36 Wacana Vol. Vol.

Wacana 23 No.
23 1No.
(2022): 000-000
1 (2022)

Mount Merapi in paintings

A dynamic reflection of nature, 1800-1930

Ghamal Satya Mohammad

Abstract
Mount Merapi in Central Java is one of the world’s most studied volcanoes. The
frequent eruptions of this volcano and the densely populated areas on its slopes
make Merapi particularly important to scholars of the natural and social sciences.
Considerable attention has been devoted to contemporary aspects of this volcano,
including research into forecasting and monitoring possible volcanic activity and
eruptions. However, research investigating artistic representations of Merapi in a
historical context, particularly local artworks referring to how people responded
to a natural hazard such as a volcanic eruption, is still rare. In this paper, I explore
how artists in the period 1800-1930 have portrayed the volcanic activities in their
drawings and paintings. Various historical data, including newspapers, reports,
and records of volcanic eruptions, will be used to help interpret the accuracy
of the paintings which depict Merapi at different moments in time. I argue that
artists in the period under investigation were acutely aware of Merapi’s volcanic
activities and depicted these in their drawings and paintings, because of the
influence of science, which invokes interest in Merapi, landscape art, and a sense
of humanitarianism. Their artworks are dynamic visual historical reflections of
Merapi which testify to the power and beauty of nature.
Keywords
Drawings; paintings; Merapi; volcanic activities; Java; Indonesia; volcano;
landscape.

Ghamal Satya Mohammad is currently a PhD candidate in history at the Asia Research
Centre (ARC), Murdoch University, Australia. He obtained his bachelor’s degree from
Universitas Indonesia (2012), second bachelor’s degree (Cosmopolis - Encompass Program,
Leiden University, 2014), and Research MA’s degree from Leiden University (2016). His PhD
thesis is about the history of a changing landscape, natural hazards, and society at the slopes
of Mount Merapi, Central Java, 1800-1970. Ghamal Satya Mohammad can be reached at:
[email protected] or [email protected].
© 2021 Faculty of Humanities, Universitas Indonesia
Ghamal Satya Mohammad | DOI: 10.17510/wacana.v23i1.1126.
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 37

Introduction1
The depiction of mountains in the visual arts is a common practice in Java and
in other parts of the Indo-Pacific World. As early as the Old Javanese Period
(seventh-eleventh century), artists in Java had already captured and interpreted
the image of the sacred mountain in sculptures and temple architecture (Asti
Wright 1994: 35-49). This “enchantment with the mountain” is attributed to
the spiritual and religious beliefs the people associated with the mountains of
Java (Wright 1994; Claire Holt 1967). Another reason underlying this spiritual
enchantment is the geological formation of this island. The volcanoes of the
World Database of the Smithsonian Institution’s Global Volcanism Program
show that thirty-six “Holocene volcanoes” in Java have remained active
over the last 10,000 years and have had major impacts on the people and the
environment (Global Volcanism Program 2013). On account of their frequent
eruptions and distinct morphology, the volcanic mountains in Java “stand
out” in the environment. They determine the ecological character of an area,
as their presence affects soil fertility, mineral deposits composition as well as
assemblages of flora-fauna (Payson D. Sheets and Donald K. Grayson 1979:
2). Braving the inevitable consequences of volcanic hazards, people have also
altered the environment in the volcanic plains by developing an intensive
agricultural society. In the nineteenth century, visual artworks depicting
Merapi produced by foreign travellers and residents of Java began to appear.
These historical artworks have the potential to deliver important information
about the volcano, its activity and human-environment interactions in the past.
Despite this repository, research which attempts to understand how
people responded to and interpreted mountains through visual works of art
from a historical perspective is still limited. We are left wondering what they
thought about the frequent volcanic activity in Java. Previous research on the
history of the visual arts in Java has focused primarily on local expressions
of art and the making of colonial and Indonesian identities through the
works of art (Susie Protschky 2007, 2011; Helena Spanjaard 2018; Holt 1967;
Kusnadi 1990). These studies, albeit very important, employ a general view
of the visual arts and what they signify within the broad context of colonial
and independent Indonesia. They have not attempted to examine a particular
form of visual art, such as drawings or paintings, in a “specific” location of
the landscape environment, like volcanoes, rivers, and forests, in Indonesian
history. Furthermore, there is also a widely held pessimistic view of colonial
landscape paintings as a source of reliable historical information because of
the colonial artists’ tendency to convey an idealized natural landscape in their
works (Protschky 2011: 73-74).
Before the nineteenth century, the history of the indigenous art of
drawing and painting in Java is somewhat unclear. The manuscript of the
Negarakertagama, which dates from the fourteenth century, mentions the

