01 StudyGuide (2021) Chem

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Chemistry
Study Guide
This book belongs to ______________
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Study Guide
Table of
Contents
Page
Course Outline .................................................................................................................................3
Laboratory Rules ..............................................................................................................................4
Unit One – Atoms, Periodic Trends and Molecular Polarity ..........................................................5
Unit Two – Inorganic Chemistry and Identification of Common Ions ..........................................25
Unit Three – Energy in Reactions ...................................................................................................37
Unit Four – Quantitative Chemistry (I) ...........................................................................................59
Unit Five – Aqueous Chemistry .......................................................................................................75
Unit Six – Redox Reactions and Electro-Chemistry .......................................................................99
Unit Seven – Quantitative Chemistry (II)........................................................................................121
Useful Vocabulary ............................................................................................................................136
Reference Tables ..............................................................................................................................149
Teacher information:
Krista Holtz
email [email protected]
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CHEMISTRY PROGRAMME OUTLINE
Assessment Task Weighting Length Notes
Participation 5% NA Attendance and contribution
Experiment Reports 5% NA The top 80% of grades will be used
and Activities
Written and Online % NA bestchoice.net.nz will be used as a homework resource and
Homework some written homework may be required for credit.
Unit Tests (6-8) and 10% 50 min or 20 50 minute unit tests and organic chemistry has 20 minute
quizzes (5-6) min. quizzes
Mid-Course 15% 2 hours Will cover all topics studied to date
Examination
Final Examination 45% 3 hours Will cover all topics studied
Note: This is a general guide and actual dates may be different.
Week Unit Topic BestChoice Sections
1 Electron Config
Atomic Structure; Periodic Properties: size, IE and EN Atom prop trends
2 1
3 Bonding in Molecules and Shapes Shape/polarity
4 Redox Basics
2 REDOX Reactions and Inorganic Chemistry Inorganic
5
6 Intermolecular Attraction
Energy in Bonds Bond Enthalpies
7 3 Inside Molecules and Between Molecules Standard Enthalpy
Energy in Reactions – Hess’s Law, Calorimeters and Entropy Combining Equations
8 Calorimetry; Entropy
9
4 Quantitative Chemistry (I) Titrations 1
10
Usually a term break is about here
11 Aqueous Solution Chemistry – Equalibria and Solubility Solubility Equil
12 Acids and Bases
5
13 Aqueous Solution Chemistry – Acids, Bases and Buffers Weak acid base pH
14 Buffers; Species
15 Redox Equations
6a REDOX and Electrochemical Cells Electrochemistry (first 2)
16
17 Revision for Mid-Course exam
18 MID-COURSE EXAMINATIONS November 23rd – 30th
19
6b Spontaneous Reactions and Commercial Cells Electrochemistry (last 2)
20
21 Titrations 2
7 Titration Curves; Quantitative Chemistry (II) Titration Curves
22
23 Intoduction to Organic Chemistry – Alkanes Hydrocarbons
24 Alkenes, Addition Polymers, Haloalkanes Haloalkanes
25 Isomers Organic Structure
26 Alcohols
Alcohols, Aldehydes and Ketones Aldehyde ketone
27 8
28 and Amines Carb acids
9 Organic acids and bases Acids, esters, amides(first 4)
29
Acids, esters, amides(last 2)
30 Organic Polymers Hydrocarbons (last 2)
31
Spectroscopic ID of Organic Molecules Spectroscopy
32
33-39 Revision, FINAL EXAMINATIONS, Graduation and University Offers
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Taylors College – Auckland
Department of Science
Laboratory Rules – Checklist
Always ask a teacher if you are unsure about anything.

• No eating or drinking in the laboratories.
• Hair must be tidy and not over eyes or face. Long hair must be tied back.
• Safety glasses must be worn when instructed by the teacher to do so.
• Laboratory coats must be worn for practical Chemistry.
• Never put anything in your mouth.
• Do not smell chemicals unless instructed to do so by the teacher.
• Flat covered shoes are to be worn. They must be well secured onto your feet (no jandals
or scuffs).
• Make sure you know what you are doing before starting an experiment. Instructions for
the experiment must be followed and there must be no other mixing of chemicals
• Always tell the teacher if you spill or break anything, or if you or someone else is injured.
• Deal with used equipment and waste as instructed by the teacher.
• Bags should be put safely out of the way.
• Never run in the laboratory.
• Wash hands after using chemicals and biological materials.
• At the end of the experiment, make sure that all equipment is clean, the bench is tidy and
wiped clean.
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Unit One
Atoms, Periodic
Trends and
Molecular
Polarity
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Notation for Atoms and Ions
1. Finding the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons
a. For each of the following atoms write the number of protons (p+), neutrons (n) and electrons(e–).
4 52
2He p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 24Cr p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
11 56
5B p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 26Fe p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
12 64
6C p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 29Cu p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
16 65
8O p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 30Zn p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
39 80
19K p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 35Br p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
27
13Al p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 40
18Ar p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
31
15P p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 200
80Hg p+ =____ n =____ e– =____
35 207
17Cl p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 82Pb p+ =____ n =_____ e– =_____
b. For each of the following ions write the number of protons (p+), neutrons (n) and electrons(e–).
1 + 52 3+
1H p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 24Cr p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
24 2+ 56 2+
12Mg p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 26Fe p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
23 + 64
11Na p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 29Cu
2+
p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
16 2− 127 −
8O p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 53I p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
39 + 32 2−
19K p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 16S p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
27 3+ 200
13Al p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 80Hg
+
p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
31 3− 207
15P p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____ 82Pb
4+
p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
35 −
17Cl p+ =_____ n =_____ e– =_____
2. Writing in nuclear notation

Write each of the following atoms and ions using the nuclear notation. You may assume that the atomic
mass is closest to the average mass on the Periodic Table.
Examples: sodium atom – 23
11Na sodium +1 ion 23
11Na
+
a. hydrogen atom e. sulfur atom i. chlorine atom

b. hydrogen +1 ion f. sulfur –2 ion j. chloride –1 ion
c. aluminium atom g. boron atom k. beryllium atom
d. aluminium +3 ion h. silicon atom l. carbon atom
Model of an Atom Energy Level and Sublevel
Diagram
There are 4 rules the electron configuration follows:

1)
2)
3)
4)
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Electron Configuration – spd Notation
Some examples together:
Write the electron configuration, using the spd notation for the following atoms and ions. Start by writing the
total number of electrons in the brackets. You may use [Ar] as part of your answers.
1. H ( ) – _________________________ 25. H+ ( ) – _________________________
2. He ( ) – _________________________
3. Li ( ) – _________________________ 26. Li+ ( ) – _________________________
4. Be ( ) – _________________________ 27. Be2+ ( ) – ________________________
5. B ( ) – _________________________
6. C ( ) – _________________________
7. O ( ) – _________________________ 28. O2– ( ) – _________________________
8. Ne ( ) – _________________________
9. Na ( ) – _________________________ 29. Na+ ( ) – ________________________
10. Al ( ) – _________________________ 30. Al3+( ) – _________________________
11. P ( ) – _________________________
12. Cl ( ) – _________________________ 31. P3– ( ) – _________________________
13. Ar ( ) – _________________________ 32. Cl– ( ) – _________________________
14. K ( ) – _________________________
15. Ca ( ) – _________________________ 33. K+ ( ) – _________________________
2+
16. Sc ( ) – _________________________ 34. Ca ( ) – ________________________
17. Ti ( ) – _________________________ 35. Sc3+ ( ) – _________________________
18. V ( ) – _________________________
19. Cr ( ) – _________________________ 36. V2+ ( ) – _________________________
20. Mn ( ) – _________________________ 37. Cr3+( ) – ________________________
21. Fe ( ) – _________________________ 38. Mn2+( ) – ________________________
39. Fe2+( ) – ________________________
40. Fe3+( ) – ________________________
22. Cu ( ) – _________________________ 41. Cu2+( ) – ________________________
23. Br ( ) – _________________________ 42. Br– ( ) – _________________________
24. Kr ( ) – _________________________
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BONUS ACTIVITY
Explaining the Stability of an Ion by its Electron Configuration
Background:
Write the electron configuration of Fe __________________________________________
Write the electron configuration of Fe2+_________________________________________
Write the electron configuration of Fe3+_________________________________________
Compare the electron configurations of Fe2+ and Fe3+ and explain why Fe3+ is more stable in solution
than Fe2+.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Method: (This is what we do.)

1. Note the appearance of iron(II) sulfate, FeSO4, and iron (III) nitrate, Fe(NO3)3
2. Dissolve a little FeSO4 in water, describe its colour and test the solution with KSCN (potassium
thiocyanate) solution.
3. Observe the colour of Fe(NO3)3 in water and test the solution with KSCN solution.
4. There is a test tube that has had FeSO4 and Fe(NO3)3 for a day;
a. Test both of these solutions with KSCN solution.
NOTE: Iron(III) and thiocyanate (SCN-) form a complex ion which is blood red in colour.
Results: (This is where you write what you see.)

Appearance of FeSO4 – the solid is _________________ and the solution is ________________________
Appearance of Fe(NO3)3 solution is ___________________________________________________________
First KSCN Test (today):
FeSO4 –________________________________________________________________________________
Fe(NO3)3 – _____________________________________________________________________________
After a day:
Appearance of FeSO4 solution is ________________ and Fe(NO3)3 solution is _________________.
Second KSCN Test:
FeSO4 –________________________________________________________________________________
Fe(NO3)3 – _____________________________________________________________________________
Conclusion: (Write a summary comparing the stability of Fe2+ and Fe3+ in solution.)
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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Periodic Properties
Sizes of atoms
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Sizes of ions
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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Periodic Properties – Sizes of Atoms and Ions
1. Consider the sizes of lithium (Li) and sodium (Na) atoms.

a) How many electron shells does each atom have?
a. Li has ______ electron shells. Na has ______ electron shells.
b) The number of electron shells is different.
b. Which atom would have a larger outer shell of electrons? ________
c. Which atom is larger? ________
2. Consider the sizes of lithium (Li) and beryllium (Be) atoms.

a) How many electron shells does each atom have?
a. Li has ______ electron shells. Be has ______ electron shells.
b) The number of electron shells is the same. How many protons does each atom have attracting those
shells of electrons?
b. Li has ______ protons. Be has ______ protons.
c) The number of protons is different.
c. Which atom attracts its electrons shells more strongly? ________
d. Does this mean the atom you wrote above is larger or smaller?
___________________________
3. Consider a calcium atom (Ca) and a calcium ion (Ca2+).

a) How many electron shells does each have?
a. Ca has ______ electron shells. Ca2+ has ______ electron shells.
b) The number of electron shells is different.
a. Which atom is larger? ________
4. Consider an oxygen atom (O) and an oxide ion (O2–).

a) O has ______ electron shells and ______ protons attracting those shells.
b) O2– has ______ electron shells and ______ protons attracting those shells.
c) O has a charge of ______.
d) O2– has a charge of ______.
e) Which will be larger? ___________________
These are the same questions you need to ask yourself to answer the questions on the following page.
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Which atom is larger, boron or aluminium? ______
Explain your answer above ______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
5. Which atom is larger, carbon or nitrogen? ______

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
6. Which is larger, a fluorine atom (F) or a fluoride ion (F-)? __________________

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
7. Write the following atoms in order of increasing size – oxygen (O), fluorine (F) and sulfur (S).
______ < ______ < ______
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
8. Write the following ions in order of increasing size – oxide (O2-), fluoride (F-), and sulfide (S2-).
______ < ______ < ______
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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First Ionisation Enthalpy
See reference page at back of study guide – page 149
Define:_________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Equation:_______________________________________________________________________________
Second ionisation Enthalpy

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Equation:_______________________________________________________________________________
Third ionisation Enthalpy

_______________________________________________________________________________________
Equation:_______________________________________________________________________________
We can see a some strange first ionisation enthalpies here.
Boron’s FIE should be higher than beryllium’s because they both have 2 shells of electrons and boron has 5
protons whereas beryllium has only 4 protons. Why is boron’s FIE unexpectedly lower than beryllium’s?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Why is oxygen’s FIE unexpectedly lower than nitrogen’s?
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
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Trends in Periodic Properties Practice
a) Write a balanced ion-electron equation to show the process involved in determining the first ionisation
enthalpy of magnesium (symbol Mg).
_______________________________________________________________________________ /1
(1) Is energy required (endothermic) or released (exothermic) during this ionisation?_______________
(2) Explain your answer above ______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
/1½
b) Explain why the first ionisation enthalpy of magnesium is greater than the first ionisation enthalpy of
calcium.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
/3
c) Write an equation for which the enthalpy change is that of the second ionisation enthalpy of magnesium.
_______________________________________________________________________________ /1
i) Explain why the second ionization enthalpy of magnesium is greater than its first ionization enthalpy.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
/2
d) Explain both reasons why the third ionisation enthalpy of magnesium is much greater than its second
ionisation enthalpy.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
/2½
ADVANCED
e) Write the ground state electron configuration for carbon, nitrogen and oxygen using s, p, d notation.
N ____________________ O ____________________ /2
f) Explain why the first ionisation enthalpy of O is unexpectedly less than that of N. Include why this is
unexpected.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
/3
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Electronegativity of atoms:
a) Define the term ‘electronegativity’_________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
/1½
b) Write the following atoms in order of increasing electronegativity: C, N and P

______ < ______ < ______
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
/2½
Types of Bonds Notes

Ionic Bond Polar Covalent Bond Non-polar Covalent Bond
Electronegativity of
atoms
Type of attraction
Structure of bonded
atoms
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c) Describe the bonds below as either ionic, polar covalent or non-polar covalent.
If it is polar covalent, mark each atom as either δ– or δ+.
(i) O and N in NO2 ____________________________
(ii) the two O’s in O2 ____________________________
(iii) Na and Br in NaBr ____________________________
/3
Lewis Structures (electron dot structures)

• These give the placement of atoms and all valence electrons in a molecule or polyatomic ion.
o Valence electrons are: _________________________________________________________
• H will have a share of 2 electrons in its outer shells
• Other atoms will usually have a share of 8 electrons in their outer shells.
• See page 21 in the textbook
Steps:
1. Calculate total valence electrons.
2. Single atom is in the centre.
3. Check that each atom has a share of 8 electrons – the octet rule – except some (we’ll see later).
Examples together:
e– regions
Molecule Lewis Diagram around the Shape and Molecular Polarity
central atom
HBr
Valence electrons
Br=___, H=___
No centre
Total=____
NH3
N= ___,
H=___×3
Total = ___
CCl4
e- C=__,
Cl=__×4
Total=____
CO2
e- C=__,
O=__×2
Total=____
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Now you draw the Lewis structures for these molecules.
1. Make sure you show all of the valence electrons.
Molecule Lewis Diagram e– regions Shape and Molecular Polarity
around the
central atom
H2
No centre
total e-=_____
F2
No centre
total e-=_____
HF
No centre
-
total e =_____
H2O
total e-=_____
CF4
total e-=_____
NF3
total e-=_____
C2H6
Complex Shape
total e-=_____
Analysis – Answer :
1. Explain why CO2 is non-polar but H2O is polar. (Answer this after learning the shapes and polarity.)
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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2. These have multiple bonds.
e– regions
central atom
O2
e- O=___×2 No centre
Total=____
N2
No centre
-
total e =_____
C2H4
Complex Shape
-
total e =_____
SO2
total e-=_____
SO3
total e-=_____
3. Oxy-acids (each H is bonded to an O)

e– regions
central atom
HNO3
Complex Shape
-
total e =_____
H2SO4
Complex Shape
-
total e =_____
H3PO4
Complex Shape
total e-=_____
HClO
total e-=_____
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4. Polyatomic ions
e– regions
central atom
NO3-
Ionic, so not polar
or non-polar
total e-=_____
SO42-
Ionic, so not polar
or non-polar
total e-=_____
PO43-
Ionic, so not polar
- or non-polar
total e =_____
ClO-
Ionic, so not polar
or non-polar
total e-=_____
5. These cannot have eight electrons around every atom.

e– regions
central atom
BH3
total e-=_____
BF3
total e-=_____
NO2
total e-=_____
Analysis: (Answer this after learning the shapes and polarity.)

