion of Siduri-Sabitu but also her very name
has survived in Gnosticism. Sblitu has already been identified2 with
Sabbe or Sambethe,3 called the oldest of the Sibyls, and variously
termed Chaldaean, Hebrew, or Erythraean, by an erroneous identi-
fication with the famous sibyl of Erythrae in Ionia.4 She is said to
1Langdon's recent effort (JRAS [1918], pp. 433-49) to prove the Babylonian origin
of the Logos is a total failure, as I shall show in an article to appear soon.
2 KA T3, 439.
"For her see especially Roscher, IV, 264-69.
4Cf. Reinach, Cultes, Mythes et Religion, III, 311-21.

288 THE AMERICANJOURNALOF SEMITICLANGUAGES
have been the daughterof Berossosand Erymanthe;I Freudenthal's

happy suggestion that the historian was made her father by mis-
understandingof the idiom Troi3 Byqpwcrooi3shows,at least, that she
must have been cited in his writings,and thereforehad a reputation
as a prophetessas early as the fourth century B.C. Since Sambethe
is further said to have been the daughter-in-lawof Noah (because
of which she is called Hebrew),she must be identifiedwith the Sibyl
of the Judeo-ChristianSibylline Oracles (written between the first
century B.C. and the third century A.D.), as the latter says of herself
(III, 827): roi3(sc. Noah) v ycw
y Kal6i' a'ltarosabroi&rbX'rqV.
vb4•7,
Here the as
Sibyl appears daughter and daughter-in-lawof Noah;
from Copticsourceswe learn (cf. Nestle, ZNTW, XI, 240, and Crum,
ZNTW, XII, 352) that the Sibylwas the sisterof Enoch,and also that
she was consideredimmortal,like Enoch,Elias,and Tabitha,a circum-
stance which furnishesadditionalproof that she is the reflexionof
Shbitu. As both Noah and Enoch,in their pseudepigraphicaldevel-
opment, are to a certain extent reflexions of the Babylonianflood-
hero and immortalsage Atrabasis,2it is evident that their immortal
relative, the Sibyl Sambethe, was previously consideredthe sister
or daughter of the Babylonian hero. Owing to the intimate asso-
ciation in r6le and geographicallocalizationbetween Atrabasis and
SAbitu,it wouldreallybe surprisingif this werenot the case, at least
in the late period. As both Atrahasisand Noah were deluge-heroes
and teachersof divine wisdom,the Judeo-Aramaeans who succeeded
to the Babylonianheritagedid not hesitate to borrowfrom the one
to enrichthe other (cf. JAOS, XXXVIII, 61 ff.).
As patron of wisdom the Sibyl is called in the Oracles (III,
814 ff.) daughter of Kirke and the father Gnostos; we cannot,
therefore,be surprisedto find her figuring prominentlyin gnostic
mythology as Nwpla or BapOev&s, the wife of Noah. Barthenosis
usually (cf. Bousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis, p. 14) considered
an Aramaic corruption3of irap8Ovos, 'virgin,' which remindsone of
Siduri, 'virgin'; but, owing to the practical improbabilitiesof the
1An Ionian Sibyl; her name is connected, at least in popular etymology, with ipio,
'speak,' and Aanr'ty, 'oracle, divination.'
2 The proof will be given elsewhere.
3 This is not impossible; Gr. B becomes b in bardlis, for rhpbaXas,etc., and o frequently
becomes lengthened in Aramaic loans from Greek.
supposition, I am strongly inclined to accept a suggestion, made to