1
I would like to thank James Francis Warren, Susanna Jenkins, Rosemary Robson-McKillop,
Ardhana Riswarie, Raditya Putra, anonymous reviewers, and special editors of the issue for
their insightful comments and suggestions on earlier versions of this paper.
38 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

position of the anglukis or ‘court painter’ in the kingdom of Majapahit, evidence

that this form of art was practised at the time (Wright 1994: 49). Javanese
literary traditions of a later date include stories about noble characters who
were talented in drawing, for example, in the story of Sungging Prabangkara,
which contains an indication of a recognition of this talent in Javanese society
(M.I. Cohen 2005). However, painting and drawing seem to have disappeared
from Javanese court tradition during the period of the Mataram Kingdom
(late sixteenth-eighteenth century), only to surface again in batik and wayang
kulit puppet-making (Cohen 2005: 13). In the seventeenth century, Europeans
overseas resorted to their own style of drawing and painting to make records
of their explorations and scientific discoveries. In the nineteenth century,
Europeans also embraced the use of lithography as a then-modern method
of printing artworks, including drawings and paintings of Java. Depicting
landscapes in paintings and drawings was introduced by Europeans in
the nineteenth century. The fashion gradually became more widespread,
especially after the era of Raden Saleh (1811-1880), an early modern Javanese
artist (Werner Kraus 2012). People in Java and the Indies in general were
generally receptive to the arrival and introduction of European fine art,
including the products of realism, impressionism, and expressionism. In the
nineteenth and early-twentieth century, landscape art emerged as a popular
genre in drawings and paintings. However, when a new movement in the
Indies painting began in the 1930s, landscape art was criticized for over-
emphasizing the exoticism and the beauty of nature. The term Hindia Molek
or Mooi Indië (Beautiful Indies) was used to refer to the “typical” landscape art
created in the colonial period which idealized the Indies landscapes (Protschky
2007: 65; Holt 1967: 165-171).
This paper explores the portrayal of nature in the drawings and paintings
of Mount Merapi and its surrounding landscape from 1800 to 1930. The
depiction of the volcano and its environs suggests a dynamic reflection of
nature among the artists rather than the reproduction of any idealistic image
of it they might have nurtured. This depiction seems a fitting choice in the
Mount Merapi area in which volcanic eruptions have been such a frequent
occurrence they are considered part and parcel of the natural life of the area.
The paintings and drawings of Merapi in the period 1800-1930 are reflections
of what the artists actually observed and experienced. These paintings and
drawings can help us perceive the natural landscape which the artists “saw”
or “chose not to see” (Colin M. Coates 2009: 143).
However, relying solely on such artworks without properly framing
their historical contexts is problematic because, generally speaking, art is not
created in a vacuum nor necessarily is the practice of making realistic records
of a given situation. Andrea Gaynor and Ian McLean (2008) note that fine art
emphasizes its “artificiality”, “ambivalence”, “imagination”, and “beauty”,
and therefore produces works which do not constitute reliable sources of
empirical data. In spite of this, when studying the ecological history of the
Swan River in Western Australia, Gaynor and McLean made a comprehensive
analysis of 259 artworks depicting the area created between 1827 and 1950.
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 39

With a careful use of content analysis methods, Gaynor and McLean show
that landscape drawings and paintings can in fact be effectively used in
environmental history research (Gaynor and McLean 2008).
In the case of Merapi, employing the Gaynor and McLean macro-method
of mapping and analysing an extensive number of artworks would not work
because of the widely scattered locations of the artworks of Merapi created in
the stated period. However, the author has found 25 artworks of Merapi in the
period under investigation in various book publications, art catalogues, as well
as in private and museum collections. Some of these artworks are not precisely
dated, so their connection with the historical context cannot be explicitly
confirmed. Therefore, given this limitation, this paper focuses only on clearly
dated artworks, so that they can be discussed in their proper historical context
using primary and secondary sources, including newspapers, journal reports,
and archival records of volcanic eruptions as backup. As I show, the precisely
dated and documented artworks can inform us about the cultural-ecological
history of the volcano and its surroundings at the time these artworks were
created. When comparing the historical records of volcanic eruptions, it seems
that the artists shared a sense of “environmental consciousness”2 in the way
they made their drawings and paintings of Merapi. These artworks depicting
Mount Merapi in the period 1800-1930 cover various themes: archaeological
ruins, science, landscapes, volcanic eruptions, and disaster art.

Early drawings and paintings of Merapi, 1800-1830

So far, this research has not found any drawings or paintings which specifically
depict Mount Merapi in the period before 1800. This situation becomes more
readily understandable when we consider access to the Merapi area. Until
the early nineteenth century, the regions of the Vorstenlanden (Principalities
of Yogyakarta and Surakarta), which includes the Merapi area, were difficult
to reach. Dutch officials who wanted to visit the Vorstenlanden encountered
transport problems because of the few access roads connecting Batavia in
West Java to the Vorstenlanden in the middle of the island. Heavy tropical
rains frequently destroyed what roads there were which made travelling very
difficult, if not impossible, at certain times of the year (P. Nas and Pratiwo
2002: 709). Herman Willem Daendels (1762-1818), the Governor-General of
the Dutch East Indies during the Napoleonic occupation of the Netherlands
(1807-1811), was the first to try to rectify this situation. During his term of
office, he ordered the construction of the Grote Postweg (the Great Post Road)
which improved existing footpaths and wagon tracks, as well as adding
missing connections on the land road across Java (Nas and Pratiwo 2002: 709).
The duration of the journey from Batavia to the Vorstenlanden was shortened
by the completion of this new grand road. It was now easier for European
officials and artists to visit the area and explore the surroundings of the Fiery
Mountain.