2. Describe the polarity of the B–F bond in BF3.
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the polarity of the BF3 molecule. Give reasons for your answer.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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6. Comparing central atoms with two shells or three shells.
a. Atoms in period 3 or later can have more than eight electrons in their valence shell.
e– regions Shape and Molecular
Molecule Lewis Diagram around the
central atom Polarity
SF6
total e-=_____
NCl3
total e-=_____
PCl3
total e-=_____
PCl5
total e-=_____
Analysis:
4. Explain why it is possible for PCl5 to exist but not NCl5?
Answer these questions in your explanation: How many electrons can P have in its outer shell? How many
electrons can N have in its outer shell? How many electrons are around P’s outer shell in PCl5?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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Molecular Shapes
Electron Electron sets Non-bonding Molecular
Example Angle
Arrangement or regions Electron Sets Shape
2 0 180º
Linear
0 120º
Trigonal Planar
3
1 120º
Bent (V-shaped)
0 109º
Tetrahedral
or 109º
4 1
(107º)
Trigonal Pyramidal
109º
2
(105º)
Bent (V-shaped)
120º
0
90º
Trigonal Bipyramidal
120º
5 1
90º
See-saw
trigonal bipyramidal
2 90º
T-shaped
0 90º
Octahedral
6
2 90º
octahedral
square planar
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Page for Extra Notes

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Unit Two –
Inorganic
Chemistry and
Identification
of Common Ions
Textbook pdf files on StudySmart
Page 26 of 157
Halogen Properties
Halogens and water
1. The names and formulae of the four halogens are:
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Solubility in water.
Why should we expect that the halogens are not very soluble in water?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Reaction with water. Two halogens react strongly with water.

(i) Write the balanced ionic equation for the reaction of fluorine with water. (Include all states.)
_________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Write the balanced ionic equation for the reaction of chlorine with water.
_________________________________________________________________________________
4. Iodine can be made to dissolve well in water by adding iodide ions.

(i) Write the balanced ionic equation for the reaction that occurs.
_________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Describe what you would observe. _______________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Oxidising strength of the halogens

(1) Complete the following table:
Halogen Colour of Will oxidise Product(s) of
New Colour
Name Formula solution (in water) (from Cl-,Br-, I-) oxidation
Solution is
F2
impossible
Cl2
Br2
I2
(2) Write the halogen in order of increasing oxidising strength.

_______<_______<_______<_______
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Reducing strength of the halide ions
(3) Complete the following table:
Halide ion Colour of Will reduce Product(s) of
New Colour
Name Formula solution (from Cl2, Br2, I2) reduction
I-
Br-
Cl-
F-
(4) Write the halide ion in order of increasing reducing strength.

_______<_______<_______<_______
Redox Reactions are Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

Oxidise means ___________________________________________________________________________
Reduce means ___________________________________________________________________________
Oxidation is _____________________________________________________________________________
Reduction is _____________________________________________________________________________
An agent _______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
An oxidising agent ________________________________________________________________________
In this unit you will
A reducing agent _________________________________________________________________________
only need these parts.
First balance each half equation:

1. Other
(a) meaning balance the atoms that are not O or H
2. H2O
(b) meaning balance the O (oxygen) atoms by adding H2O to the other side
3. H+
(c) meaning balance the H (hydrogen) atoms by adding H+ to the other side
4. e–
(d) meaning balance the charge (+/–)by adding e– (electrons) to the side that is more
positive.
Next add the 2 half equations together but…

(e) the electrons must cancel (to 0) in the final equation so…
(f) multiply the half equations by a number to make the electrons equal.
Finally, check: 1) count the charge 2) count the O atoms 3) count all atoms
Page 28 of 157
Redox Reactions - Introduction
Calculating Oxidation States(or oxidation numbers):
Remember that oxygen (O) in compounds has an oxidation state of –2 and hydrogen (H) in compounds has an oxidation
state of +1.
a. Cl2 O.S. of Cl = ________ d. Mn2+ O.S. of Mn = ________
b. Cl– O.S. of Cl = ________ e. MnO4- O.S. of Mn = ________
c. IO3– O.S. of I = ________
How do we know if it is a redox reaction? Circle one for oxidation

It is a reaction where the oxidation state of at least one species changes. or reduction:
1. Chlorine/Cl2 (O.S. of Cl = ______)→ chloride ions/Cl– (O.S. of Cl = ______) Ox/red/neither

2. Iodide ions/I– (O.S. of I = ______)→ iodine/I2 (O.S. of I = ______) Ox/red/neither
3. Iodate ions/IO3– (O.S. of I = ______) → Iodine/I2 (O.S. of I = ______) Ox/red/neither
**Oxidation is when the O.S. increases ----- Reduction is when the O.S. decreases**
Write balanced half (ionic) equations and a balanced overall (ionic) equation.
(1) Chlorine (Cl2) solution reacts with a potassium iodide (KI) solution to produce iodine (I2) and a potassium chloride
(KCl) solution. Circle one:
1) “other” __________________Cl2(aq)→ ____Cl–(aq) _______________________________________Ox/red
2) H2O
3) H+ __________________I–(aq) → I2(aq) ______________________________________________Ox/red
4) e- Overall: ___________________________________________________________________________
(2) A solution of sodium bromide is mixed with a chlorine solution and orange bromine is produced.
_______________________Br–(aq) → ___________________________________________________Ox/red
_______________________Cl2(aq) → ___________________________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _________________________________________________________________________________
(3) An orange aqueous bromine solution is mixed with a colourless potassium iodide solution and a darker orange
solution is produced which indicates that iodine is present.
__________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
__________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _________________________________________________________________________________
BONUS: Copper(II) ions (Cu2+) react with iodide ions to form cupper(I) iodide (CuI) precipitate and iodine solution.
________________________Cu2+(aq) → CuI(s) ___________________________________________Ox/red
_________________________I–(aq) → I2(aq) _____________________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _________________________________________________________________________________
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On the periodic table below, label the metal cations we studied.
Circle and label the groups of cations that have similar metal hydroxide properties.
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Writing Equations – Cations
(1) Write balanced ionic equation for all the reactions between the following ions and sodium hydroxide.
(a) Mg2+ ____________________________________________________________________________
(b) Fe2+ _____________________________________________________________________________
(c) Fe3+ _____________________________________________________________________________
(d) Cu2+ _____________________________________________________________________________
(e) Ag+ _____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(f) Zn2+ _____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
(g) Al3+ _____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
(h) Pb2+ _____________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
(2) Write balanced ionic equation for all the reactions between the following ions and ammonia.
(g) Why does ammonia solution (NH3(aq)) react to form a hydroxide precipitate?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(a) Mg2+____Same as above______________________________________________________________
(b) Fe2+____Same as above______________________________________________________________
(c) Fe3+____Same as above______________________________________________________________
(d) Cu2+____Same as above______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
(e) Ag+____Same as above______________________________________________________________
____Same as above_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
(f) Zn2+____Same as above______________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
(g) Al3+____Same as above______________________________________________________________
(h) Pb2+____Same as above______________________________________________________________
(i) Reaction with iodide to distinguish lead ions from aluminium ions:
_________________________________________________________________________________
(3) Complex ions:
Complex Ion Ligand Colour Complex Ion Ligand Colour
OH– NH3
OH– NH3
OH– NH3
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Distinguishing Anions
(1) The three coloured anions are:
(a) permanganate – _______________________ colour is _______________________
(b) dichromate – _______________________ colour is _______________________
(c) chromate – _______________________ colour is _______________________
(3) Why do we need a chemical test to distinguish dichromate and chromate?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(4) What is the chemical test to distinguish chromate and dichromate and what would we see?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(5) There are 5 colourless anions we will study:
(a) sulfate – _______________________ (c) chloride – _______________________
(b) carbonate – _______________________ (d) bromide – _______________________
(e) iodide – _______________________
(6) To distinguish these 5, first we must _______________________________________________________
because _____________________________________________________________________________.
(7) We would see ________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(8) A solution of a halide ion gives a white precipitate with silver nitrate solution. The precipitate dissolves easily
in ammonia, NH3.
(a) Write the formula of the anion that gives this reaction. _____________________
(b) Write balanced ionic equations for the two reactions ________________________________________
________________________________________
(9) A solution of a halide ion gives a cream coloured (yellow-white) precipitate with silver nitrate solution. The
precipitate dissolves in a lot of ammonia, NH3.
(b) Write balanced ionic equations for the two reactions ________________________________________
________________________________________
(10) A solution of a halide ion gives a pale yellow coloured precipitate with silver nitrate solution. The
precipitate does not dissolve in ammonia, NH3, even if excess is added.
(b) Write a balanced ionic equation for the one reaction ________________________________________
Page 32 of 157
Writing Equations – Anions
Write balanced ionic equation for the reaction(s) between the following colourless ions when barium chloride is
added first, then hydrochloric acid is added next. NOTE: Some do not react.
a) SO42—
____________________________________________________________________________________
b) CO32—
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
c) I—
___________________________________________________________________________________
d) Cl—
____________________________________________________________________________________
e) Br—
____________________________________________________________________________________
Write balanced ionic equation for the reaction between the following colourless ions and silver nitrate.
NOTE: They all react.
a) SO42—
____________________________________________________________________________________
b) CO32—
____________________________________________________________________________________
c) I— __________________________________________________________________________________
d) Br— ________________________________________________________________________________
Dissolves in ammonia: __________________________________________________________________
e) Cl— _________________________________________________________________________________
Dissolves in ammonia: __________________________________________________________________
Non-precipitation reactions:
a) Chromate becomes dichromate when sulfuric acid, H2SO4, is added.
____________________________________________________________________________________
Dichromate becomes chromate when a strong base such as NaOH is added.
____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 33 of 157
Identifying Metal Ions (Cations) and Non-Metal Ions (Anions)
1. Pb(NO3)2, Ag(NO3) and Zn(NO3)2
Reagent(s) _________________________________________________________
Expected results:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Mg(NO3)2, Al(NO3)3 and Zn(NO3)2

Reagent(s) _________________________________________________________
Expected results:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Zn(NO3)2, Pb(NO3)2 and Al(NO3)3

Reagent(s) _________________________________________________________
Expected results:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. List the three (or two) coloured cations and give their colours.
______________________
______________________
______________________ (this one is often colourless in solution because the colour is very weak)
5. KCl, KBr and KI

Reagent(s) _________________________________________________________
Expected results:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 34 of 157
6. NaCl, K2SO4, K2CO3
Reagent(s) _________________________________________________________
Expected results:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
7. List the three coloured anions and give their colours.

______________________
______________________
______________________
8. Explain why it is unlikely that we would have a solution of iron (II) ions, also called ferrous ions, to identify.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
9. The coloured ions below have common colours, so need a chemical test to confirm their identity. Describe a
chemical test and the result for each of the ions below.
Cu2+________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Fe3+________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
CrO42-_______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Cr2O72-______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 35 of 157

Page 36 of 157

Page 37 of 157
Unit Three
Energy in
Reactions
Page 38 of 157
Notes Page:
Bonds within Molecules
(1) Ionic Bonds
(a)
(b) (3) Covalent Bonds
(c) (a)
(b)
(2) Metallic Bonds (c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Bonds between Molecules

(1) Dispersion Forces (other names include: London Forces; Instantaneous Dipole – Induced Dipole)
(a) What is the cause?
(b) Why do the molecules attract?
(c) What can have it?
(d) What else is important about it?
(2) Dipole-dipole Interactions

(a) What can have it?
(3) Hydrogen Bonding

(a) What can have it?