me orally by Haupt, that Barthenos represents Aramaic *Bart N6h
'daughter of Noah,' so that Noria would be the proper name of the
goddess and Barthenos a surname. I venture further to suggest
that Noria, like Sambethe, was properly daughter and daughter-in-
law of Noah; vi'Aby,which means both 'bride' and 'daughter-in-law,'
was misunderstood to mean the former, a mistake which was very
natural, to say the least. The identity of the two is indicated, more-
over, by the fact that Noria a'reK1tXv/'e ra's IavWUV&hets,1and taught
the mysteries of the Sophia, whose crudities (which become obscenities
in his hands) Epiphanius narrates at length. The name Ncopiiais
generally combined with Heb. nacard, 'girl,' a most improbable
etymology, being both phonetically and semantically objectionable;
nacard does not mean 'virgin' (bet?ld), and is not found in Aramaic,
from which NwpLamust be derived. According to Epiphanius the
name comes from Syr.
,ovp4 (= ndArd, 'fire,' probably a popular
etymology) ;2 phonetically Nopia is naturally to be combined with
Aram. neh6rd, 'light,' which would be transliterated *Newpa> Norea
(Iren. i. 30. 9; here the wife of Seth, just as the Sibyl is sometimes
the sister of Enoch), or Nwpta.
Since both Barbelo and Noria are mentioned as the two goddesses
of at least one gnostic sect (the Nicolaitans, Philaster Adv. haer. 33),
it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that the latter corresponds to
the so-called lesser Sophia, or HIpobvLKos, an epithet not explained
hitherto, but probably Aram. paryanqd, 'envoy, legate' (from
Persian paryanak), employed also in the Mandaean system as the
name of a superhuman being, a celestial messenger. Sophia Prunikos
is distinguished by the Valentinians from the Upper Light (rb eivw
2sj), which is identified with Christ, her brother, who descends from
heaven to save her from the abyss and wed her. As the lesser light,
and the messenger of the world of light to the hyle,3 Prunikos is
usually identified with the rapOyosSTOO qkor'6s or Ov'yi'rp-roi3 wTO's,
who plays a pre-eminent r6le in the system of the Pistis Sophia,
t Cf. Schmidt, Gnostische Schriften, pp. 566 f.
2 In explanation of the name Epiphanius tells a curious etiological myth: Noria set
fire to Noah's ark, thereby delaying its construction for many years.
3 This rOle is assumed in the Manichaean system by Mdni himself, 'the envoy of
the light.'
and among the Manichaeans.' In the earlier teaching (Schmidt,

Gnostische Schriften, pp. 375 ff.; Bousset, op. cit., pp. 61 ff.), the
virgin of light possesses the water of light, with which she baptizes
the faithful. Into this circle Noria, 'light,' the envoy of the Sophia,
fits most naturally; Siduri-SAbitu has merged herself, in strangely
altered form, in the composite figure of the lesser Sophia.2
The circle of divinities about Tammuz, to which SAbitu belongs,
has left other important deposits in the stratigraphic complex we
call Gnosticism. In the limited space at my disposal I can only
outline briefly a few of the results which have accrued from several
years of study in this interesting field. It is becoming steadily
clearer that the background of Gnosticism is Aramaeo-Babylonian,
and not Hellenic, as maintained especially by Harnack, to whom we
owe its famous characterization as "akute Hellenisierung." De Faye
(see his Gnostiqueset Gnosticisme, 1913, and Expositor, 1915, pp. 108-
31) is merely an epigone of the latter, whom the Greek garb of Gnos-
ticism blinds to its totally un-Hellenic framework (cf. for the latter
Gruppe-who ought to know-Griechische Mythologie, pp. 1621-29).
Great progress in the analysis of Gnosticism has been made by
Bousset, Hauptprobleme der Gnosis (G6ttingen, 1907), but he has
hardly succeeded at all in determining the precise nature of the
oriental sources, where we are still dependent upon Reitzenstein and
Anz, Ursprung des Gnostizismus (1897), who correctly finds the
origin of the gnostic nucleus in Babylonia. His failure to establish
the theory rests partly upon his lack of command of the cuneiform
and general oriental material, but principally upon a number of
erroneous assumptions. It is, for instance, very improbable that
the doctrine of the ascent of the soul through the seven spheres arose
in Babylonia, though Chaldaean astrology certainly exerted an influ-
ence on its formulation, nor can it be considered the central teaching
of Gnosticism. Moreover, there is very little in gnostic mythology
which reflects the official religion of Babylonia in the latest accessible
period. My thesis is that Gnosticism sprang up in the Aramaean
I The light-maiden, though strongly affected in her development by Persian dualism,
is ultimately, perhaps, a reflexion of Sumero-Babylonian Dilbat (Mand. Dlibat), 'the
brilliant,' goddess of the planet Venus, one of the most popular forms of Itar.
2 Cf. Zimmern, KA Ts, p. 439, and contrast Helm, BA, V, 300. My views were
developed in entire independence of Zimmern's suggestion.
syncretism of northern Mesopotamia and Syria, which fell heir to

