In general, the TEM image provides high-resolution information on the internal structure of a specimen while the SEM provides

a detailed image of the surface structure of a sample. It is clear that both electron microscopes provide higher resolution images than is possible using a light microscope. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) is a microscope that uses electrons rather than light to form an image. There are many advantages to using the SEM instead of a light microscope. The SEM has a large depth of field, which allows a large amount of the sample to be in focus at one time. The SEM also produces images of high resolution, which means that closely spaced features can be examined at a high magnification. Preparation of the samples is relatively easy since most SEMs ony require the sample to be conductive. The combination of higher magnification, larger depth of focus, greater resolution, and ease of sample observation makes the SEM one of the most heavily used instruments in research areas today. Fundamental Principles of Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) Accelerated electrons in an SEM carry significant amounts of kinetic energy, and this energy is dissipated as a variety of signals produced by electronsample interactions when the incident electrons are decelerated in the solid sample. These signals include secondary electrons (that produce SEM images), backscattered electrons (BSE), diffracted backscattered electrons (EBSD that are used to determine crystal structures and orientations of minerals), photons (characteristic X-rays that are used for elemental analysis and continuum X-rays), visible light (cathodoluminescence--CL), and heat. Secondary electrons and backscattered electrons are commonly used for imaging samples: secondary electrons are most valuable for showing morphology and topography on samples and backscattered electrons are most valuable for illustrating contrasts in composition in multiphase samples (i.e. for rapid phase discrimination). X-ray generation is produced by inelastic collisions of the incident electrons with electrons in discrete ortitals (shells) of atoms in the sample. As the excited electrons return to lower energy states, they yield X-rays that are of a fixed wavelength (that is related to the difference in energy levels of electrons in different shells for a given element). Thus, characteristic X-rays are produced for each element in a mineral that is "excited" by the electron beam. SEM analysis is considered to be "non-destructive"; that is, x-rays generated by electron interactions do not lead to volume loss of the sample, so it is possible to analyze the same materials repeatedly. FTIR spectroscopy is used primarily for qualitative and quantitative analysis of organic compounds, and also for determining the chemical structure of many inorganics. Practical IR spectroscopy The infrared spectrum of a sample is recorded by passing a beam of infrared light through the sample. Examination of the transmitted light reveals how much energy was absorbed at each wavelength. This can be done with a monochromatic beam, which changes in wavelength over time, or by using a Fourier transform instrument to measure

all wavelengths at once. From this, a transmittance or absorbance spectrum can be produced, showing at which IR wavelengths the sample absorbs. Analysis of these absorption characteristics reveals details about the molecular structure of the sample. When the frequency of the IR is the same as the vibrational frequency of a bond, absorption occurs. This technique works almost exclusively on samples with covalent bonds. Simple spectra are obtained from samples with few IR active bonds and high levels of purity. More complex molecular structures lead to more absorption bands and more complex spectra. The technique has been used for the characterization of very complex mixtures. FTIR analysis applications include: Materials evaluation and identification o Organic compounds o Structure of many inorganic compounds o Deformulations o Forensics o Material homogeneity Failure analysis
o o o o

Micro-contamination identification Adhesive performance Material delamination Corrosion chemistry

Quality control screening o "Good" to "bad" sample comparison o Evaluation of cleaning procedure effectiveness o Comparison of materials from different lots or vendors Principle of Operation Because chemical bonds absorb infrared energy at specific frequencies (or wavelengths), the basic structure of compounds can be determined by the spectral locations of their IR absorptions. The plot of a compound's IR transmission vs. frequency is its "fingerprint", which when compared to reference spectra identifies the material. FTIR spectrometers offer speed and sensitivity impossible to achieve with earlier wavelength-dispersive instruments. This capability allows rapid analysis of micro-samples down to the nanogram level in some cases, making the FTIR unmatched as a problem-solving tool in organic analysis. The FTIR microscope accessory (shown in the photo above) allows spectra from a few nanograms of material to be obtained quickly, with little sample preparation, resulting in more data at lower cost. In some cases, thin films of residue are identified with a sensitivity that rivals or even exceeds electron or ion beam-based surface analysis techniques.

There are few sample constraints; solids, liquids and gases can be accommodated. Many contaminants present on reflective surfaces such as solder pads or printed circuitry are readily analyzed in situ using the FTIR microscope in reflectance mode.

Electrochemical testing methods involve the determination of specific interface properties that can be divided into three broad categories:

Potential difference across the interface: the potential at a corroding interface arises from the mutual polarization of the anodic and cathodic half-reactions constituting the overall corrosion reaction. Potential is intrinsically the most readily observable parameter and, with proper modeling of its value in relation to the thermodynamics of a system, can provide the most useful information on the state of a system. Reaction rate as current density: partial anodic and cathodic current densities cannot be measured directly unless they are purposefully separated into a bimetallic couple. By polarizing a metal immersed in a solution, it is possible to estimate a net current for the anodic polarization and for the cathodic polarization from which a corrosion current density can be deduced. Surface impedance: a corroding interface can also be modeled for all its impedance characteristics, therefore revealing subtle mechanisms not visible by other means. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is now well established as a powerful technique for investigating corrosion processes and other electrochemical systems.

Linear polarisation technique directly makes use of Ohms law to the linear relationship between polarisation potential and current. Pulse technique is, in fact, based on the same principle as linear polarisation technique. The main difference between these two techniques is that the linear polarisation technique measures responses of potential/current under a stationary state, while the pulse technique measures the responses under a non-stationary (transient) state. In both these two techniques, the supplied current or potential must be small enough to assure a response in the linear polarisation range. Therefore, the pulse technique could be called as a non-stationary state linear polarisation. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) EIS is one of the most powerful electrochemical techniques that can provide sufficient information on corrosion process of steel in concrete. The steel-concrete system, like other electrolytic systems, contains large capacitance. If a series of small AC potentials or currents with different frequencies are applied to such a system, the response at every frequency f will be sinusoidal signal with different amplitudes and a phase shift relative to the input signal. The ratio of E/I = Z (impedance) is a sinusoidal function that can be decomposed in resistive term in phase with the input signal and in a capacitive term with a phase shift of 90:

Threshold inhibitors
The most important classes of substances for threshold inhibition a

Organophosphates (phosphorous acids)

These include compounds with a phosphorous acid group R-PO3H2, which are bonded to an organic group by means of a P-H bond, e.g.:

Hydroxyethylidene diphosphonic acid, H2O3P-C(OH)(CH3)-PO3H2 Aminotrimethylene phosphonic acid, N(CH2-PO3H2)3 Hexamethylene diamin tetramethylene phosphonic acid, (H2O3P-CH2)2N-(CH2)6-N(CH2-PO3H2)2

and others.

Salts from polycarboxylic acid

Effective polycarboxylic acids include "low molecular" (molecular weight around 1,000 to 10,000) polyacrylic acids, polymethacrylic acids, polymaleic acids and copolymerisates of these.

Phosphorous acids and phospheno carboxylic acids

These include compounds which, in addition to the carboxyl groups R-COOH (as in polycarbonic acid) contain the phosphorous acid group R-PO3H2 or the phosphino group - PO(OH), e.g. phosphonobutane tricarboxylic acid. From this explanation about threshold inhibition it is clear that differing stabilisation problems in working practice also require differing formulations. Similar frequently-occurring problems can be addressed with a standard product range. Special problem situations require the formulation of special products.