Page 39 of 157
Weak Forces Between Molecules
(1) (a) In chlorine gas, Cl2, there are no permanent dipole-dipole interactions. Explain why these are absent in
chlorine.
____________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Instead, the attractions between chlorine molecules consist entirely of van der Waals dispersion forces
(also known as London forces). Explain briefly the cause of these attractions.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(2) The stronger the intermolecular attractions, the greater the boiling point of a molecular substance. Explain
the trend in boiling points of the halogens:
F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
boiling point (K) 85 238 332 457
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(3) Part of the attractions between hydrogen chloride molecules, HCl, are due to dipole-dipole interactions.
Using hydrogen chloride as your example, describe dipole-dipole interactions. A diagram will help your
answer.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 40 of 157
(4) Without referring to a data book, sort the following molecules into order of increasing boiling point, and
explain your reasoning. The colours in the models below refer to:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Adapted from www.chemguide.co.uk

Page 41 of 157
Using Bonds between Molecules in Solids to Explain Properties
(1) Explain why oxygen is a gas at room  temperature but octane (C8H18) is a liquid at room temperature.
(a) Are they polar on non-polar? ________________________________________________________
(b) Which type of forces/bonds does this mean they have? __________________________________
(c) Which is larger (or longer)? _________________________________________________________
(d) Which type of force is stronger because of size? ________________________________________
(e) Can either of them form hydrogen bonds? _____________________________________________
(f) Write a summary sentence. _________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
In your answers, include the same information you wrote in your answers above.
(2) Explain why H2 has a B.P. of -252℃ and HCl has a B.P. of –85℃.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(3) Explain how it is possible for water to have a boiling point of 100ºC while butane (C4H10) has a boiling point
of -1ºC.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(4) Explain how it is possible for non-polar wax (approximately C45H92) can be solid at room temperature while
water is only liquid.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 42 of 157
(5) Use the following graph to answer the questions below.
(a) Explain the changes in boiling points of HCl, HBr, and HI.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Account for the fact that HF does not follow the trend of the other group 17 halides.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 43 of 157
Bond Enthalpies Notes
Bond enthalpy means _____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Always positive/negative (circle one)
The two main limitations of using bond enthalpy values for determining the enthalpy change for a combustion
reaction are
(1) ________________ this will cause the calculated value to be _________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
(2) ________________ this will cause the calculated value to be _________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Three things affect strength of bond enthalpies:

(1) Bond order - ____________________<____________________<____________________
(2) Polarity - ____________________<____________________
(3) Atom sizes or bond length - ____________________<____________________
Problem together: C2H5OH → C2H4 + H2O
(h) Step 1 – draw structures
(i) Step 2 – cancel and bonds that don’t change (optional)
(j) Step 3 – add all bonds broken and all bonds formed
(k) Step 4 – bonds broken plus negative bonds formed
C–H 413 C–C 348 C=C 614
C–O 358 O–H 467
Page 44 of 157
Bond Enthalpies Practice
C–F 485 H–F 565 F–F 154 N≡N 941
C–Cl 339 H–Cl 427 Cl–Cl 242 C=O 799
(in CO2)
C–Br 276 H–Br 363 Br–Br ??? O=O 495
C–H 413 N–H 391 H–H 432 C=C 614
C–O 358 O–H 467 C–C 348 C≡N ???
(1) Calculate the enthalpy change for the following reactions, using the bond enthalpy values above.
(a) CH4(g) + F2(g) → CH3F(g) + HF(g)
(d) CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
(b) CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)
(c) N2(g) +3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)

(2) The following reaction, for the production of hydrogen cyanide, has a known enthalpy of reaction. Use this
information and the bond enthalpy values above to calculate the bond enthalpy for the C≡N bond in HCN.
CH4(g) + NH3(g) → HCN(g) + 3 H2(g) ΔrH° = + 247 kJ mol–1
(3) Nitrogen oxide, NO(g), can be formed when lightning strikes during electrical storms. The equation for this
reaction is: ½ N2(g) + ½ O2(g) → NO(g) ΔrH° = + 90 kJ mol–1
Use this information and the bond enthalpy values above to calculate the bond enthalpy for the NO bond in
nitrogen oxide. This is an interesting bond because its bond enthalpy is between that of a double and a triple bond.
(4) Bromine reacts with methane as shown: CH4(g) + Br2(g) → CH3Br(g) + HBr(g) ΔrH° = – 45 kJ mol–1
Use this information and the bond enthalpy values above to calculate the bond enthalpy for the Br–Br bond.
Page 45 of 157
Understanding Enthalpy Symbols Notes
Explain the meaning of the following terms:

(i) Enthalpy change
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Exothermic reaction
______________________________________________________________________________
(iii) Endothermic reaction
______________________________________________________________________________
(iv) (Enthalpy of) vaporisation
______________________________________________________________________________
(v) (Enthalpy of) fusion
______________________________________________________________________________
e.g. Write balanced thermochemical equations for the reaction having an enthalpy change equal to
the standard enthalpy of fusion of methane, ∆fusHo (CH4) = 1 kJ mol-1.
______________________________________________________________________________
(vi) (Enthalpy of) sublimation
______________________________________________________________________________
(vii) (Enthalpy of) combustion
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
the standard enthalpy of combustion of methane, ∆cHo (CH4, g, 298 K) = -882 kJ mol-1.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
(viii) (Enthalpy of) formation
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
the standard enthalpy of formation of methane (CH4) gas, ∆fHo (CH4, g, 298 K) = -75 kJ mol-1.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Page 46 of 157
Understanding Enthalpy Symbols Practice
(1) Given ∆cHo (CH4, g, 298 K) = -882 kJ mol-1, state whether the combustion of methane is exothermic or
endothermic. Explain your reasons. (1 mark)
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(2) Write balanced thermochemical equations for each of the following:

(i) The reaction having an enthalpy change equal to the enthalpy of formation of butane (C4H10) gas
which is - 125.5 kJ mol– 1 (1.5 marks)
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) The reaction having an enthalpy change equal to the enthalpy of combustion of butane gas which
is - 2877 kJ mol– 1 (1.5 marks)
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(iii) The reaction having an enthalpy change equal to the enthalpy of fusion of butane which is
+4.7 kJ mol– 1 (1.5 marks)
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(iv) The reaction having an enthalpy change equal to the enthalpy of vaporisation of butane which is
+22.48 kJ mol– 1 (1.5 marks)
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(3) Explain why the enthalpy of formation of water is the same as the enthalpy of combustion of hydrogen.
(3 marks)
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(4) Fully describe all the information which is contained in the symbols ΔfH°(C2H5OH, ℓ) = – 277 kJ mol– 1.
Hint: There are about eight (8) ideas, thus 4 marks. (4 marks)
f means ________________________________________________________________________________
ΔH means ______________________________________________________________________________
–277 kJ mol–1 means ______________________________________________________________________
The equation is __________________________________________________________________________
0
means ________________________________________________________________________________
Page 47 of 157
Hess's Law
Hess’s Law Definition: ___________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Using Hess’s Law to find a new enthalpy of reaction – 3 steps:

(1) ________________________________
(2) ________________________________
(3) ________________________________
E.g. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of methane.
We know: ΔfH (CH4) = –74 kJ mol-1 ________________________________________________
ΔfH (CO2) = –393 kJ mol-1 ________________________________________________
ΔfH (H2O) = –285kJ mol-1 ________________________________________________
We want to make: CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(ℓ) ΔrH= ______________
Hess's Law problems
(1) Find the ΔH for the reaction below, given the following reactions and subsequent ΔH values:
H2S (g) + 2 O2 (g) → H2SO4 (ℓ) ΔH = – 793.4 kJ mol-1
H2S (g) + 2 O2 (g) → SO3 (g) + H2O (ℓ) ΔH = – 662.97 kJ mol-1
H2O (ℓ) → H2O (g) ΔH = + 43.9 kJ mol-1
H2SO4 (ℓ) → SO3 (g) + H2O (g)

Show working:
Page 48 of 157
N2H4 (ℓ) + CH4O (ℓ) → CH2O (g) + N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ΔH = + 72.1 kJ mol-1
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH 3 (g) ΔH = – 92.2 kJ mol-1
CH4O (ℓ) → CH2O (g) + H 2 (g) ΔH = – 122.7 kJ mol-1
N2H4 (ℓ) + H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g)
N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) → 2 NH3 (g) ΔH = – 92.2 kJ mol-1
2 NH3 (g) + 4 H2O (ℓ) → 2 NO2 (g) + 7 H2 (g) ΔH = + 1301.4 kJ mol-1
H2O (ℓ) → H2 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) ΔH = + 285.8 kJ mol-1
N2 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → 2 NO2 (g)
C2H6O (ℓ) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (ℓ) ΔH = – 1367.6 kJ mol-1
C2H4O (ℓ) + 5/2 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (ℓ) ΔH = – 1162.2 kJ mol-1
2 C2H4O (ℓ) + 2 H2O (ℓ) → 2 C2H6O (ℓ) + O2 (g)

Page 49 of 157
C2H2 (g) + 2 H2 (g) → C2H6 (g) ΔH = – 310.5 kJ mol-1
H2O (g) → H2 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) ΔH =+ 241.8 kJ mol-1
C2H6 (g) + 7/2 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (g) ΔH = – 1428.7 kJ mol-1
2 CO2 (g) + H2O (g) → C 2H2 (g) + 5/2 O2 (g)
H2O (ℓ) → H2 (g) + 1/2 O2 (g) ΔH = + 285.8 kJ mol-1
C2H6 (g) → 2 C (s) + 3 H 2 (g) ΔH = + 83.9 kJ mol-1
2 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (ℓ) → C2H6 (g) + 7/2 O2 (g) ΔH = + 1560.7 kJ mol-1
CO2 (g) → C (s) + O2 (g)
Zn (s) + 1/8 S8 (s) → ZnS (s) ΔH = – 204.6 kJ mol-1
2 ZnS (s) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 ZnO (s) + 2SO2(g) ΔH = – 880.4 kJ mol-1
2 SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2 SO3 (g) ΔH = – 201.9 kJ mol-1
ZnO (s) + SO3 (g) → ZnSO4 (s) ΔH = – 237.2 kJ mol-1
Zn (s) + 1/8 S8 (s) + 2 O2 (g) → ZnSO4 (s)

Page 50 of 157
Practice Worksheet for Significant Figures
(1) State the number of significant digits in each measurement.
(a) 2804 g _____ (b) 0.0003068 m _____ (c) 4.6 x 105 m _____
(d) 4.06 x 10-5 m _____ (e) 750 m _____ (f) 7.50 × 102 m _____
(h)7) 75,000 m _____ (i) 75,000.0 m _____
(2) Round the following numbers as indicated to three significant figures:

3.682417= _______ 21.860051= _______ 375652.3= _______ 0.00003478= _________ 45.4673= _______
Significant figures rule when adding or subtracting numbers:
(3) Solve the following problems and report answers with appropriate number of significant figures.
Unrounded answer to the correct number of s.f.
1) 54.3 kJ + 27.421 kJ
2) 2.389 kJ – 2.2 kJ
3) 87.2 kJ + 39.29 kJ
Significant figures rule when multiplying or dividing numbers:
(4) Solve the following problems and report answers with appropriate number of significant figures.
Unrounded answer to the correct number of s.f.
1) 1.31 mol/L x 2.3 L
2) 5.7621 g/mol x 6.201 mol
3) 20.2 g ÷ 7.41 g/mol
4) 40.002 mol ÷ 13.000005 L
5) 0.458 mol L-1 × 0.0100 L
6) 0.458 mol L-1 × 0.010 L
7) (1.008 × 6 + 16.00 × 6 + 12.01 × 2) g mol-1
8) 0.021 g ÷ (1.008 × 6 + 16.00 × 6 + 12.01 × 2) g mol-1
𝑚
(5) Rounding Error Consider the problem 𝑐 = 𝑀
𝑉
; m=1.23 g ; M=46.08 g/mol; V=0.01504 L
(a) Calculate all together and write your answer here to the correct number of s.f. _____________________
(b) Now calculate the same problem in 2 steps: 1.23g÷46.08 g/mol to the correct number of s.f. ___________
Take that answer and ______÷ 0.01504 L, write to the correct number of s.f. _________________
Compare your two answers. Only the answer in a. is correct, b. is incorrect.
Prevent this by keeping at least 3 extra digits between different calculations.

Page 51 of 157
Hess's Law Short-Cut
E.g. Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of methane.
We know: ΔfH (CH4) = –74 kJ mol-1
ΔfH (CO2) = –393 kJ mol-1
ΔfH (H2O) = –285kJ mol-1
We want to make: CH4(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(ℓ) ΔrH= ______________
Δ𝑟 𝐻 = ∑ −Δ𝑓 𝐻(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠) + ∑ +Δ𝑓 𝐻(𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠)
m
Molar mass and calculating moles using n =
M
(1) Use your Periodic Table to calculate the molar mass of the following substances:
(a) H2O M = ________________________________________________________________________________
(b) BCl3 M = ________________________________________________________________________________
(c) CCl4 M = ________________________________________________________________________________
(d) HBr M = ________________________________________________________________________________
(e) NaCl M = _______________________________________________________________________________
(f) CuSO4 M = ______________________________________________________________________________
(g) CaSO4·2H2O M = _________________________________________________________________________
(2) Calculate the amount in moles in each of the following:

(a) 8.6 g CaSO4·2H2O
Final answer with the correct number of significant figures: ____________
(b) 2.25 g CCl4
(c) 1.0 g Fe2(SO4)3

Page 52 of 157
Equation using Water’s Specific Heat Capacity:
Specific heat capacity of water, c(H2O) = 4.18 J g–1K–1 (or J g–1°C–1)
Heat Capacity Problems
(1) An experiment was set up to determine the heat of reaction for the combustion of ethanol. A tin can
containing 200 mL water at 22.0oC was placed on a tripod. A spirit burner with mass 184.50 g (including the
ethanol inside) was lit and used to heat the water in the can. When the spirit burner was extinguished, the
temperature of the water had reached 27.0oC. The mass of the spirit burner was 184.30 g.
(a) Calculate the enthalpy of combustion of ethanol in kJ mol-1. 1.0 mL(H2O)=1.0 g

Specific heat capacity of water, c(H2O)=4.18 J g-1 oC-1 M(CH3CH2OH) = 46.068 g mol-1
(b) Describe why the enthalpy of combustion calculated will be the same if 400 mL of water is used in the
experiment instead of 200 mL.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 53 of 157
(2) The enthalpy of combustion of methanol can be measured using a calorimeter or using standard enthalpies
of formation from a reference.
(a) If 1.00g methanol is burned in a spirit burner, the temperature of a beaker containing 200 g water is
found to increase from 22.0oC to 40.0oC. Using these results, calculate the experimental value of
ΔcH(CH3OH, ℓ). c(H2O)=4.18 J g-1 oC-1
(b) The experimental value found in a) is only about half that of the ‘accepted’ value. Use the following data
to calculate ΔcH(CH3OH, ℓ).
CH3OH (ℓ) + 1½ O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(ℓ)
ΔfH(CH3OH, ℓ) = -201.3 kJ mol-1 ΔfH(H2O, ℓ) = -285.8 kJ mol-1,

ΔfH(CO2, g)= -393.5 kJ mol-1
(c) Give two reasons why the experimental value for the enthalpy of combustion calculated in a), is so much
less exothermic than the accepted value calculated in b).
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 54 of 157
Enthalpy and Entropy Notes
What is entropy? _________________________________________________________________________
Describe what is meant by a positive entropy change for the surroundings (+ΔSsurroundings), also called a negative
enthalpy change (–ΔH).
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Describe what is meant by a positive entropy change for the system(+ΔSsystem).