the Babylonian heritage, and that it is based more upon popular
religion-especially the cult of Tammuz and ITtar-than upon
esoteric priestly teachings. From this popular faith arose, under
the influence of learned tradition on the one hand and the new
nomistic systems of Zoroastrianism and Judaism on the other, a
prolific crop of more or less ephemeral beliefs, tending strongly
toward mysticism and sheltered by the official religion. The circum-
stances under which Gnosticism was transplanted into the Hellenistic
world are obscure, but it seems clear that it was part of the general
movement which brought Mithraism, followed by the votaries of
Isis, and later by the evangelists. Upon Christianity, a child of the
same soil but possessed of incomparably more vitality, Gnosticism
fastened itself as a parasite, finding it, like certain modern pseudo-
evangelical sects, easier to proselyte among the elect than among the
unregenerate heathen.
The Mother, Sophia, or Barbelo occupies the most varied positions
in the different gnostic systems, from that of the Queen of Heaven,
the 1:)b of the Aramaeans, Greek Aphrodite Urania,
N••/=
among the so-called "Barbelo" gnostics, to the place of Ticamat=
Namrus, Ri^ha d'qudsa, among the Mandaeans. The most improb-
able explanations have hitherto been advanced for the name Barbelo;
I would derive it from Aram. bulbdld,'chaos," since Barbelo is mother
by the abyss (BvObs) of Jaldabaoth, which Hilgenfeld happily
explained as Aram. ialdd d'bahtt, literally 'the child of chaos.' The
latter is a sadly depressed Tammuz,2 whose full name Dumu-zi-abzu
has essentially the same meaning, 'faithful child of the abyss.' In
the Mandaean cosmogony Namrus represents Ticamat (Brandt,
Manddische Religion, pp. 131, 182). While her consort cfTr(=
BvO•s)3
I Such dissimilations are common; cf. 0BpvXXos and blfird, papyaplr-s and margelitd.
By a further assimilation BappjeX6 becomes Bappep6.
2 Such confusions and alterations cannot surprise anyone accustomed to the
phenomena of religious syncretism. Bousset has proved that Jaldabaoth is the planet
Saturn (op. cit., pp. 351-55), whose god in the Babylonian system was Ninurta, not
Tammuz. The explanation of the apparent anomaly is to be found on Syrian soil; it
is a characteristic product of Aramaean syncretism. Jaldabaoth, as Bousset has shown,
represents Kronos, the consort of Rhea-Kybele. But the consort of the latter was also
Attis-Adonis, so Tammuz naturally became Kronos.
3 OTrhas hitherto proved inexplicable, and has even been combined with the Valen-
tinian Horos (=6pos, 'boundary'), a most improbable supposition in every respect. I
292 THE AMERICAN
is transparently Apsfi, in whose r6le he is overthrown and bound by

Manda d'hajii,here = Marduk. My interpretation of M4irqpBappEXcA
is, I venture to say, the only one which can be brought into accord
with Babylonian cosmogony, where the primeval abyss of waters is
the first principle and the mother of all things, Ama Engur, 'mother
abyss,' Sem. Ummu Hjubur.1 In the syncretism of the western
gnostics, Barbelo, being the oldest and greatest of divinities, was
identified with the celestial mother-goddess, in her various forms,
Igtar, Astarte, Derketo, Isis, Kybele, and finally borrowed her name
Sophia from the lesser Sophia, Achamoth,Aram. Hakmut.2 As a result
of the confusion, the latter, besmirched and adulterated by her
contact with the hyle, is sometimes conceived in the r61leof Tic^mat,
though originally there is no connection.
We are now, I believe, in a position to recover the milieu in which
Barbelo arose. According to Hippolytos, Refut. v. 26 (cf. Bousset,
op. cit., p. 73), the Peratae, an "Ophite" or Naasene sect, worshiped
the SbV'aps tfv3UoYLKoGOoXoio with the name O6Baaao-a = Ticdmat, as in
Berossos. The Peratae are said to have received their name from
Euphrates the Peratic, a gentilic usually derived from irc'pac
(=Euboea), but by Brandt (op. cit., p. 192), with whom Bousset
agrees (op. cit., p. 26), from Forat MaisAn in the vicinity of Basra.
But Hippolytos also states that Euphrates was the name of the
sacredwater of life:iypes ol 7rPErujvaTrKOLo KXE'Y6'EPOL71r6TO- r &vTros
T70ojvoros Ebpharov td Trqs BaC1vX&Pos .cr_-s (cf. Bousset, p. 280,
n. 2); and further: t A OrE il 70To WKEalov
ME•oWoro-aa w•yadXov
poia or r&pIEow p~ iovoaroar70orEXEovlavp'rov, referring to the
source of the rivers at the 6p4aXs 's (see above). It is only, there-
y•
fore, reasonable to explain IlepacLKoLas the equivalent of Aram.
*Prdtdit, gentilic plural from Prdt, the Euphrates. In my article,
"The Mouth of the Rivers," AJSL, XXXV, 161-95, I have col-
lected a mass of evidence showing the sacredness of the two rivers
and their water in antiquity. I overlooked, however, a mosaic of
would explain the name as simply *c?r, 'abyss,' preserved in Arabic as gayr, 'abyss'
(mod. S6r),and in Assyrian as ?aru, 'abyss of waters' (from the root gru, 'to flood'); see
my forthcoming article, "Notes on Assyrian Lexicography and Etymology," in R A.
1 See "The Mouth of the Rivers," cited above.
2
'Axap•,o can hardly represent Heb. bokmft, 'wisdom,' but may stand for Aram.
hakml d, venerated by Bardesanes, according to Ephrem Syrus.
the early Roman period, discovered by von Oppenheim (see Byz.