2
Gaynor and McLean (2008: 192).
40 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

Francois van Boekhold (or Van Boeckholtz, in an alternative spelling), a

member of the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen and
second Resident of Surakarta of the Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie
(VOC) (1783-1789), was the first European to climb Merapi. Between 18 July
and 9-10 August 1786, he climbed Merapi from the northern side, at that
time considered part of the kingdom of Surakarta (N. van Padang 1983: 10).
During his pioneering ascent, Van Boekhold, who possessed some artistic
skill, did not sketch or paint Merapi.3 Instead, he wrote a “personal account”
of the still dangerous and unexplored area of the Brandenden Berg (Fiery
Mountain). Reading his account of his journey gives an idea of how unfamiliar
Merapi and its immediate environs were to Van Boekhold.4 Nevertheless, the
unfamiliarity of an “exotic” environment was not a sufficient reason to draw
or paint natural surroundings unless the area had a “strategic” value for the
VOC (Protschky 2011: 79). In this period, the “painter-traders”5 of the VOC
restricted their artwork to colonial ventures and commissions to draw places
and objects deemed essential to colonial policy, including a map of an area
and locations of occupied land, a fort or seaport. However, as we can see in
the Lexicon of foreign artists who visualized Indonesia (1600-1950) by Leo Haks
and G. Maris (1995), European artists did not actively engage in such activities
in the Vorstenlanden before 1800.
In 1807, as European interest in the archaeological ruins in Java grew,
Merapi was depicted as a background in drawing of one of these sites. The title
of this artwork is View of the ruins of a Bramin Temple at Brambanang as formd
[sic!] in the jaar 1807.6 The artist was Hermanus Christiaan Cornelius (1774-
1833?), a draughtsman in the service of the Netherlands Indies (see Figure 1).
In his drawing, the volcano situated in the right background is unmistakably
Merapi. The central subject of this drawing is the archaeological ruins of the
present Candi Sewu Temple in Prambanan, southeast of Merapi.

3
F. van Boekhold’s (or Van Boeckholtz) background and skill in painting are mentioned in
Roy Jordaan (2013: 20).
4
In his account, Van Boekhold expressed his astonishment at the situation around this volcano
on several occasions, for instance, “[...] we had not have seen or imagined that the mountain
there was active (burning) [...]” ([...] wij niet hadden kunnen zien of ons voorstellen, dat de berg daar
zoude branden), “the difficulty and the danger during the ascent caused because the scree was all
loose and hot [...] was inexpressible“ (De moeite en het gevaar was in het opklimmen onuitsprekelijk,
door dat de klippen alle lose en warm waren [...]), “No man could have seen, let alone give tongue to,
the sight of the dreadful sulforous pool [...]”(Geen mensch kon zich het gezicht van den vresselijken
zulver-poel voorstellen of uitdrukken [...]). Moreover, he did not use the name Merapi to refer to
this volcano, but took the literal meaning of “Merapi” or fiery mountain (brandenden berg) (Van
Boekhold 1827b: 17-19. On Van Boekhold’s first journey to Merapi, see Van Boekhold 1827a:
14-16).
5
The painter-traders or the painters and draughtsmen of the VOC who were also involved in
its trade. (See Spanjaard 2018: 27).
6
According to the curator of this object in the British Museum, Colin Mackenzie (1754-1821),
a British colonial officer was given a drawing with the same title in English by H.C. Cornelius.
See the British Museum curator’s comment on this artwork: https://www.britishmuseum.org/
collection/object/A_1939-0311-0-6-30.
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 41

Figure 1. H.C. Cornelius (1807), View of the ruins of a Bramin Temple at Brambanang as
formd in the jaar 1807. Watercolours on paper, 36,40x 48,40 cm. Registration number:
1939,0311,0.6.30. (Courtesy of The Trustees of the British Museum).

The drawing depicts three groups of people working on the clearing and
surveying of the temple. The first group, the largest in number, comprises
the half-naked Javanese labourers wearing a headcloth (udheng or destar).
The second group is composed of Javanese officials, in their distinctive
traditional dress, a keris (dagger) inserted at the back and their customary
headdress (blangkon). The third group is European officials in their gentleman’s
attire and top-hats. Without a detailed depiction of the local landscape, this
drawing would be regarded as no more than an illustration of Candi Sewu,
its clearing, and surveying operation. However, Cornelius chose to include
the mountainous contours of the location, with Merapi spewing ashes which
pour out to the right in the drawing.
This drawing is important for several reasons. Apart from its year of
completion, which makes it the oldest depiction of Merapi to date, the drawing
portrays Merapi and its vicinity during a small-scale eruption. Interestingly,
the volcanic records database shows that there was a period of small-scale
explosive activity in Merapi, classified under Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)
1 in 1807,7 the year Cornelius completed this painting (B. Voight et al. 2000: 80).
Cornelius had probably experienced a small-scale eruption of Merapi at that
time and included this natural event in his drawing. Cornelius also depicts