____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
How is it possible that N2(g) + 3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)?
How is it possible that an endothermic reaction happens?
Enthalpy and Entropy Practice

(1) List the following in order of increasing system entropy and explain why.
(a) H2O(ℓ), H2O(g), H2O(s) _____________________________________________________________
Explanation __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(b) NaCl(s), Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq) __________________________________________________________

Explanation __________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 55 of 157
(2) For the following reactions write if the
(i) entropy change of the surroundings favours the forward or backward reaction
(ii) entropy change of the system favours the forward or backward reaction
(iii) finally, explain why the reaction is spontaneous.
(a) CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(ℓ)

(i) Entropy change of the surroundings favours ___________________________________________
(ii) Entropy change of the system favours ________________________________________________
(iii) The reaction is spontaneously driven by ______________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
(b) NH4Cl(s) → NH4+(aq) + Cl-(aq) The solution formed feels cold to the touch.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
(c) NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) The solution formed feels warm to the touch.
_____________________________________________________________________________.
(2) Use your answers to question 4 above as a model to discuss the relative strength of the entropy change of
the surroundings and the entropy change of the system in driving the following reactions either in a forward
direction or a backward direction.
(a) CH3CH2OH (ℓ) + 3 O2 (g) → 2 CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (ℓ) This is combustion, so you can know that it is exothermic.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(b) CaCO3 (s) → CO2 (g) + CaO (s) This process absorbs energy from the environment.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(c) 6 CO2 (g) + 6 H2O (ℓ) → C6H12O6 (aq) + 6 O2 (g)
This represents photosynthesis in plants, so light energy is absorbed.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________(This is a strange reaction!!!)
Page 56 of 157

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Page 59 of 157
Unit Four
Quantitative
Chemistry (I)
Page 60 of 157
Notes Page
Calculations:
M=
n=
m=
c=
V=
Primary Standards: (See page 144 in textbook for more information.)

3 properties:
(1) ____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(2) ____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
(3) ____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Examples:
These can be primary standards
(1) _________________________
(2) _________________________
These can’t be primary standards
(3) _________________________ because ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
(4) _________________________ because ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
(5) _________________________ because ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
(6) _________________________ because ___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Chemical Equations:
(a) In this unit only you will use balanced molar (not ionic) equations to relate moles (n) to moles of each
substance.
Page 61 of 157
(filled with titrant)
Titration flask
(or conical flask or
Erlenmeyer flask)
(contains analyte solution to
be titrated)
pipette
(measures small
volumes of analyte)
(used to make primary

standards and dilute solutions)
Page 62 of 157
Titration Method Reference
Making a primary standard or diluting a solution:
1. Volumetric flask (usually 100 mL or more):
• must be clean and dry before use
• use a dropper to add the last few drops of water to the mark on the flask
During a titration:
1. Pipette (usually 10.00 or 20.00 mL):
• rinse it with the solution that you will use the pipette to measure
• all liquids should go out of the narrow tip
2. Burette (about 50 mL):

• rinse it with the solution to be filled including the part below the tap
• fill it
• ensure the part below the tap is filled and has no air bubbles
• add the solution very slowly near the end-point
• record volumes to 2 decimal places (e.g. 11.25mL)
3. Titration flask:
• rinse with deionised water if it is not clean and dry
o this is not used to measure any reagents so we can change the concentration
without changing the amount (moles)
• Near end point:
o wash the inside of the titration flask and end of burette with deionised water
▪ this is so that any reagents that have splashed up the sides are washed into
the flask to react
In your conclusions:
• restate the concentration you have calculated (This is your main finding.)
• comment on the procedure
o mention any results you did not use in your calculations and give a possible
explanation for the error
o describe any difficulties or problems that were encountered during the experiment
Page 63 of 157
Quantitative Chemistry Simple Calculations
(1) Use your Periodic Table to calculate the molar mass of the following substances:
(a) CCl4 M = ________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Fe2(SO4)3 M = ____________________________________________________________________________
(c) CaSO4·2H2O M = _________________________________________________________________________
m
(2) Calculate the amount in moles in each of the following using n = M
(a) 8.6 g CaSO4·2H2O
(b) 2.25 g CCl4
(c) 1.0 g Fe2(SO4)3
m
(3) Calculate the concentration in mol L-1 of each of the following solutions using n = cV and n = M
(a) 1.00 g of pure, dry NaOH is dissolved to give 200.0 mL of solution.
(b) 0.98 g of pure H2SO4 is added to water and the solution is made up to 400.0 mL.
(c) 0.635 g oxalic acid, (COOH)2 is dissolved to give a 100.0 mL solution. M(COOH)2∙2 H2O=126.08 g mol–1
(d) 2.00 mL of 0.20 mol L-1 HCl solution reacts with exactly 4.12 mL NaOH solution. (They react 1mole:1mole)
Calculate the concentration of NaOH solution.
(4) 2.1 g of pure iron powder is reacted with sulfur to form iron (II) sulphide:
Fe + S → FeS
(a) What amount, in moles, of iron is in 2.1 g?
(b) Use the equation to write down the amount in moles of iron sulphide, FeS, formed.
(c) What mass of FeS is formed?

Page 64 of 157
Quantitative Chemistry – Theory Practice
(1) The acidity of wine affects its taste and quality. The acidity was determined in a sample of white wine by titration with
0.100 molL-1 sodium hydroxide solution. 25.00mL of wine was measured with a pipette into a titration flask and 2
drops of phenolphthalein indicator were added. The experiment was repeated to obtain concordant results. Titres
obtained were 8.12mL, 7.80mL, 7.88mL, and 7.75mL.
(a) Calculate the average of three concordant results
________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
(b) Give a possible reason why one result is different from the others.
________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
(c) Could a person follow the above procedure to determine the acidity in red wine? Give a reason for your answer.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(1½ marks)
(2) Give two reasons why sodium hydroxide is not suitable as a primary standard
(a) __________________________________________________________________________________
(b) __________________________________________________________________________________
(2 marks)
(3) State whether each of the following is a correct procedure in the titration. Give a brief explanation for your answer.
(a) The burette is rinsed with sodium hydroxide before filling it.
Correct / Incorrect (Circle one)
Explanation:
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(½ + 1½)
(b) The pipette is rinsed with wine before using it to measure 25mL wine.
Explanation:
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(½ + 1½)
Page 65 of 157
(c) The titration flask is rinsed with wine before the wine is measured into it.
Explanation:
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(½ + 1½)
(d) The inside of the titration flask is washed down with distilled water near the end of the titration.
Explanation:
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(½ + 1½)
(4) A standard solution of hydrochloric acid is required for the analysis of a commercial cleaner. To standardise the
hydrochloric acid solution, a primary standard is required.
(a) Name, or give the formula of, a suitable primary standard that could be used to standardise a solution of
hydrochloric acid. _______________________________ (1 mark)
(b) Give two reasons why hydrochloric acid is not suitable as a primary standard
(i) _____________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) _____________________________________________________________________________________
(3 marks)
(c) Give a three reasons why anhydrous sodium carbonate is a suitable primary standard for standardising
hydrochloric acid.
(i) _____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) _____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(iii) _____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(3 marks)
(d) Explain why it must be anhydrous sodium carbonate, not another form of sodium carbonate.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(1 mark)
Page 66 of 157
Practice Problem Solving Questions
The following is the procedure for calculating the amount to be weighed out for a standard solution.
(1) Eg To prepare 100 mL of 0.75 mol L-1 oxalic acid solution

(a) Calculate the molar mass (M) of (COOH)2.2 H2O
(b) The mass to be weighed out = M x 0.75 x 100 g

1000
Calculate the mass to be weighed out.
The following is the standard procedure for calculating results of a titration.
(2) To standardise a solution of sulphuric acid, 20.00 mL samples are titrated with 0.100 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide. The
average of 3 concordant results is 15.45 mL.
(a) Write an equation for the reaction.
(b) Calculate the amount in moles of sodium hydroxide in 15.45 mL 0.100 mol L-1 solution.
(c) Calculate the amount in moles of H2SO4 reacted.
(d) Calculate the concentration of H2SO4.
(3) The following is a summary of the titration procedure
Procedure Equipment needed to do this Equipment must first be rinsed with

Make 100 mL of standard solution
Measure 20 mL exactly of a solution
Carry out the titration
Measure 15.45 mL accurately in a titration
Page 67 of 157
More Practice
The acidity of wine affects its taste and quality. The acidity was determined in a sample of white wine by titration with
0.100 molL-1 sodium hydroxide solution. 25mL of wine was measured with a pipette into a titration flask and 2 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator were added. The experiment was repeated to obtain concordant results. Titres obtained were
8.02mL, 7.84mL, 7.88mL, 7.85mL.
a) Calculate the amount of sodium hydroxide that reacted with 25mL wine.
b) The main acid in the wine was tartaric acid. One mole of tartaric acid reacts with two moles NaOH. Assuming all the
acid is tartaric acid, calculate the concentration of tartaric acid in wine in molL-1.
The purity of a sample of sodium carbonate was determined by titration with standard hydrochloric acid solution using
methyl orange as an indicator. The equation for the reaction is
Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
In the experiment, 1.25g of washing soda reacted with 20mL 0.524molL-1 HCl.
(i) Calculate the percentage by mass of sodium carbonate in the washing soda.
M(Na) = 23.0 gmol-1 M(C) = 12.0 gmol-1 M(O) = 16.0 gmol-1
(3 marks)
(ii) Describe how the concentration of the hydrochloric acid could have been determined before the experiment (how the
hydrochloric acid solution was standardised).
(2 marks)
Page 68 of 157
Dilution Notes
What is a dilution? ________________________________________________________________________________
Why would we do a dilution? ________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
How could we dilute a 0.250 mol L-1 to 0.100 mol L-1? ____________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
(1) The concentration of ammonia in a cleaner is determined by titration with hydrochloric acid. The cleaner is measured
with a 10.00mL pipette into a 200.0mL volumetric flask and water is added to make up 200.0mL. A 20mL pipetted
sample of this diluted solution was titrated with standardised 0.250 mol L-1 hydrochloric acid. The results obtained
were:
Initial burette reading/mL 0.00 12.25 24.15 0.00

Final burette reading/mL 12.25 24.15 35.95 11.85
Volume HCl used/mL
(a) Calculate the average of 3 concordant results.
(b) Write an equation for the reaction of hydrochloric acid with ammonia.
________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) Calculate the concentration of ammonia in the diluted solution of cleaner in mol L-1.
(d) Calculate the concentration of ammonia in the original undiluted cleaner in mol L-1.
(e) Calculate the concentration of ammonia in g L-1. (M(NH3)=17.03g/mol)
(f) Calculate the percentage of ammonia in the cleaner. Note that percentage in a solution is the same as grams per
100 mL.
(g) The manufacturer claims that the cleaner is 5% ammonia. Compare your answer with the manufacturer’s claim.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 69 of 157
More practice available in past exams and revision
Page 70 of 157
Back Titration Notes
When a direct titration will not work because:
1) ________________________________________________________________________________________
2) ________________________________________________________________________________________
3) ________________________________________________________________________________________
4) ________________________________________________________________________________________
How to do it:
1) ________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
2) ________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
3) ________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Draw a diagram to help explain the method:

Page 71 of 157
A back titration problem
(1) The percentage of calcium carbonate in a rock sample was determined as follows.
A sample of the rock was crushed in a mortar and pestle.
0.810 g powdered rock was dissolved in 30 mL hydrochloric acid. The acid that did not react with calcium carbonate
in the sample was titrated with 0.500 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide. 16.8 mL NaOH was required to reach the end point.
Assume that the only substance in the rock that reacts with hydrochloric acid is calcium carbonate.
30 mL hydrochloric acid was titrated with the same 0.500 mol L-1 NaOH solution. The average of three close results
was 31.2 mL NaOH.
(a) Write an equation for the reaction of HCl with NaOH. (1 mark)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate the amount in moles of NaOH in 31.2 mL 0.500 mol L-1 solution. (1 mark)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) Calculate the amount in moles of HCl in 30 mL solution. (1 mark)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(d) Calculate the amount in moles of HCl that did not react with calcium carbonate in the sample. (1 mark)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(e) Calculate the amount of HCl that did react with calcium carbonate in the sample. (1 mark)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(f) Write a balanced equation for the reaction of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid. (1 mark)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(g) Calculate the percentage of calcium carbonate in the 0.810 g of powdered rock.
M(CaCO3) = 100.08 g mol-1 (2 marks)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(h) This method does not give a reliable indication of the percentage of CaCO3 in the rock. Explain. why
(2 marks)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 72 of 157
(2) Aspirin hydrolyses to acetic acid and salicylic acid. The amount of aspirin in a tablet can be obtained by reacting the
tablet with excess alkali. The amount of alkali that does not react with aspirin can be found by titration.
An aspirin tablet, claimed by the manufacturer to contain 300mg aspirin, was crushed and added to 20.00 mL sodium
hydroxide solution.
The solution was warmed for 10 minutes.
Sodium hydroxide that had not reacted with aspirin was titrated with 0.515 molL-1 HCl. The titre obtained was
10.45 mL.
A fresh 20.00 mL sample of NaOH was titrated with 0.515 mol L-1 HCl and the titre obtained was 16.89 mL.
Each mole of aspirin reacts with 2 moles sodium hydroxide. M(aspirin) = 180.2 gmol-1
Calculate the mass of aspirin in the tablet. (6 marks)
Hints: Calculate the

(a) amount of sodium hydroxide in 20.00 mL solution.
(b) amount of sodium hydroxide that remained after reacting with the aspirin.
(c) amount of sodium hydroxide that reacted with aspirin.
(d) amount of aspirin.
(e) mass of aspirin.
(f) Compare and comment on the calculated result and the manufacturer’s claim of 300 mg. (2)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 73 of 157

Page 74 of 157

Page 75 of 157
Unit FIVE
Aqueous
Chemistry
Page 76 of 157
Equilibrium Notes:
An equilibrium is: ________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
An equilibrium expression is: ________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Examples:
Equilibrium: Expression:
CO2(g) + H2(g) ⇌ CO(g) + H2O(g) [ ][ ]
[ ][ ]
N2O4(g) ⇌ ____________ [ ]
[ ]
_____________ ⇌ ______________________
N2(g) + 3 H2(g) ⇌ 2 NH3(g) Δ𝑟 𝑯 = −90 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

Changes in concentration: Result on equilibrium:
Changes in temperature: Result on equilibrium:
Practice:
(1) Complete the table for the effect of changes on the equilibrium reactions below.
(a) CO(g) + 2 H2(g) ⇌ CH3OH(g) Δ𝑟 𝑯 = −90 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
Change made Initial effect Shift in Final
Final [CO] Final [H2] Effect on KC
to the system of change equilibrium [CH3OH]
Add H2
Remove CO
Heat the
system
Add a
catalyst
(a) 2CH3OH(g) ⇌ CH3OCH3(g) + H2O(𝓁) Δ𝑟 𝑯 = −24 𝑘𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1

Change made Initial effect Shift in Final Final Effect on
Final [H2O]
to the system of change equilibrium [CH3OH] [CH3OCH3] KC
Add CH3OH
Remove
CH3OCH3
Heat the
system
Add a catalyst
Page 77 of 157
Solubility Expression (Ks) and Solubility Notes
Water is polar, so it dissolves:
• ____________________________________
• ____________________________________
Solvent_________________________________________________________________________________________
Solute__________________________________________________________________________________________
Solubility_______________________________________________________________________________________
When PbCl2 dissolves until it cannot dissolve any more:
PbCl2(s) ⇌ ____________________________________________________
This is called a ___________________solution.
The equilibrium expression is:

________________ and this =Ks (solubility constant or solubility product)
Example Calculations:
A saturated solution of PbCl2 at 25℃ is found to contain 0.0162 mol L-1 lead ions.
What is the Ks of PbCl2 at this temperature?
1)
2)
3)
4)
What is the solubility of silver sulfate at 25℃?