Zeit., XIV, 58 f., and BA, VII, 158) at El-MasCddile on the middle
Euphrates. The river-god Euphrates is seated, with a reed-encircled,
bearded head, carrying an oar in his right hand, while fishes swim
below; at his sides are female forms, one of whom bears a cornucopia.
Reminiscent of Babylonian seals is the urn under his arm, from which
water spouts in a great arch. The accompanying bilingual reads
BaoaLXebs Irorapos Evbpar-s and Syr. 'King Euphrates.'
z•s\
The stage was set for the rise of a Baptist sect ,,like the Peratae on
the banks of the middle Euphrates; the confusion of the sacred river
with the first-century philosopher of the same name, known to
posterity as the antagonist of Apollonios of Tyana, may easily have
been responsible for the patristic misapprehension. Among the
Ophites in general the cult of water plays an important role, being
associated with mythological ideas which retire into the background
in the Baptists of Palestine, the followers of John, Dosithaios, and
Elkesai. It is safe to assume that the Jordan is the successor of
the Euphrates, though, curiously enough, the former has outlasted the
latter in Mesopotamia itself, owing to Palestinian influence upon the
Mandaeans. The Baptist 7ror'ppov (or 7r-y~) <C^ros 7varosaXXoePov
is the lineal offshoot of the Sumerian agqu'ba, the laver of holy water,
symbolizing the sacred fountain, and the spouting vase. The holy
water was associated both with the Mother of All, the aqueous first
principle (cf. Bousset, op. cit., pp. 103 ff.), and with the goddess of
life and wisdom, who held the spring of the water of life under her
charge.
After the preceding we can hardly be surprised to meet our old
acquaintances, the vine and the serpent, in the entourage of the
Sophia. According to Irenaeus, some of the gnostics identified
Sophia with the serpent, but as a rule the latter was set apart as the
offspring of Jaldabaoth, the Nos 6o64xo'bpbos,or 'serpent-formed
Reason," who was naturally combined with the serpent of the Fall.
The puritanical Severian sect of Barbelo gnostics held that the
I The Naasenes practiced rites reminiscent of the mysteries of Attis and Sabazios,
but this does not prove their Phrygian origin; the worship of Attis was widespread at
this time, and serpent-worship was known in Mesopotamia outside of his cult. At
Ilarrdn (cf. Kessler, Mdtn, p. 294) there was a mysterious sanctuary called 'house' or
'treasury of the serpent,' and Ephrem calls the Ophites d'b t himijd.
294 THE AMERICAN
serpent was the grandson of Jaldabaoth, thrown by Barbelo from