7
The Volcanic Explosivity Index is a tool to estimate the relative scale of an explosive eruption.
The VEI scale of 1 to 2 indicates a relatively small eruption. VEI scales of 3, 4, and 5 are used
to designate a large and highly explosive eruption. See Christopher G. Newhall and Stephen
Self (1982: 1235).
42 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

the archaeological party, both the Javanese and the Europeans, as being in
no way alarmed by the eruption. They are working at the site as if they did
not consider the occurrence of the volcanic eruption life-threatening, a clear
indication of VEI 1 as seen from the Candi Sewu Temple.
Thematically speaking, this drawing signifies Cornelius’ interest in ancient
ruins and landscapes, two emerging themes in European visual arts in Java.
However, unless human activity was a useful tool to highlight the picturesque
landscape of Java, its depiction was generally excluded (Sarah Tiffin 2009:
547-549). Nevertheless, Cornelius did incorporate the human element and
activity in this picturesque drawing of the entire archaeological landscape
at the Candi Sewu Temple during a small-scale eruption of Merapi in 1807.
In 1817, ten years after Cornelius’ drawing of the archaeological ruin of
Candi Sewu, another “development” emerged in the depiction of Merapi in
artworks. In that year, the crater of Merapi was drawn in detail for the first
time. This interest in the crater of the volcano was not surprising. The artist,
Antoine Auguste Joseph Payen (1792-1853), was a Belgian-born painter
who had been appointed an official artist (kunstschilder) assigned to the
Natural Sciences Commission led by the German scientist Caspar Georg Carl
Reinwardt (1773-1854) (Andreas Weber 2012; Marie-Odette Scalliet 1995; Peter
Carey 1988). This Commission was sponsored by King Willem I (1772-1843)
of the Netherlands and was tasked with collecting scientific knowledge about
the Indies, especially Java, in an attempt to increase the profitability of the
Dutch outpost in the East (Andrew Goss 2011: 28). Payen made a journey to
the Vorstenlanden shortly after he arrived in Batavia on 8 September 1817.8
Merapi was one of the natural wonders which he committed to paper during
his first journey to Central Java. In his Crater du Mara-Api en 1817 (Crater of
Mara-Api in 1817) drawing, Payen details the morphology of Merapi’s summit
in the year 1817. However, it is difficult to approximate the location at which
he made his drawing, apart from knowing that it was drawn somewhere in
the “territory of Yogyakarta” in 1817 (see Figure 2).9
The uneven volcanic rim and its inner crater wall are visible in this
drawing. There are also twelve small vents in the image from which fumaroles
emerge. One of the small vents in the centre of the drawing emits a fiery glow.
Payen’s depiction of Merapi’s disruptive activity also matches the volcanic
record database which reveals small explosive activity (VEI 1) occurring
between 1817-1821, several years before the major Merapi eruption in 1822
(Voight et al. 2000: 80-81).

8
Payen’s first journey to the Principalities is not mentioned by Carey (1988). I have estimated
the date at which Payen reached Batavia on 8-9-1817, to when he completed the drawing, in
the same year, namely between September to December 1817.
9
A piece of information regarding Payen’s approximate point of position in this drawing
is found in the sketch of Merapi Mountain entitled De Berg Marapi in het gebied van Jogjakarta
(Marapi Mountain in the territory of Jogjakarta, 1817), inventory number: RV-2942-39. Collection
of the World Cultures Museum [collectie.wereldculturen.nl]. However, the “territory” of
Yogyakarta and the rest of the principalities in Central Java were highly dispersed before 1830.
See Carey (2007: 10-11).
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 43

Figure 2. A.A.J. Payen (1817), Crater du Mara-Api en 1817 (Crater of Mara-Api in

1817). Pencil and pigment on paper, 23 x 22,7 cm. Inventory number: RV-60-79c35.
(Collection of the World Cultures Museum: collectie.wereldculturen.nl).

The uneven volcanic rim and its inner crater wall are visible in this
drawing. There are also twelve small vents in the image from which fumaroles
emerge. One of the small vents in the centre of the drawing emits a fiery glow.
Payen’s depiction of Merapi’s disruptive activity also matches the volcanic
record database which reveals small explosive activity (VEI 1) occurring
between 1817-1821, several years before the major Merapi eruption in 1822
(Voight et al. 2000: 80-81).
The fine detail in Payen’s drawing is embellished by his use of colour to
emphasize the different elements in the drawing. It is impossible not to notice
key features such as the glowing fire and white steam from the fumaroles and
the greyish façade of the summit. When this drawing is compared with the
basic sketch of the Merapi summit by Payen (1817) entitled De Berg Marapi in
het gebied van Jogjakarta (Marapi Mountain in the territory of Jogjakarta), these
details emerge all the more strongly. In his painting Crater du Mara-Api en 1817,
Payen began the practice of carefully observing and drawing an active volcano
in Java for scientific purposes. Although he was not trained as a scientist, his
paintings are useful to volcanology because of the detailed depiction of the
morphological character of the Merapi crater in the early nineteenth century.
Another drawing by Payen which involves Merapi is his Bedoio, bij den Berg
Merapi, Eiland Java (Bedoyo, near Mount Merapi, the Island of Java), completed
in 1825. The central subject of this drawing is the country retreat or villa of
Nahuys van Burgst, the Resident of Yogyakarta (1816-1822) and a planter in
Bedoyo (now part of Cangkringan District, Sleman Regency) located on the
southern slope of Mount Merapi. This rare drawing depicts early plantation
44 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

society on the slopes of Java’s most active volcano. The building looks grand,
built in European-style with a frontage consisting of ten large pillars, tall
doors, and windows. In the bottom left corner of the drawing, Payen noted
that the walls of the house and the doors were painted dark green. The Dutch
flag has been hoisted in the backyard of the building. The front garden is also
attractive. At what appears to be the main entrance, there is a small pond
encircled by various plants. In the background, Merapi can be seen releasing
bursts of volcanic gas or “degassing” approximately 400-600 metres in height.10
The crater rim of Merapi in 1825 is presented as a dark shadow looming in
the background. The three hills surrounding Merapi are also drawn in the
background of this painting: the Turgo and Plawangan Hills in the central
background and Klangon Hill in the right background.