Ks (Ag2SO4) = 1.22 x 10-5 at 25℃ 
1)
2)
3)
4)
Page 78 of 157
Solubility Expression (Ks) and Solubility
(1) Calculate the solubility products for the following substances, given their solubilities.
(a) Ba(OH)2 has a solubility of 0.0422 mol L–1 at 25°C.
(b) Ag2CO3 has a solubility of 1.26 ×10–4 mol L–1 at 25°C.
(c) MgCO3 has a solubility of 0.38 g L–1 at 25°C and its molar mass is 84.3 g mol–1.
(2) Solubility products for most substances have been found at standard temperatures. Use the following solubility
products at 25°C to calculate the solubility in mol L–1 of the compound in water.
(a) Ks (BaSO4) = 1.08×10–10
(b) Ks (Ag2SO4) = 1.2×10–5
(c) Ks (PbI2) = 9.8×10–9
(d) Ks (Co3(AsO4)2) = 6.80×10-29

Page 79 of 157
(3) A saturated solution of magnesium hydroxide is prepared. Ks(Mg(OH)2)=7.10×10-12
(a) Show that the concentration of magnesium ions in this solution would be 1.21×10–4 mol L–1.
(b) Calculate the concentration of hydroxide ions in this saturated solution.
(c) How would you know that a solution is saturated?
(d) What would you have to do before analysing a saturated solution by titration?
(4) A 50.0 mL sample of saturated aqueous solution of lead bromide, PbBr2, was filtered then evaporated to dryness. The
mass of solid obtained was 0.148 g.
(a) Write the equation for the equilibrium in the saturated solution and use this to write the equilibrium expression.
(b) Calculate the value of Ks (PbBr2). The molar mass of PbBr2 is 366.8 g mol–1.
Species in Solution
In order to correctly answer problems in this unit, we must be able to identify all of the species in solution.
“Species” are anything dissolved in the solution. For example, cations, anions and polar molecules can be part of a
solution.
Note that water always contains hydronium ions (H+ or H3O+) and hydroxide ions (OH–) with a concentration of
1.00×10-7 mol L-1.
List all the species present (omit water) in the following solutions and write their approximate concentrations.
(1) 0.014502 mol L-1 Ag2SO4
(2) 0.25 mol L-1 MgCl2
(3) 0.25 mol L-1 Na3PO4

Page 80 of 157
Common Ion Effect and Predicting Precipitates Notes
Common Ion Effect
A saturated solution on silver chloride:
AgCl(s) ⇌ ______________________________________
What happens when we add sodium chloride to a saturated silver chloride solution?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Example Calculation:
29.2 g (0.500 mol) of NaCl is added to 1L of a saturated solution of AgCl Calculate the solubility of AgCl in this NaCl
solution.
Ks (AgCl) = 1.7x10-10
1)
2)
3)
4)
Predicting Precipitates
Example Calculation:
A 1.0 L solution of 0.025 mol L-1 NaCl has 0.0010 mol (0.331g) Pb(NO3)2 added to it. Will a lead chloride precipitate form
in this mixture?
Ks(PbCl2)=1.70 x 10-5 at 25℃ M(Pb(NO3)2 = 331 g mol-1
1)
2)
3)
4)
Page 81 of 157
Common Ion Effect and Predicting Precipitates Practice
(1) Solubility problem 1
Lead ions (Pb2+) were a precipitated from a solution by the addition of iodide ions. Ks (PbI2) at 25oC is 8.0×10-9.
(a) Write an equation for the equilibrium that exists in a saturated solution of PbI2 (1)
________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Write an expression for the solubility product, Ks.
Ks = (1)
(c) Calculate the solubility of lead iodide in water at 25oC in molL-1 (2)
(d) Calculate the solubility of lead iodide in 0.10 molL-1 potassium iodide solution. (2)
(e) Explain why your answer in (d) differs from your answer in (c). (2)
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(f) 20.0 mL 0.0040 mol L-1 Pb(NO3)2 is mixed with 20.0 mL 0.0010 mol L-1 KI. Calculate Qs to decide whether a
precipitate of PbI2 will form. (2)
Page 82 of 157
(2) Solubility Problem 2
Zn(OH)2 has limited solubility in water.
(a) Write an equation for the equilibrium that exists in a saturated solution of Zn(OH)2 (1)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Write an expression for the solubility product, Ks.
Ks = (1)
Ks (Zn(OH)2) at 25oC is 1.20 x 10-17. M (Zn(OH)2) = 99.4 g mol-1.

(c) Calculate the solubility of zinc hydroxide in water at 25oC in
(i) molL-1 (2)
(i) gL-1 (1)
(e) Calculate the solubility of zinc hydroxide in a solution with pH = 11.

(If pH = 11, [H+]=1.0×10–11 and [OH–]=1.0×10–3) (2)
(f) Explain why zinc hydroxide might dissolve suddenly at a higher pH (think back to unit 2). (1)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(g) 50.0 mL 0.00050 mol L-1 ZnSO4 is added to 100.0 mL 0.00010 mol L-1 KOH. Will a precipitate form? Support
your answer with a calculation. (2)
Page 83 of 157
(3) Solubility problem 3
Silver carbonate is a white solid with a low solubility in water.

Ks (Ag2CO3) at 25oC is 8.00 x 10-12.
(a) Write an equation for the equilibrium that exists in a saturated solution of Ag2CO3 (1)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Write an expression for the solubility product, Ks, for Ag2CO3.
Ks = (1)
(c) Calculate the solubility in mol L-1 of Ag2CO3 in water at 25oC. (2)
(d) Explain why you should expect Ag2CO3 to be less soluble in a sodium carbonate solution than it is in water. (1)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(e) Calculate the solubility in mol L-1 of Ag2CO3 in 0.100 mol L-1 sodium carbonate solution. (2)
(f) 25.0 mL 0.0050 mol L-1 AgNO3 is mixed with 125.0 mL 0.00010 mol L-1 Na2CO3. Calculate Qs and state whether
you expect a precipitate to form. (2)
Page 84 of 157
Calculating pH Notes
(1) Write the equation for the equilibrium that exists in water.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(2) Write the equilibrium expression for water (Kw). (Kw = 1.00 × 10–14)
(3) Define “strong acid.” __________________________________________________________________________
(4) List the species in a 1.0 mol L–1 hydrochloric acid (HCl) – this is a strong acid solution – and give their concentrations.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(5) Write the equation for calculating pH. _____________________________________________________________
(a) What is the pH if [H+]=2.3×10–4?
(b) What is the [H+] if pH=8.45?
(6) Define “strong base.” __________________________________________________________________________
(7) List the species in a 0.01 mol L–1 Ca(OH)2 – this is a strong base solution – and give their concentrations.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(8) Write the method for calculating the pH of 0.150 mol L–1 NaOH solution. Write all pH values to 2 decimal places.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(9) Give the names and formulae of the only two simple strong acids (that you will see this year).
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(10) Circle all of the following bases which are strong bases.
NaOH Fe(OH)3 NH3 CH3COO– Mg(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 CH3NH2
(11) Explain your reasoning for your answer above.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
`
Page 85 of 157
Calculating pH practice
(1) Calculate the pH of the following strong acid solutions. Write all pH values to 2 decimal places.
(a) 0.10 mol L–1 HCl
(b) 0.15 mol L–1 HNO3
(c) 1.0 mol L–1 HCl
(d) 0.000010 mol L–1 HCl
(e) 2.1 mol L–1 HNO3
(2) Write the hydronium ion concentration, [H+], for these pH values: Write all answers to 2 significant figures.
(a) pH=2.00
(b) pH=13.00
(c) pH=12.63
(d) pH=1.47
(3) Calculate the pH of the following strong base solutions. (Kw = 1.00 × 10–14) Write all pH values to 2 decimal places.
(a) 0.150 mol L–1 NaOH
(b) 0.00100 mol L–1 NaOH
(c) 0.00100 mol L–1 Mg(OH)2
(d) 2.0 × 10–8 mol L–1 NaOH

Page 86 of 157
Weak Acids Practice
Notes:
A weak acid is ___________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
List the species in a 0.10 mol L–1 CH3COOH – this is a weak acid solution – and give their concentrations. pH = 2.9
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
An electrolyte is __________________________________________________________________________________
Strong electrolytes Weak electrolytes Non-electrolytes
Example:
Calculate the pH (to 2 decimal places) of 0.13 mol L-1 ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) solution; Ka (CH3COOH) = 1.76 × 10-5
equilibrium equation:______________________________________________________________________________
equilibrium expression: Ka=
calculation:
Practice:
(1) Explain the differences between:
(a) a strong acid and a weak acid
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) a concentrated acid and a dilute acid
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(2) Describe the assumption we will make when calculating the pH of a weak acid.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(3) Write the pKa for these Ka values (pKa=–logKa) Write all pKa values to 2 decimal places.
(a) Ka (CH3COOH) = 1.76 × 10-5 pKa = ________________
(b) Ka (NH4+) = 5.75× 10-10 pKa = ________________
(4) Write the Ka for these pKa values (Ka=10–pKa) Write all Ka values to 2 significant figures.
(a) pKa (CH3CH2COOH) = 4.87 Ka = ________________
(b) pKa (HClO) = 1.96 Ka = ________________
Page 87 of 157
(5) Write the equilibrium equation, the Ka expression, and calculate the pH of each of the following weak acids.
Write all pH values to 2 decimal places.
(a) 0.500 mol L-1 ethanoic acid (CH3COOH); Ka (CH3COOH) = 1.76 × 10-5
equil. equation:_________________________________________________________________________
calculation:
(b) 0.00250 mol L-1 propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH); pKa (CH3CH2COOH) = 4.870
(c) 0.0100 mol L-1 ammonium chloride (NH4Cl); Ka (NH4+) = 5.75× 10-10(This is a salt with NH4+ ions and Cl– ions)
equil. equation:_________________________________________________________________________
calculation:
(6) Vitamin C is an organic acid called ascorbic acid (C6H8O6). The pH of an aqueous solution of Vitamin C is measured
with a pH meter and found to be 3.20. Calculate the concentration of Vitamin C in the solution. Assume ascorbic acid
is a monoprotic acid; i.e. HA. Ka(Vitamin C) = 7.94 × 10-5. Write the concentration to 2 significant figures.
(7) Calculate the concentration of a solution of HCN that has a pH of 5.0. Ka(HCN) = 4.9 × 10-10. (2 significant figures)
(8) Calculate the concentration of ethanoic acid in vinegar that has a pH of 2.85. (2 significant figures)
Page 88 of 157
pH of a Weak base
Notes:
Salts are ________________________________________________________________________________________
Conjugate acid-base pairs: __________________________________________________________________________
Acid Base
CH3COOH
NH3
HCO3–
HCO3–
CH3NH2
Notes: Calculating pH of a Weak base using Kb Example:

Calculate the pH of a 0.150 mol L–1 NH3 solution. Ka(NH4+) = 5.75 × 10–10
Step 1 – Write equilibrium equation

_______________ ⇌ _______________) From this we see that _____=_____
Step 2 – Write the equilibrium expression – This is Kb because NH3 is a base.