Heaven,' whereupon it generated the vine with mother-earth.2
Naturally this unfavorable attitude is due to the abstinence of the
Severians from wine; among the older Ophites, where the serpent,
as the symbol of the Logos, consecrated the Eucharist, the vine, we
may suppose, was thought to spring from the heavenly seed of the
divine serpent.3 Much depends upon the point of view.
The relation between the Savior and his mother or sister, the
Sophia or Holy Ghost, was just as fluctuating among the different
gnostic bodies as that between Tammuz and his mother or sister in
Sumerian mythology. The Babylonian parallel enables us to under-
stand why Sophia, as mother of Jaldabaoth-Tammuz, must be a
virgin. The closest parallel between the two cycles is the marriage
of the Savior with his fallen sister, the lesser Sophia, whom he
exalts to a heavenly throne by his side (see above). It is interesting
to note that she covers herself with a veil (KiXviuia) when the Savior
comes to greet her and to celebrate the lepos yapos, as this is char-
acteristic also of Sabitu and other forms of I'tar (cf. the veiled goddess
of Tell Ijalaf, disinterred by Von Oppenheim). The holy wedding is
described in more detail in the Acta Thomae (cf. Bousset, pp. 68 ff.),
where the maiden, daughter of the light (' Kx6py, roi34wr's OGvy&rp),
is united to the Savior. She is attended by seven pairs of bridal
attendants, who correspond to the seven sisapinM, 'bridal attendants'
(Sum. libir-si; Tammuz is the Umun-libir-si, 'lord of the bridal
attendants'), who, according to an unpublished text cited by Langdon
(Tammuz and Ishtar, p. 29, note), prepare the bridal couch of Innina.
Primarily, of course, this is the marriage of heaven and earth, whose
union produces life and vegetation.
1 Cf. Schmidt, op. cit., p. 585.
2 The conception is probably very primitive.
3A very curious and certainly unconscious recrudescence of the weirdest gnostic
speculations appears in Baudelaire, who says: "Le vin contienne la facult6 ... de creer,
pour ainsi dire, une troisiime personne, operation mystique, o lI'homme naturel et le
vin, le dieu animal et le dieu v6g6tal, jouent le rle du Pore et du Fils dans la Trinit6;
ils engendrent un Saint-Esprit, qui est I'homme superieur, lequel proc(de 6galement des
deux." The gnostics, however, were not geniuses under the influence of hasheesh, but
inferior minds who handed on the tradition as they received it, only permitting them-
selves occasionally to harmonize and simplify--or to add to the confusion.

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The misty panorama of event and mirage which passes before us

NE =Haupt, Das Babylonische Nimrodepos; OLZ =Orientalistische Literaturzeitung;

In my article, "The Babylonian Sage Ut-napi'tim riU^qu"(JAOS,

perhaps be traced in Ijarran at a much later date.' Another possi-

Like Siduri again,3 Kalypso's home is located at the source of the

Finally, most significant of all, Kalypso is able to bestow immor-

The story of Kalypso, therefore, produces a foreign impression upon

of the sexuality of plant life, common everywhere, was very strongly

called by the remarkable title, 'bull of his mother,' and Joseph

system, which contains many very primitive Mesopotamian and

'beer,' with the ideogram SEM = KAS+LIS, 'intoxicating drink of the

however, the two are evidently very similar; Kastinnam is goddess

II. THE VINE AND THE SERPENT

fed on honey cakes and wine.1 To acquire fertility women drew

(KA-DI),1 the goddess of Der, also a title of Tammuz. Esir is

the association of ideas may be enumerated: the appearance of wine,

Vanishedare my sicknessand debility.

Now we are there wherelife will long endure.

narcotic exaltation were supposed by the ancients to reflect super-

just as the serpent symbolizes the male member in Anatolia (see

As observed above, the serpent was the guardian genius of the

III. THE VINEYARD PARADISE

The vineyard paradise of SAbitu was situated, according to

discovered at Tel el-Amarna,' as.a mountain in Asia Minor (?), where

The fruit of the tree of wisdom is accessible to the serpent-

In the recently discovered Aramaic original of the romance of

[(Braneth, Seidel) v i ?b mb fri

son," rare elsewhere, but characteristic of cuneiform gnomic literature

1 For the expression

4Cf. Reinach, Cultes, Mythes et Religion, III, 311-21.

have been the daughterof Berossosand Erymanthe;I Freudenthal's

supposition, I am strongly inclined to accept a suggestion, made to

and among the Manichaeans.' In the earlier teaching (Schmidt,

syncretism of northern Mesopotamia and Syria, which fell heir to

is transparently Apsfi, in whose r6le he is overthrown and bound by

the early Roman period, discovered by von Oppenheim (see Byz.

serpent was the grandson of Jaldabaoth, thrown by Barbelo from

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