Figure 3. A. A. J. Payen (1825), Bedoio, bij den Berg Merapi, Eiland Java (Bedoyo, near
Mount Merapi, the Island of Java). Pencil on paper. BPL 616, No. 22 (12 c.1). (Courtesy
of Leiden University Libraries).

The drawing Bedoio, bij den Berg Merapi, Eiland Java was created by Payen
after an “absence” from Java of about six years (see Figure 3). He left Java
between 1818 and 1823 to conduct scientific explorations in the “outer islands”
in the east of the Archipelago. Consequently, he was not in Java when Merapi
erupted on 28-30 December 1822 (VEI 3) and destroyed over eight villages,
killing fifty people residing on the west and southwestern slopes of the volcano
(Voight et al. 2000: 81-82; Carey 2007: 512-517). Shortly after he returned to Java

There is no report of a Merapi volcanic eruption in 1825. Therefore, this was not a minor
10

eruption with an ash-column, but rather a volcanic degassing during which volcanic gas is
expelled into the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 45

in 1824, he was tasked with redesigning the Residency House in Yogyakarta

which had been damaged in a large earthquake in 1823. In 1825, while in
Yogyakarta to oversee the construction of the new Residency House, Payen
spent a night (between 1-2 July) in this villa, or in his words, in the “casino”
of Bedoyo, and made a drawing of the entire building. He noted in his diary:

Bedoyo, which I visited for the first time, is a pleasant casino or country retreat on
the slopes of Marah-Api [Merapi]. It is well designed. There is a panoramic view of
the surroundings of Djocja which extends to the sea and the mountains to the south
(Gounoung Kidoel [Gunung Kidul]), even though its immediate surroundings
are insignificant; the terrain is composed of dry ash in which stagnate the
miserable coffee plantations that are scattered around this countryside [...]. In
the morning, I looked for some point from which I could make a sketch of this
place. The temperature is very mild there and one of the greatest advantages of
this situation.11 [My English translation.]

Payen undoubtedly did not realize that his drawing would one day
become a source of significant historical evidence, providing a glimpse of
early plantation society on the slopes of Merapi. At that time, few Europeans
had ventured to establish plantations in the wilderness of the Principalities.
Nahuys, the owner of the villa Payen depicted on his visit to Bedoyo, was
considered a pioneer (Carey 2007: 454-478). We know very little about the
character and lifestyle of European plantation society on the slopes of Merapi,
especially during the early days before the Java War (1825-1830). The Bedoio, bij
den Berg Merapi, Eiland Java provides us with an illustration of what plantation
life might have been like on the frontier in 1825. Later, during the course of
the Java War, this villa was attacked several times by local “bandits” and
eventually burned to the ground.12 We do not hear anything more about this
beautiful villa in Bedoyo after 1830. However, the plantation there was still
in existence a century later (Handboek voor cultuur 1935).

11
“Bedoyo, que j’ ai visite pour la premiere fois, est un joli casino sur la pente du Marah-Api [Gunung
Merapi]. Le plan en est bien distribue. On y jouit d’une vue très vaste sur les environs de Djocja et qui
s’étend jusqu’ à la mer et les montagnes du Sud, (Gounoung Kidoel [Gunung Kidul]), Pour ses environs
ils sont insignifiants; le terrain est une cendre aride dans laquelle végètent les misérables plantations
de café qui entourent cette campagne [...] Le matin j’ai cherché quelque point d’où j’eus pu prende une
esquisse de ce lieu, mais inutilement. La temperature y est très douce et un des plus grands mérites de
cette situation” (Carey 1988: 46); Payen’s account of Bedoyo in 1825 is also mentioned in Scalliet
(1995: 446).
12
Carey (2007) cites several sources which state that Nahuys’s villa in Bedoyo was attacked
several times during the Java War. According to J.B.J van Doren, a Dutch army officer who
had fond memories of visiting Bedoyo in 1822, this villa was eventually burned to the ground
during the Java War (Carey 2007: 535-536; Van Doren 1851: 352).
46 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