[ ][ ]
𝑲b = [ ]
Step 3 – Use Kw to calculate the Kb value (Kw = 1.00 × 10–14)

𝑲w = _______ × _______
𝑲𝐛 = 1.00 × 10–14 ÷ _________________
= 1.739130435 × 10−5
Step 4 – Fill in values into Kb expression to find [OH–] Let x = [OH–]

________________________ = [OH − ] = 1.615145706 × 10−3
Note that [NH3] is still ≈ 0.150 mol L–1.
We _________ that [NH3]original – [NH4+]produced ≈ [NH3]original since ______________
Step 5 – Calculate pH using 14 – pOH (or the other method, if you prefer)
pOH = − log[ ] = − log(1.615145706 × 10−3 ) = 2.791788293
pH = 14 − pOH = 14 − 2.791788293 = 11.20821171 = 11.21 (2 𝑑. 𝑝)
You can compare this with the example on page 116 in your text book. Both methods get the same final answer
and you can use the one you like the most.
Page 89 of 157
Strong and Weak Bases
(Kw = 1.00 × 10–14)
(1) Calculate the pH of: Write all pH values to 2 decimal places.
(a) 0.100 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide
(b) 0.500 mol L-1 potassium hydroxide
(2) Explain the differences between a strong base and a weak base
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(3) Describe the assumption we will make when calculating the pH of a weak base so we can avoid solving a quadratic
equation.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(4) Write the equilibrium equation, the Kb expression, and calculate the pH of each of the following weak bases.
(a) 0.0100 mol L-1 ammonia solution (NH3); Ka (NH4+) = 5.75 × 10-10
equilibrium equation:________________________________________________________________________
equilibrium expression: Kb=
calculation:
(b) 0.200 mol L-1 aminomethane(CH3NH2); Ka (CH3NH3+) = 2.78 × 10-11

equilibrium equation:________________________________________________________________________
equilibrium expression: Kb=
calculation:
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(c) 0.100 mol L-1 solution of sodium ethanoate (CH3COONa) pKa (CH3COOH) = 4.76 (this is a salt)
(d) 0.0500 mol L-1 sodium fluoride solution (NaF) pKa (HF) = 3.17
(e) 0.00250 mol L-1 sodium methanoate solution (HCOONa) pKa (HCOOH) = 3.74
(5) A solution prepared by dissolving sodium methanoate in water has a pH of 8.65. Calculate the concentration of
methanoate ions in the solution Write your final answer to 2 significant figures. pKa(HCOOH)=3.74
(6) The strong pain reliever codeine, C18H21O3, is a weak base. A 0.010 mol L-1 solution of
codeine has a pH of 10.10. Calculate the pKa of codeine’s conjugate acid. Write your
final answer to 2 decimal places.
Structure of codeine
(7) The hypobromite ion, BrO –, is a weak base. Calculate the concentration of BrO – ions in the solution that has a pH of
9.60. Write your final answer to 2 significant figures. pKa(HBrO)=8.63
Page 91 of 157
Species in solution
In order to correctly answer problems in this unit, we must be able to identify all of the species in solution.
“Species” are anything dissolved in the solution. For example, cations, anions and polar molecules can be part of a
solution. The high concentration species is a “major species” and the low concentration species is a “minor species”.
Examples:
0.13 mol L-1 NaCl
0.13 mol L-1 HCOOH (pH approximately 2.3)
0.13 mol L-1 NH4Cl (pH approximately 5.1)
List all the species present (omit water) in the following solutions and their approximate concentrations. Write all
concentrations to 2 significant figures.
Kw= 1.00 x 10-14
Kw= [H+][OH–]
(1) 0.25 mol L-1 FeCl3
(2) 0.25 mol L-1 HCl
(3) 0.0010 mol L-1 Ca(OH)2
(4) 0.50 mol L-1 ethanoic acid CH3COOH (pH approximately 2.5)
(5) 0.50 mol L-1 ammonia NH3 (pH approximately 10.5)
(6) 0.10 mol L-1 sodium ethanoate CH3COONa (pH approximately 9)

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Buffer Notes
What is a buffer?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
What does a buffer do?

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Equation: _______________________________________________________________________________________
Equation: _______________________________________________________________________________________
How to make an ammonia buffer with a pH of 9.25. (pKa(NH4+)=9.25)

Start with 10.0 mL of 0.100 mol L–1 ammonia solution.
(1) ___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(2) ___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
What is a buffer with high capacity?
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Calculate the pH of a buffer solution prepared by dissolving 0.0520 mol ammonium chloride in 500 mL 0.100 mol L–1
ammonia solution. (pKa(NH4+)=9.25)
(1)
(2)
(3)
Page 93 of 157
Buffer Calculations
(1) Calculate the pH of a buffer containing 0.100 mol L-1 sodium ethanoate (CH3COONa) and 0.100 mol L-1 ethanoic
acid. Ka(CH3COOH) = 1.76 × 10-5 Write pH to 2 decimal places.
(2) Calculate the pH of a buffer containing 0.100 mol L-1 sodium ethanoate and 0.200 mol L-1 ethanoic acid. Write pH to
2 decimal places.
(3) Calculate the concentration of ethanoate ions needed in a 0.100 mol L-1 ethanoic acid solution to create a buffer with a
pH of 5.2 which would be useful in the production of beer. Write concentration to 2 significant figures.
(4) Urine is buffered by the H2PO4-/HPO42- conjugate pair.

(a) Which of the pair is the acid and which is the base? Explain how you know this.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) Write the expression for the Ka for this acid-base conjugate pair.
Ka=
(c) The H2PO4-/HPO42- conjugate pair has a pKa value of 7.2. State which species of the pair is present in higher
concentration if the pH of urine is 6.6. Justify your answer without a calculation.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(5) A buffer solution was made by mixing equal amounts (in moles) of CH3NH2 and CH3NH3+Cl– in water. The pH was
found to be 10.64.
(a) Calculate the Ka of CH3NH3+. Write Kato 2 significant figures.
(b) Write the equation for the reaction which occurs to resist a change in pH of a small amount of strong acid is
added to the buffer. ________________________________________________________________________
(c) Write the equation for the reaction which occurs to resist a change in pH of a small amount of strong base is
added to the buffer. ________________________________________________________________________
(d) If the buffer solution is allowed to stand for some time in an open vessel, the pH gradually falls. Suggest two
possible explanations for this. Note that the properties of CH3NH2 are similar to the properties of NH3.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
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Preparation of Buffer Solutions
(1) Answer the following questions for creating “perfect” buffers which have a pH equal to the pKa of the acid in the
buffer:
(a) Calculate the volume of 0.100 mol L-1 aqueous sodium hydroxide required to react with 20.0 mL of 0.100 mol L-1
ethanoic acid to create an ethanoate buffer.
(b) Calculate the volume of 0.100 mol L-1 aqueous ammonia required to react with 20.0 mL of 0.0500 mol L-1
hydrochloric acid to create an ammonia buffer.
(c) Calculate the volume of 0.100 mol L-1 hydrochloric acid that is needed to react with 20.0 mL of 0.200 mol L-1
aqueous ammonia to create an ammonia buffer.
(d) Describe the disadvantage a buffer has where the pH is much different (±>1 pH) from the pKa.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(2) Calculate the pH of the following buffer solutions. Write pH to 2 decimal places.
(a) A buffer made up to 1.00 L which contains 3.58 g of Na2HPO4·12 H2O (M = 358 g mol-1) and 0.980 g of
NaH2PO4·2 H2O (M = 156 g mol-1). The pKa of H2PO4– is 7.20.
(b) A buffer solution where [HS-] = 0.100 mol L-1, [H2S] = 0.0417 mol L-1 , pKa(H2S) = 7.02.
(i) CHALLENGE QUESTION – Do you know why this cannot be used to control the pH in living tissue,
despite the fact that the pH is appropriate?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Equilibrium Define
Type Equilibrium Equation
Expression 𝒙
Solubility Ks=
Water Kw=
Weak acid Ka=
Weak base Kb=
Buffer
Summary of Aqueous Chemistry Equilibria
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Page 99 of 157
Unit SIX
Electro-
Chemistry
and REDOX
Page 100 of 157
Redox Reactions are Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation is: increase in oxidation number (also called oxidation state OS)
also: loss of electrons or gain of oxygen (or loss of hydrogen)
Reduction is: decrease in oxidation number
also: gain of electrons or loss of oxygen (or gain of hydrogen)
First balance each half equation:

1. Other
( ) meaning balance the atoms that are not O or H
2. H2O
(a) meaning balance the O (oxygen) atoms by adding H2O to the other side
3. H+
(b) meaning balance the H (hydrogen) atoms by adding H+ to the other side
4. e–
(c) meaning balance the charge (+/–)by adding e– (electrons) to the side that is more positive.
5. OH–
(d) only sometimes when the reaction is neutral or alkaline to agree with rules above
Next add the 2 half equations together but…

(e) the electrons must cancel (to 0) in the final equation so…
(f) multiply the half equations by a number to make the electrons equal.
Finally, check: 1) count the charge 2) count the O atoms 3) count all atoms
Conditions – acid, neutral, base (alkaline)

1) Acid solution: use H2O(l) and H+(aq). This is most common, so we use this as the first steps; 1-4 below.
OH– (aq) must not appear in the equation.
• Do not follow step 5 below.
2) Neutral solution: only H2O(l) can appear as a reactant (on left side).
H+(aq) or OH– (aq) can appear as a product (on the right side).
• Use step 5 below to change any H+ on the left side to H2O.
3) Alkaline (basic) solution: H+(aq) must not appear in the equation.
• Use step 5 below to change any H+ on both sides to H2O.
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Oxidation –reduction Reactions are called Redox reactions
How do we know if it is a redox reaction?
It is a reaction where the oxidation number of at least one species changes.
1. Dichromate/Cr2O72- (Cr O.N. = ______)→ chromate/ CrO42- (Cr O.N. = ______) ox/red/not redox
2. Chromate/ CrO42- (Cr O.N. = ______) → chromium (III) ions/Cr3+ (Cr O.N. = ______) ox/red/not redox
3. Permanganate/ MnO4- (Mn O.N. = ______) → manganese (II) ions (Mn O.N. = ______) ox/red/not redox
4. Chlorine (Cl O.N. = ______) → chloride ions (Cl O.N. = ______) ox/red/not redox
**Oxidation is when the O.N. increases; reduction is when the O.N. decreases**
Other ways of recognising oxidation is a gain of oxygen (O) or loss of hydrogen (H).
Reduction includes loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen.
Balancing equations for redox reactions using the ion-electron method
1. Balance the ‘other atoms’ (not H or O).
2. Balance the oxygen by adding H2O to the other side.
3. Balance the hydrogen by adding H+ to the other side.
4. Balance the charge by adding electrons.
THIS IS USED FOR REACTIONS IN ACID SOLUTION.
Example Together
Acidified potassium dichromate reacts with sulphite ions (SO3 2- - in compounds such as sodium sulfite) to
produce chromic ions (Cr3+) and sulphate ions.
_____________________________Cr2O72– (aq)→ Cr3+(aq)___________________________________Ox/red
_____________________________SO32–(aq) → SO42–(aq) ___________________________________Ox/red
Overall: ___________________________________________________________________________
Practice Questions
Write balanced half equations with electrons and the balanced overall equation without electrons.
(1) Chlorine (Cl2) solution reacts with a potassium iodide (KI) solution to produce iodine (I2) and a potassium chloride
(KCl) solution. Circle one:
_________________________________Cl2(aq) → Cl–(aq) ______________________________________Ox/red
__________________________________I–(aq) → I2(aq) _______________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
(2) Acidified potassium permanganate oxidises iron(II) sulfate. (producing Mn2+ and Fe3+)
_______________________________MnO4–(aq) → Mn2+(aq) ___________________________________Ox/red
_________________________________Fe2+(aq) → Fe3+(aq) ____________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
Page 102 of 157
1) “other”
2) H2O
(3) Copper metal reacts with NO3– in acid conditions (HNO3 is used*) to form Cu2+ and NO2 (g). 3) H+
4) e-
______________________________Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq)__________________________________________Ox/red
______________________________NO3–(aq) → NO2(g)_______________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
*Acid conditions are usually obtained by adding H2SO4 to the reactants because under normal conditions, H2SO4 will
not behave as an oxidising agent or reducing agent. In this reaction HNO3 is used as NO3– is the oxidising agent.
(4) Acidified potassium permanganate reacts with ethanol (CH3CH2OH) to produce ethanoic acid (CH3COOH).
_______________________________MnO4–(aq) → Mn2+(aq) ___________________________________Ox/red

__________________________CH3CH2OH(aq) → CH3COOH(aq)_______________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
(5) Iodine reacts with thiosulfate ions (S2O32-) to produce iodide and tetrathionate ions (S4O62-).
____________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
____________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
(6) Copper(II) ions react with iodide ions to produce a copper (I) iodide precipitate and iodine.
____________________________Cu2+(aq) → CuI(s)___________________________________________Ox/red
_____________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
The next reactions are not in acid conditions.

In neutral conditions, neither H+ nor OH- can be a reactant, but either can form.
In basic conditions, H+ cannot appear as a reactant or a product.
Use the same first 4 steps:
1. Balance the ‘other atoms’ (not H or O).
2. Balance the oxygen by adding H2O to the other side.
3. Balance the hydrogen by adding H+ to the other side.
4. Balance the charge by adding electrons.
Add step 5:
5. Change H+ to H2O by adding OH-; remember to keep the two sides balanced.
Page 103 of 157
(7) Permanganate ions react with sulfite ions in neutral conditions to form MnO2 1) “other”
2) H2O
3) H+
______________________MnO4–(aq) → MnO2(s) ___________________________________Ox/red 4) e-
5) OH–
_______________________SO32–(aq) → SO42–(aq) ___________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
(8) Permanganate ions react with sulfite ions in a basic solution to form MnO42-
____________________________MnO4–(aq) → MnO42–(s) ______________________________________Ox/red

____________________________SO32–(aq) → SO42–(aq) _______________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
Balance these redox reactions in neutral solution

(9) MnO4¯ (aq) + S2-(aq) ⎯→ MnO2(s) + SO32-(aq)
_____________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
_____________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
(10) Cl2(aq) + Br2(l) ⎯→ OBr¯ (aq) + Cl¯ (aq)
_____________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
_____________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
Balance these redox reactions in alkaline(basic) solution

(11) Al(s) + MnO4¯ (aq) ⎯→ MnO2(s) + Al(OH)4¯ (aq)
_____________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
_____________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
(12) Cr(s) + CrO42-(aq) ⎯→ Cr(OH)3(s)

Note: Cr(OH)3 is found in BOTH half reactions! Interesting, isn’t it? ^_^
_____________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
_____________________________________________________________________________________Ox/red
Overall: _____________________________________________________________________________________
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Even More Practice Problems
Redox Reactions in Acidic Solution:
(13) I¯ (aq) + ClO¯(aq) ⎯→ I2(aq) + Cl¯(aq)
(14) As2O3 (s) + NO3¯ (aq) ⎯→ H3AsO4 (aq) + NO (g)
(15) Br¯ (aq) + MnO4¯ (aq) ⎯→ Br2 (l) + Mn2+ (aq)
(16) CH3OH (aq) + Cr2O72- (aq) ⎯→ CH2O(l) + Cr3+(aq)
(17) Mn2+(aq) + BiO3¯ (aq) ⎯→ Bi3+(aq) + MnO4¯ (aq)
(18) S8(s) + NO3¯ (aq) ⎯→ SO32-(aq) + NO(g)

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(19) H3AsO4(aq) + Zn(s) ⎯→ AsH3(g) + Zn2+(aq)
(20) P4(s) + Cr2O72–(aq) ⎯→ H3PO4(aq) + Cr3+(aq)
Redox Reactions in Basic(Alkaline) Solution
(21) NO3¯ (aq) + NH3(aq) ⎯→ NO2¯ (aq)
(22) NO2¯ (aq) + Al(s) ⎯→ NH3(aq) + Al(OH)4¯ (aq)
Redox Reactions in Neutral Solution
(23) S8(aq) + MnO4¯ (aq) ⎯→ SO42-(aq) + MnO2(s)
Answer key not needed! If the equation atoms and charge balance, it can’t be wrong. ^_^
Page 106 of 157
Electrochemical Cells – Notes
A hydrogen half-cell and a magnesium half-cell:
0
𝐸𝑀𝑔 2+ /𝑀𝑔 = −2.37 𝑉 𝐸𝐻0 +/𝐻2 = 0.00 𝑉
_______/________________________//______________________/________
Standard conditions:_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Salt bridge:______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Oxidation-______________________________________________________________________________
Reduction-______________________________________________________________________________
Oxidise-________________________________________________________________________________
Reduce-________________________________________________________________________________
Oxidising agent-__________________________________________________________________________
Reducing agent-__________________________________________________________________________
Writing a cell in IUPAC standard notation:

0 0
𝐸𝑍𝑛 2+ /𝑍𝑛 = −0.763 𝑉 𝐸𝐶𝑢 2+ /𝐶𝑢 = +0.337 𝑉
_______/________________________//______________________/________
0 0
𝐸𝑀𝑛𝑂 −
4 /𝑀𝑛
2+ = +1.52 𝑉 𝐸𝐶𝑢 2+ /𝐶𝑢 = +0.337 𝑉
_______/________________________//______________________/________
𝐸𝑂02 /𝐻2 𝑂 = +1.23 𝑉 𝐸𝐼0− /𝐼2 = +0.54 𝑉
_______/________________________//______________________/________
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Page 108 of 157
Electrochemical Cells
(1) Use the following standard electrode potentials to answer the questions below.
0 0
𝐸𝐶𝑟 3+ /𝐶𝑟 = −0.74 𝑉 𝐸𝐹𝑒 2+ /𝐹𝑒 = −0.44 𝑉
0
(a) Explain the meaning of 𝐸𝐶𝑟 3+ /𝐶𝑟 = −0.74 𝑉
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) An electrochemical cell (battery) that spontaneously delivers a current, is made by combining a chromium half cell
with an iron half cell
(c) Write this cell using standard notation (IUPAC notation).

___________________________________________________________________________________________
(d) In which half cell does reduction occur? ______________________________
(e) Which electrode is the negative electrode? ______________________________
(f) Is this the anode or the cathode? ______________________________
(g) Write an equation to represent the cell reaction.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
(h) Calculate E0cell for this cell.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
(i) In which direction do electrons flow in the external circuit?

___________________________________________________________________________________________
(j) A salt bridge was placed between the two half cells. Name a compound that could be used in the salt bridge and
describe the purpose of the salt bridge.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 109 of 157
(2) Use the following standard electrode potentials to answer the questions below.
0 0
𝐸𝐶𝑢 2+ /𝐶𝑢 = +0.34 𝑉 𝐸𝐴𝑔 + /𝐴𝑔 = +0.84 𝑉
An electrochemical cell (battery) that spontaneously delivers a current, is made by combining a copper half cell with a
silver half cell
(a) Write this cell using standard notation (IUPAC notation).

(1)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) In which half cell does reduction occur? ______________________________ (1)
(c) Which electrode is the negative electrode? ______________________________ (1)
(d) Write an equation to represent the cell reaction. (1)

___________________________________________________________________________________________
(e) Calculate E0cell for this cell.

___________________________________________________________________________________________ (1)
(f) In which direction do electrons flow in the external circuit? ________________________________ (1)
(g) A salt bridge was placed between the two half cells. Name a compound that could be used in the salt bridge and
describe the purpose of the salt bridge. Look carefully at the species in each half cell before deciding on the
compound to place in the salt bridge. (2)
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 110 of 157
(3) The equipment shown below was set up to measure 𝐸𝐼02 /𝐼− =? 𝑉.
0
A Cu2+/Cu half-cell was connected to the half-cell containing I2 and I-(aq). It is known that 𝐸𝐶𝑢 2+ /𝐶𝑢 = +0.34 𝑉.
The measured voltage of the cell below was 0.28 V. The blue colour was seen to intensify in the copper half-cell, and
after the experiment the copper electrode had lost weight.
(a) Label electrode 1, and solutions 1, 2 and 3. (2)
(b) Write the reaction in each half-cell. (2)

___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
(c) Write the cell reaction (1)

___________________________________________________________________________________________
(d) Write this cell using standard notation (IUPAC notation).

_________________________________________________________________________________________ (1)
(e) In which half-cell does reduction occur? ______________________________ (1)
(f) Which electrode is the negative electrode? ______________________________ (1)

(g) Calculate 𝐸𝐼02 /𝐼− =
___________________________________________________________________________________________ (1)
(h) In which direction do electrons flow in the external circuit when the voltmeter is removed?
______________________________ (1)
Page 111 of 157
Commercial Cells
Three parts of all cells:
(1) ________________________________________________________________________________________
(2) ________________________________________________________________________________________
(3) ________________________________________________________________________________________
Three main types of cells:
(1) ________________________________________________________________________________________
(2) ________________________________________________________________________________________
(3) ________________________________________________________________________________________
Non-Rechargeable – Dry Cell (Leclanché cell)
Other types Advantages Disadvantages

Page 112 of 157
Rechargeable – Lead-Acid Battery (Car Battery)
Other types Advantages Disadvantages
Electrolysis – See experiment paper

Page 113 of 157
Fuel Cells
Advantages Disadvantages
Page 114 of 157
Practice Questions for Commercial Cells
1. Give two reasons why we can’t use a Daniell Cell (the one you made) to power a portable (small) MP3 player.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
2. Give two properties a cell used to power a torch (flash light) should have.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
3. What is the material used for the anode in the Leclanché cell? __________________________________
4. What is the material used for the cathode in the Leclanché cell? __________________________________
5. What is the overall reaction in the Leclanché cell?

___________________________________________________________________________________________
6. What is one advantage of alkaline batteries over Leclanché cells?

___________________________________________________________________________________________
7. What is the main disadvantage of mercury batteries?

___________________________________________________________________________________________
8. What is one advantage of lithium batteries over Leclanché cells?

___________________________________________________________________________________________
9. Give an example of a use for lithium batteries.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
10. Match the following options for the anode and cathode of an electrochemical cell.
negative anode oxidation

positive cathode reduction
Rechargeable Cells
11. Give two advantages and two disadvantages for the lead-acid battery.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 115 of 157
12. a. Write the equation for the oxidation half-reaction in a lead-acid battery.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Write the equation for the reduction half-reaction in a lead-acid battery.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
c. Write the equation for the over-all reaction in a lead-acid battery.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
13. Give two or three examples of rechargeable batteries, other than the lead-acid battery.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Fuel Cells
14. What is the material that is always reduced at the cathode in a fuel cell?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
15. a. Give two or three examples of fuels that can be oxidised in a fuel cell?
___________________________________________________________________________________________
b. Give the waste (pollution) products for the fuels you named above.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
16. Write the oxidation half, reduction half and overall reactions for a hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Electrolysis (recharging)
17. Give three examples for the use of electrolytic cells.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________
18. Match the following options for the anode and cathode of an electrolytic cell.
negative anode oxidation

positive cathode reduction
Page 116 of 157
Predicting Chemical Reactions Notes
Strength as an oxidant/reductant
0
𝐸𝑀𝑔 2+ /𝑀𝑔 = −2.37 𝑉
𝐸𝐻0 +/𝐻2 = +0.00 𝑉

0
𝐸𝐶𝑢 2+ /𝐶𝑢 = +0.34 𝑉
𝐸𝐼02 /𝐼− = +0.54 𝑉

0
𝐸𝑁𝑂 −
3 /𝑁𝑂2
= +0.80 𝑉
0
𝐸𝐼𝑂 −
3 /𝐼2
= +01.21 𝑉
(1) Which species is the strongest oxidant? ___________

(2) Which ion is the strongest oxidising agent? ___________
(3) Which species is the strongest reducing agent? ___________
(4) Which element is the strongest reductant? ___________
Using E0 values to predict reactions
(1) Will magnesium metal react with acid?
(2) Will iodine reduce magnesium ions?
(3) Will dilute nitric acid react with copper metal?
(4) Will copper ions react with iodide ions?

Practice Questions – Predicting Chemical Reactions
Redox couple E0 (V) Redox couple E0 (V)

Li+/Li – 3.04 Fe3+/Fe2+ + 0.77
K+/K – 2.93 Ag+/Ag + 0.80
Ca2+/Ca – 2.87 NO3–/NO2 + 0.81
Mg2+/Mg – 2.37 Br2/Br- + 1.09
Al3+/Al – 1.68 IO3–/I2 + 1.21
Fe2+/Fe – 0.44 O2/H2O(in acid) + 1.23
H+/H2 0.00 Cr2O72–/Cr3+ + 1.33
SO42-/SO32- + 0.17 Cl2/Cl- + 1.36
Cu2+/Cu + 0.34 H2O2/H2O + 1.76
I2/I– + 0.54 F2/F– + 2.89
(1) Dichromate ions, Cr2O7 2-, were mixed with sulfite ions, SO32-, in acid conditions.
(a) Use E0 values to predict whether a reaction is possible. (1)
(b) If you mixed acidified Cr2O7 2- ions with SO32- ions in a test tube, how would you know whether a reaction had
taken place?
Describe what you would observe…
(i) If a reaction occurred ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) If no reaction occurred _______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
(4)
(2) Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2,, was mixed with bromide ions.
(a) Use E0 values to predict whether a reaction is possible. (1)
(b) If you mixed hydrogen peroxide with potassium bromide solution in a test tube, describe what you would
observe…
(i) If a reaction occurred ________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) If no reaction occurred _______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________
(4)
Page 118 of 157
(3) Use Eo values to state what other reactions are possible (if any) when the following acids are used to acidify a
dichromate solution. If other reactions are possible, state what you would observe. If other reactions are not possible
give a reason.
(a) HCl: consider oxidation or reduction of both H+ and Cl- (3)
0
(b) HNO3:consider NO3- only 𝐸𝑁𝑂 −
3 /𝑁𝑂
= +0.96 𝑉 (2)
(4) In the list of Standard Electrode Potentials provided (in the table earlier),
(a) Which species is the strongest oxidising agent? (1)
(b) Which species is the strongest reducing agent? (1)
(c) Which ion is the strongest reducing agent? (1)
(d) Which ion is the strongest oxidising agent? (1)
(e) Which species is both an oxidising agent and a reducing agent? (1)
(5) By calculating Eocell values for the reactions, determine whether Ag+ can oxidise
(a) Cl- ions to Cl2 (2)
(b) Br- ions to Br2 (2)
(c) I- ions to I2 (2)
(d) The predictions above are not correct when we mix silver ions, Ag+, with the halide ions. Use your knowledge of
the chemistry of the halide ions and silver ions (from Unit 2 – Inorganic Chemistry) to comment on (a), (b) and
(c) above.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________________(2)
Page 120 of 157

Unit Seven
Quantitative
Chemistry (II)
Page 122 of 157
Refer to Unit 4 – Quantitative Chemistry (I)
This unit includes:

• Mostly redox reaction titrations
• Some acid-base titrations
• Titration curves
Your experiment reports are a major reference.

Notes Page
Calculations:
n= and n=
Primary Standards: (See page 144 in textbook for more information.)

3 properties:
(1) Easy to _________________________. For example it should be _________________________.
(2) _________________________ when stored and _________________________.
(3) _________________________ quickly and _________________________ with the reagent to be
analysed.
Examples:
Can be primary standards
_________________________
_________________________
_________________________
Can’t be primary standards

___KMnO4________________ because ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___FeSO4__________________ because ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
____Na2S2O3_______________because ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
_____I2__________________ because ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
_____CuSO4______________ because ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
________________________ because ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Page 124 of 157
Quantitative Chemistry Practice Questions
(1) Iodate reacts with iodine as follows:
6 H+(aq) + IO3–(aq) + 5 I-(aq) → 3 I2(aq) + 3 H2O(ℓ)
(a) Complete the following equation n(IO3–) =

n(I–)
(b) 10.0 mL 0.0167 mol L-1 IO3– reacted with 12.6 mL iodide solution. Calculate the concentration of the iodide
solution.
(c) If 0.00523 g iodine was formed, calculate the mass of iodate that reacted.
(2) Dichromate ions react with Fe2+ as follows:

14 H+ (aq) + Cr2O72–(aq) + 6 Fe2+(aq) → 2 Cr3+(aq) + 6 Fe3+(aq) + 7 H2O(ℓ).
(a) Complete the following equation n(Cr2O72–) =

n(Fe2+)
(b) 20.0 mL 0.0450 mol L-1 Cr2O72– reacted with a solution of Fe2+. Calculate the mass of Fe2+ reacted.
(c) If Fe2+ was contained in 1.236 g of an iron(II) salt, calculate the percentage of iron(II) in the salt.
(3) Copper reacts with hot nitric acid as follows:
3 Cu(s) + 8 H+(aq) + 2 NO3–(aq) →3 Cu2+(aq) + 2 NO(g) + 4 H2O(ℓ)
(a) Complete the following equation n(Cu2+) =

n(NO3–)
(b) Calculate the volume of 1.50 mol L-1 HNO3 is needed to produce 1.60 L of a 0.500 mol L-1 solution of Cu2+.
(c) Calculate the concentration in mol L-1 and g L-1 of Cu(NO3)2 made by mixing 20.0 mL 0.500 mol L-1 Cu(NO3)2
and 80.0 mL 0.10 mol L-1 Cu(NO3)2
(4) A solution of potassium permanganate is standardised with a solution of oxalic acid. The oxalic acid solution
contained 6.30g (COOH)2·2 H2O in 1.00 L of solution. 20mL of oxalic acid solution was pipetted into a titration flask
and 5.00 mL sulfuric acid added. The potassium permanganate solution was added from a burette. The average of
three concordant results was 16.25 mL.
M((COOH)2.2H2O) = 126.08 gmol-1
(a) What is observed at the endpoint of this titration?