Depicting a “volcanorium”: drawing Merapi for science and exploration,

1830-1850
After the Java War, the slopes of Merapi were gradually developed for agriculture
and human settlement. One reason for this expansion was the increasing
number of patrols dispatched by Dutch and Javanese authorities to suppress the
remaining rebels and bandits in the area. Another reason for it was the progress
booked by plantations founded by private planters in the “highlands” of Merapi
(Roel de Neve and Vincent Houben 1997: 51-64). Apart from a drawing13 by
F.V.A. de Stuers (1833) detailing the situation on the west side of the Merapi
and Merbabu plains during the Java War, there are no more extant drawings
of Merapi until 1845 when Franz Wilhelm Junghuhn’s (1809-1864) account
of his explorations of Java was published under the title Topographischer und
Naturwissenschaftlicher Atlas zur Reise durch Java (Topographical and scientific
atlas of a journey through Java). Junghuhn, the “Humboldt of Java”, was a
German-born scientist who was specialized in botany and volcanology. On the
occasion of his first journey from Europe to the Indies in 1835, Junghuhn was
employed as a medical officer in the Dutch army. With the assistance of Ernst
Albert Fritze (1791-1839), the chief medical officer in the Netherlands Indies who
shared a similar scientific interest, Junghuhn began his scientific explorations
in Java shortly after his arrival there (Ulbe Bosma 2016: 185). As early as 1836,
Junghuhn undertook a journey to the Vorstenlanden and then visited Merapi.
This volcano was the first among the forty-three volcanoes in Java which he
ascended, explored, and sketched (Bosma 2016: 185). The most likely reason
he chose Merapi for his first “conquest” was because of the volcanic activities
(VEI 2)14 taking place in the mountain that year.
We have to acknowledge that the wealth of data Junghuhn presents in his
artistic works are based mainly on his scientific descriptions which provide
substantial notes on the morphology of the volcano and a record of its eruptions.
However, simply ignoring the drawings and labelling them merely “supportive
material” would be to “kill the goose which laid the golden egg”. In the words
of Adrianne Joergensen, the drawings by Junghuhn were an attempt to create
“a representation of a very large figure” on a piece of paper and transform it
into a “drawing of a volcanorium” (Joergensen 2016: 96-101). Junghuhn’s notes
which accompany his drawings of Merapi should be regarded as authoritative
representations of the situation of Merapi in 1836, particularly so in the two
scientific subject areas of volcanology and botany. Following Junghun’s other
publication, entitled Java, zijne gedaante, zijn plantentooi en inwendige bouw (Java,
its form, its flora, and internal construction) in 1853-1854, it appears he and
his publisher made some adjustments to way in which his drawings were
displayed.15

13
Shelfmark: KITLV 47B8. Collection of KITLV–Leiden University Library (https://
digitalcollections.universiteitleiden.nl).
14
Voight et al. (2000: 82).
15
In his 1845 publication, Junghuhn’s original drawings were plated and lithographed by E.
Baensch. In his 1853-1854 publication, his drawings were lithographed by C.W. Mieling.
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 47

In all there are seven drawings of Merapi by Junghuhn in the two

publications mentioned above. The drawings can be divided into three groups:
the drawings of the summit or the “ejection cone” (Auswurfskegel) depicted
from different sides on Merapi (see Figures 4, 5, 6, 7), a drawing of the crater
of Merapi (Figure 8) and the drawings of the slopes of Merapi (see Figures 9
and 10). In Figures 4, 5, 6, 7, the summit is a lava dome composed of millions
of pieces of rubble (puinbrokken) and lava-slag (lava-slacken) piled on top of
each other (Junghuhn, 1853: 440). The cone at the summit is also depicted
as emitting significant amounts of volcanic gasses with intense degassing.
The vents where fumarole appeared were located in the southeastern side of
the crater wall (Figure 7). In his depiction of the crater of Merapi, Junghuhn
illustrates an active, albeit loose, crater structure in the centre and inner walls
(Figure 8). The fumarole was also present in the crater.

Figure 4. F.W. Junghuhn (1836), Nordseite des Merapi: Aus Einer Höhe von 7500 fuss
vom sudl. Abhange des Merbabu Gesehen (North side of Merapi, seen from an altitude
of 7500 feet from the south slope of Merbabu). Lithographed by E. Baensch. (Source:
Junghuhn 1845: Plate X).
48 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

Figure 5. F.W. Junghuhn (November 1836), Der Eruptionskegel des Merapi mit dem
östlichen Ende der Kratermauer (The eruption cone of Merapi with the eastern end of
the crater wall). Lithographed by E. Baensch. (Source: Junghuhn 1845: Table VI).

Figure 6. F.W. Junghuhn (1836), Goenoeng Merapi. Lithographed by C.W. Mieling.

(Junghuhn 1853-1854, shelfmark: KITLV 50H8; courtesy of Leiden University Libraries).
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 49

Figure 7. F.W. Junghuhn (1836), Die Süd Ost-Seite des Auswurfskegels des Merapi (The
southeast side of the ejection cone of Merapi). Lithographed by E. Baensch. (Source:
Junghuhn 1845: Plate III).

Figure 8. F.W. Junghuhn (1836), Auswurfskegel und innere Wand der Kratermauer des
Merapi (Ejection cone and inner wall of Merapi crater wall). Lithographed by E.
Baensch. (Source: Junghuhn 1845: Plate V).
50 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

Figure 9. F.W. Junghuhn (November 1836), Der Merapi von der Nordseite (The Merapi
from the north side). Lithographed by E. Baensch. (Source: Junghuhn 1845: Plate VIII).

Figure 10. F.W. Junghuhn (September 1836), Der Merapi von der Südseite (The Merapi
from the south side). Lithographed by E. Baensch. (Source: Junghuhn 1845: Plate VII).
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 51

Junghuhn also paid attention to the situation on the slopes of Merapi. He

gives us a view of the northern slope (from the Selo area – Surakarta) and the
southern slope (Yogyakarta) of the volcano. The northern slope (Figure 9) is
depicted as barren, without a single tree, between an altitude of 4,868 feet
(1,428 metres) above sea level and the summit (Junghuhn 1845: Plate VIII),
whereas the southern slope (Figure 10) appears lush with vegetation to an
altitude of 5,231 feet (1,594 metres). Junghuhn’s description of conditions on
the southern slope is worth quoting here:

To view the southern side of the summit of Merapi at a height above 5,231 feet,
one stands between the roots of the Celtis Montana (Angring), whose forests end
here, and looks up towards the barren summit. – It lies there - a monotonous grey;
only in its centre is a narrow stretch of vegetation of Gaultheria and Thibaudia
up through the Angring forests. Some of these high points are illuminated by the
first rays of the sun, while others are still shrouded shadow. Long and whiteish
hang together the grey branches and trunks of the Celtis trees. Many of these
trees in the frontline have been denuded and burnt. The ground is covered with
small stone debris, between which the Polypodium vulcanicum B1 sprouts up
everywhere. Other grass-like species are also spreading around.16 [My translation.]