________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(b) (i) Apart from rinsing procedures, what other step must be taken?
________________________________________________________________________________________
(ii) Why is this step necessary?
________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 126 of 157
(c) By adding two half equations, write a balanced equation for the reaction of potassium permanganate with oxalic
acid. (Hint: oxalic acid forms CO2.)
___________________________________________________________________________________ox/red
___________________________________________________________________________________ox/red
Overall:__________________________________________________________________________________
(d) Calculate the amount of oxalic acid in 20mL of the standard solution.
(e) Use the balanced equation in c) and your answer in d) to calculate the concentration of potassium permanganate
in the solution in molL-1.
(f) The titration procedure involves the following steps. Fill in the blanks by naming a piece of equipment or writing
the formula of a reagent.
(i) 20.00 mL of oxalic acid is measured with a ______________________ which must be rinsed with
_____________________
(ii) Potassium permanganate is placed in a __________________ which must first be rinsed with
____________________________
(g) At the end of the experiment the flask and end of the burette is washed with deionised water into the flask. This
step does not alter the volume / concentration / amount (circle one) of reactants and products in the
flask.
(5) Vitamin C is determined by titration with iodine solution. Note that vitamin C is unstable in solution.
(a) Name a solution that could be used to standardise the iodine before the titration. _________________________
(b) The amount of vitamin C (ascorbic acid, C6H8O6) in a colourless fruit juice was found by titrating 10.00 mL of it
with 0.00203 mol L-1 iodine. The results re given in the following table.
Initial burette reading (mL) 0.00 7.40 15.30 22.70

Final burette reading (mL) 7.40 15.30 22.70 30.00
Volume I2 used (mL)
The balanced ionic equation for the reaction is

C6H8O6 (aq) + I2 (aq) → C6H6H8 (aq) + 2 H+ (aq) + 2 I–(aq)
(c) Calculate the concentration of vitamin C in

(i) mol L-1
(ii) mg/100 mL M(C6H8O6) = 176.1 g mol-1
(d) The manufacturer of the fruit juice states there is 15 mg/100mL of vitamin C.
Compare your answer with the manufacturer’s claim. Give a reason for any difference.
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
(e) (i) Name a suitable indicator for the titration. _____________________
(ii) Describe the colour change at the end point.

________________________________________________________________________________________
Page 128 of 157
Titration Curves Notes

(1) Equivalence Point
(2) Half-equivalence point
(3) Buffer region

(1) A 20 mL sample of 0.100 mol L-1 solution of nitric acid is titrated with a 0.100 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide solution.
Answer the following questions in order to sketch a titration curve of this reaction.
(a) Calculate the pH of 0.100 mol L-1 nitric acid.
(b) Calculate the volume of 0.100 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide needed to reach equivalence point.
(c) What is the pH at equivalence point? How do you know this?
(d) Calculate the pH of the mixture after 30 mL of 0.100 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide solution has been added.
Page 130 of 157
(2) Morphine is a strong pain killer and it is also a weak base. A 20.00 mL sample of a morphine solution is titrated with
0.0771mol L-1 hydrochloric acid solution and the titration curve below is produced.
(a) Mark the following points and regions on the titration curve:
(i) equivalence point
(ii) half equivalence point
(iii) buffer region
(b) From the graph, read the following:

(i) pH of the morphine solution
(ii) pKa of morphine’s conjugate acid
(c) Calculate the concentration of morphine in the solution. You may assume that one mole of morphine reacts with
one mole of hydrochloric acid. (Ka (morphine’s acid form) = 6.17×10-9)
(3) A 20 mL sample of 0.200 mol L-1 solution of ethanoic acid is titrated with a 0.200 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide solution.
Answer the following questions in order to sketch a titration curve of this reaction.
(a) Calculate the pH of 0.200 mol L-1 solution of ethanoic acid. (pKa(CH3COOH)=4.76)
(b) What is the pH at half equivalence point? How do you know this?
(c) Calculate the volume of 0.200 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide needed to reach equivalence point.
(d) Calculate the pH of the mixture at equivalence point. (pKa(CH3COOH)=4.76)
(e) Calculate the pH of the mixture after 40 mL of 0.200 mol L-1 sodium hydroxide solution has been added.
Sketch the titration curve for the titration between ethanoic acid and sodium hydroxide described on the previous page.
Page 132 of 157
Indicators
HIn + H2O ⇌ In– + H3O+
Indicator pKa
Phenolphthalein
Litmus
Methyl Orange
Practice questions in revision and past papers.
Page 134 of 157

Page 136 of 157
Useful Vocabulary
Page 138 of 157
Page 140 of 157
Page 142 of 157
Page 144 of 157
Page 146 of 157
Page 148 of 157
Reference Tables
(1) -Ionisation Enthalpies
Ionization Enthalpies (kJ/mol)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
H 1312
He 2372 5250
Li 520 7297 11810
Be 899 1757 14845 21000
B 800 2426 3659 25020 32820
C 1086 2352 4619 6221 37820 47260
N 1402 2855 4576 7473 9442 53250 64340
O 1314 3388 5296 7467 10987 13320 71320 84070
F 1680 3375 6045 8408 11020 15160 17860 92010
Ne 2080 3963 6130 9361 12180 15240
Na 496 4563 6913 9541 13350 16600 20113 25666
Mg 737 1450 7731 10545 13627 17995 21700 25662
Al 577.5 1816.7 2744.8 11577 14842 18379 23326 27465
Si 786.5 1577.1 3231.6 4355.5 16091 19805 23780 29287
P 1011.8 1907 2914.1 4963.6 6273.9 21267 25431 29872
S 999.6 2252 3357 4556 7004.3 8495.8 27107 31719
Cl 1251.2 2298 3822 5158.6 6542 9362 11018 33604
Ar 1520.6 2665.8 3931 5771 7238 8781 11995 13842
Page 150 of 157
(2) Electronegativity of Atoms
Highlighted Ions
are most common
Charge of Ion
polyatomic-ions-603977.
+1 –1 –2 –3
Name Formula Name Formula Name Formula Name Formula
ammonium NH4+ acetate C2H3O2– carbonate CO32– borate BO33–
bicarbonate
(or hydrogen HCO3– chromate CrO42– phosphate PO43–
(3) Names and Formulae of Common Polyatomic Ions
carbonate)
hypochlorite ClO– dichromate Cr2O72–
cyanide CN– peroxide O22–
hydroxide OH– sulfate SO42–
nitrate NO3– sulfite SO32–
permanganate MnO4– thiosulfate S2O32–
thiocyanate SCN– tetrathionate S4O62–
Adapted from: Helmenstine, Anne Marie, Ph.D. "List of Common Polyatomic Ions." ThoughtCo, Apr. 30, 2018, thoughtco.com/list-of-common-
Page 152 of 157
(4) Solubility in Water of Common Ionic Compounds
Ba2+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Ag+ Fe2+ Cu2+ Zn2+ Pb2+ Al3+ Fe3+
BaI2 CaI2 MgI2 AgI FeI2 does not ZnI2 PbI2 Al I3 FeI3
I- soluble soluble soluble insoluble soluble exist soluble low soluble soluble
BaBr2 CaBr2 MgBr2 AgBr FeBr2 CuBr2 ZnBr2 PbBr2 Al Br3 FeBr3
Br- soluble soluble soluble insoluble soluble soluble soluble low soluble soluble
BaCl2 CaCl2 MgCl2 AgCl FeCl2 CuCl2 ZnCl2 PbCl2 Al Cl3 FeCl3
Cl- soluble soluble soluble insoluble soluble soluble soluble low soluble soluble
BaSO4 CaSO4 MgSO4 Ag2SO4 FeSO4 CuSO4 ZnSO4 PbSO4 Al2(SO4)3 Fe2(SO4)3
SO42- insoluble low soluble low soluble soluble soluble insoluble soluble soluble
Ba(NO3)2 Ca(NO3)2 Mg(NO3)2 AgNO3 Fe(NO3)2 Cu(NO3)2 Zn(NO3)2 Pb(NO3)2 Al(NO3)3 Fe(NO3)3
NO3- soluble soluble soluble soluble soluble soluble soluble soluble soluble soluble
Ba(OH)2 Ca(OH)2 Mg(OH)2 AgOH Fe(OH)2 Cu(OH)2 Zn(OH)2 Pb(OH)2 Al(OH)3 Fe(OH)3
OH– insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble
BaCO3 CaCO3 MgCO3 Ag2CO3 FeCO3 CuCO3 ZnCO3 PbCO3 does not does not
CO32- insoluble insoluble low insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble exist exist
BaF2 CaF2 MgF2 AgF FeF2 CuF2 ZnF2 PbF2 AlF3 FeF3
F- low insoluble low soluble low soluble soluble low Low low
Ba3(PO4)2 Ca3(PO4)2 Mg3(PO4)2 Ag3PO4 Fe3(PO4)2 Cu3(PO4)2 Zn3(PO4)2 Pb3(PO4)2 Al PO4 FePO4
PO43- insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble insoluble low
BaSO3 CaSO3 MgSO3 Ag2SO3 FeSO3 does not ZnSO3 PbSO3 does not does not
SO32- insoluble insoluble low insoluble low exist low insoluble exist exist
soluble – high solubility; means more than 1g is soluble in 100g of water

low - low solubility; means 0.01g to 1g is soluble in 100g of water
insoluble – very low solubility; means less than 0.01g is soluble in 100g of water
does not exist - do not exist in the aqueous environment
(5) Common Average Bond Enthalpy Values
Page 154 of 157
(6) Standard Reduction Potentials
(7) Organic Chemistry Spectroscopy References
Characteristic IR Absorption Frequencies of Organic Functional Groups

All compounds
C−H strong peak 2850 to 3000 cm-1
Alkene Ester
=C−H medium peak 3010-6100 cm-1, strong peak 675−1000 – C=O (carbonyl) strong peak 1670 to 1820 cm-1
cm-1 – C – O strong peak at 1000 to 1300 cm-1
Alcohol Amine
– O-H strong broad peak at 3200 to 3600 cm-1 N−H medium peaks 3300-3500 cm-1 and 1600 cm-1 Primary
–C-O strong peak at 1050 to 1150 cm-1 amines (–C-NH2) have two bands
Aldehyde and Ketone C−N medium peak1080-1360 cm-1
Aldehyde Amide
– C=O (carbonyl) strong peak 1670 to 1820 cm-1 C=O strong peak 1640-1690 cm-1
Aldehyde also has 2 medium peaks around 2720 to 2750 cm -1 N−H see amines above Unsubstituted amines (-CONH2)
and 2820 to 2850 cm-1 have two bands
Ketone Haloalkanes
– C=O (carbonyl) strong peak 1670 to 1820 – C–F strong peak 1100 to 1400 cm-1
Ketone also has a strong peak at 1705 to 1725 – C–Cl strong broad peak at 540 to 785 cm-1
Acid – C–Br strong peak at 510 to 650 cm-1
– C=O (carbonyl) strong peak 1670 to 1820 cm-1 – C–I strong peak at 485 to 600 cm-1
– O-H strong broad peak at 3200 to 3600 cm-1
– C – O strong peak at 1210 to 1320 cm-1
C-13 NMR Chemical Shift Table

carbon environment δ(ppm)
C=O (in ketones) 205 - 220
C=O (in aldehydes) 190 - 200
C=O (in acids and esters) 170 - 185
C=C (in alkenes) 115 - 140
C≡C (in alkynes) 67 - 85
RCOOCH2R (ester) 60 - 80
RCH2O(H) 50 - 65
RCH2Cl 40 - 45
RCH2NH2 37 - 45
R3CH 25 - 35
CH3CO– 20 - 30
R2CH2 16 - 25
RCH3 10 - 15
Note that carbon peaks may be shifted by slightly different amounts than this guide.
Page 156 of 157

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Page 1 of 157

Laboratory Rules – Checklist

Always ask a teacher if you are unsure about anything.

2. Writing in nuclear notation

a. hydrogen atom e. sulfur atom i. chlorine atom

There are 4 rules the electron configuration follows:

Method: (This is what we do.)

Results: (This is where you write what you see.)

Periodic Properties – Sizes of Atoms and Ions

1. Consider the sizes of lithium (Li) and sodium (Na) atoms.

2. Consider the sizes of lithium (Li) and beryllium (Be) atoms.

3. Consider a calcium atom (Ca) and a calcium ion (Ca2+).

4. Consider an oxygen atom (O) and an oxide ion (O2–).

5. Which atom is larger, carbon or nitrogen? ______

6. Which is larger, a fluorine atom (F) or a fluoride ion (F-)? __________________

Second ionisation Enthalpy

Third ionisation Enthalpy

We can see a some strange first ionisation enthalpies here.

a) Define the term ‘electronegativity’_________________________________________________________

b) Write the following atoms in order of increasing electronegativity: C, N and P

Types of Bonds Notes

Lewis Structures (electron dot structures)

3. Oxy-acids (each H is bonded to an O)

5. These cannot have eight electrons around every atom.

Analysis: (Answer this after learning the shapes and polarity.)

Page for Extra Notes

Page for Extra Notes

Page for Extra Notes

3. Reaction with water. Two halogens react strongly with water.

4. Iodine can be made to dissolve well in water by adding iodide ions.

Oxidising strength of the halogens

(2) Write the halogen in order of increasing oxidising strength.

(4) Write the halide ion in order of increasing reducing strength.

Redox Reactions are Oxidation-Reduction Reactions

First balance each half equation:

Next add the 2 half equations together but…

How do we know if it is a redox reaction? Circle one for oxidation

1. Chlorine/Cl2 (O.S. of Cl = ______)→ chloride ions/Cl– (O.S. of Cl = ______) Ox/red/neither

2. Mg(NO3)2, Al(NO3)3 and Zn(NO3)2

3. Zn(NO3)2, Pb(NO3)2 and Al(NO3)3

5. KCl, KBr and KI

7. List the three coloured anions and give their colours.

Page for Extra Notes

Page for Extra Notes

Bonds between Molecules

(b) Why do the molecules attract?

(c) What can have it?

(d) What else is important about it?

(2) Dipole-dipole Interactions

(b) Why do the molecules attract?

(3) Hydrogen Bonding

(b) Why do the molecules attract?

boiling point (K) 85 238 332 457

Adapted from www.chemguide.co.uk

(5) Use the following graph to answer the questions below.

Three things affect strength of bond enthalpies:

(d) CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

(b) CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

(c) N2(g) +3 H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)

1. Chlorine/Cl2 (O.S. of Cl = )→ chloride ions/Cl– (O.S. of Cl = ) Ox/red/neither