In this passage, Junghuhn provides some botanical information about the

vegetation found at the southern slopes of Merapi in 1836. The forest there
consisted of Celtis montana or angring, an old growth forest tree species in the
mountains of Java.17 There were other plants, such as Gaultheria, Thibaudia, and
Polypodium vulcanicum B1, a kind of tree-fern which he noticed on the southern
slope. With the exception of Gaultheria (or gondopuro, in Javanese), the other
plants are no longer found on the list18 of contemporary plants growing on
the southern slope of Merapi. The volcanic activity of Merapi has created a
volatile environment which frequently changes the biodiversity around the

16
Ist die Sudseite des gipfels vom Merapi, von einer höhe von bereitz 5231 fuss auz gesehen. Man
steht zwichen den stammen der Celtis Montana (Angring), deren walder sich hier endigen, und
blickt hinauf nach dem öden gipsel. In einförmigen grau liegt er da; nur in der mitte zicht sich eine
kleine strauch vegetation von Gaultherien und Thibaudien noch über die Angringwalder hinauf.
Einige der hohen punkte sind vom ersten sonnenstrahl beleuchtet, während das andere noch im
schatten liegt. Lange weitzliche uzneen [sic!] hangen von den grauen zweigen und stammen der
Celtizbaume herab. Viele diefer bäume im vordergrunde sind kahl und verbrannt. Der boden
ist mit kleinen steingerollen bedeckt, zwichen denen uberall das Polypodium Vulcanicum Bl
hervorwuchert. Auch grass arten verbreiten sich umber (Junghuhn 1845: Plate 7).
17
Clason (1935), mentioned by C.G.G.J. van Steenis, observed two plant species called anggrung
(Trema orientalis) and anggris (Parasponia parviflora), two dominant old-growth species in the
secondary forest on Mount Kelud after a volcanic eruption in 1919 (Van Steenis 2006: 54). On
the other hand, the Kew Royal Botanical Garden database recognizes Trema parviflorum (Miq.)
Byng & Cristenh., a synonym of anggris (Parasponia parviflora Miq.) and angring (Celtis montana,
Jungh. Ex Planch) (http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:
77185679-1, accessed on 16-8-2021). Therefore, we can safely conclude that Junghuhn’s angring
(Celtis montana) is the same plant mentioned as anggris (Parasponia parviflora) which was observed
by Clason on Mount Kelud. The two species are therefore synonymous with Trema parviflorum
(Miq.) Byng & Cristenh.
18
Afrianto, Hikmat, and Widiatmoko (2016: 274-276).
52 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

volcano (Wisnu Febry Afrianto, Agus Hikmat, and Didik Widiatmoko 2016:
270). What we see in his drawing is an illustration of the vegetation Junghuhn
encountered when he ascended Merapi in the 1830s.
In Junghuhn’s drawings, the colours enrich our understanding of the
depiction of Merapi which he presents in each drawing, from the morphology
of the crater to changes in the vegetations on Merapi across the years.
Interestingly, besides drawing the volcano in great detail, Junghuhn also
included people in the landscape which might be a representation of himself
and his party during their explorations of the environs of the volcano. For
example, Figure 4 depicts a European man (perhaps Junghuhn himself) with a
walking stick, telescope, and a helmet observing Merapi from a distance, while
Figure 5 depicts five people, with equipment on their backs and walking-sticks
ascending the left-hand side of Merapi. We have a more precise version of
this drawing in Figure 6, which appears in Junghuhn’s 1853-1854 publication.
In this depiction, three people in the centre of the drawing are attempting
to climb Merapi. These details are an unequivocal indication that Junghuhn
created a set of drawings which record Merapi and his own journey there. By
so doing, he helped to spread scientific knowledge about Merapi to the wider
public in Java and the rest of the world.
Between 1830-1850, apart from Junghuhn’s drawings, there were
several other drawings made of Merapi by Europeans who travelled to
the Vorstenlanden. J.H.W. Le Clercq (1809-1885) was a major-general in the
Dutch Army who investigated the defence system of the Netherlands Indies
between 1844 and 1846 (J.H. Maronier 1967: 3). On his inspection tour of the
Principalities in 1845, he visited Selo on the northern slopes of Merapi, where
Junghuhn had made drawings of the volcano (Figure 9). Here, Le Clercq drew
an image of Merapi entitled Top van de Merapi (Gezien van Sello) (The summit
of Merapi, as seen from Sello) (see Figure 11). This drawing resembles the
view depicted in Junghuhn’s drawing (Figure 8), except that in Le Clercq’s
drawing the northern slope is covered with vegetation. Le Clercq’s depiction
of a cloud enveloping the top of Merapi in Figure 11 probably shows volcanic
degassing, indicating a low level of volcanic activity. There is no reported
instance of a Merapi eruption in 1845 (Voight et al. 2000: 82).
Other works of art featuring Merapi in this period were created by Anton
Baron Sloet van Oldruitenborgh (1823-1894), a Dutch businessman from East
Java. In 1847, he made some sketches of Merapi entitled Gezigt op de Merapi
en Merbaboe van de vlakte van Djoeroek bij Solo (View of Merapi and Merbaboe
from the plain of Djoeroek near Solo) and Gezigt op de Merapi van Toempak op
de Helling der Maraboe Gelegen (View of Merapi from Toempak located on the
slope of Maraboe [Merbaboe]) (Maronier 1967: 69). The former is a landscape
made during his journey, while the latter is a contour sketch of the northern
slopes of Merapi.19 Oldruitenborgh depicted volcanic ash in both his drawings.
This sign of volcanic activity in his drawings is confirmed in the eruption

Shelfmark: KITLV 37A125, KITLV 37A126. Collection of KITLV – Leiden University libraries
19

(https://digitalcollections.universiteitleiden.nl).
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 53

record. In 1846-1848, Merapi was active (VEI 3) (Voight et al. 2000: 82) and
these drawings document the painter’s journey to the site of the active volcano.
One can readily imagine how an active volcano was a major attraction to the
intrepid travellers who visited the Vorstenlanden.

Figure 11. J. H.W. Le Clercq (22 June 1845), Top van de Merapi (gezien van Sello)
(The summit of Merapi, as seen from Sello). Watercolours on paper 11,5 x 19,5
cm. (Shelfmark: KITLV 36A68, collection fo KITLV, courtesy of Leiden University
Libraries).

Raden Saleh’s paintings of Merapi eruption in 1865

In the second half of the nineteenth century, the Vorstenlanden, which had
undergone rapid agricultural development since 1830, continued to lead the
way in further expansion. In this period, the slopes of Merapi were rapidly
opened up for European plantations, reaching 32,505.35 hectares of land
set aside for plantations by 1873 (Koloniaal Verslag 1870-1873). While this
increasing land use was taking place on the slopes of Merapi, its disruptive
character, which was occasionally destructive, remained unchanged. After
a dormant period in the 1850s, Merapi became active once again. In 1863,
Merapi entered a major eruption phase (VEI 2). The description of the Merapi
eruption at this time, quoted by B.G. Escher, describes “masses of glowing
rocks rolling down the mountain on all sides” (Escher 1933: 52). Violent
eruptions of Merapi were still occurring on the morning of 1 January 1864,
causing extensive ashfalls in the surrounding area as far away as Purworejo,
70 km west of Mount Merapi (Java-Bode 16 January 1864). Afterwards, the
eruptive activity of Merapi waned for the rest of the year (Escher 1933: 52).
Up until then, no one had ever captured the ‘wrathful nature of Merapi’ by
drawing or painting an actual volcanic eruption. The artists and painter -
scientists whom we have discussed so far still just recorded the usual “active
54 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

state” of this volcanic mountain in general terms. One year after the eruption
of January 1864, Merapi entered another eruptive phase. On this occasion, the
image of a Merapi eruption was captured by Raden Saleh Syarif Bustaman
(1811-1880), a Javanese painter of remarkable talent.
During the eruption of Merapi in 1863-1864, Raden Saleh, the “king’s
painter” (schilder des konings), was still residing in Batavia. He had visited the
Vorstenlanden at least once upon returning from Europe in 1852 (Kraus 2012:
89). However, painting the landscape of the Fiery Mountain at the “peak of his
fame” as a painter was a new challenge and not an easy one at that. He needed
to obtain permission from the Dutch government to enter the Vorstenlanden,
as well as to bear the burden of the expenses of travelling “decently” between
Batavia and the Vorstenlanden (Kraus 2012: 98). The opportunity to travel
emerged in 1865 when he was granted a permit to visit the Vorstenlanden
on a “mission” to gather historical objects and Javanese manuscripts for the
collection of the Bataviaasch Genootschap voor Kunsten en Wetenschappen.
Saleh did not hesitate to seize the opportunity. His arrival in Yogyakarta
in August was quickly followed by a visit to Merapi in November 1865. At
that time, people who lived near the volcano, including those who resided
in the Magelang Regency on the western side of Merapi, were worried about
a possible catastrophic eruption. During October and November, H.J.C.
Hoogeveen, Resident of Magelang (Kedu), had received numerous reports
about the daily activity of Merapi (Hoogeveen 1865: 3). Therefore, with the
scientist, Dr Hillebrand, the Regent (Bupati) of Magelang, and the Regent of
Temanggung, Hoogeveen formed a small party to observe this activity. For
some unknown reason, Raden Saleh joined this trip which took place on 9-11
November 1865.
This trip to Merapi was meant to observe its eruption phase in whose throes
it was at that moment. Raden Saleh, a skilled painter with an interest in the
volcanoes of Java, responded to the occasion, capturing various moments of
Merapi’s eruption in sketches before translating them into paintings. His point
of position for drawing Merapi was the party’s observation place at Jengger
Lor, a hill about 1,371 metres above sea level in the middle of the Blongkeng
and Lamat ravines on the western side of Merapi.20 Hoogeveen states that
Jengger Lor was 10 km farther away from the village of Gemer Sabrang (now
Gemer and Sabrang Hamlets, Ngargomulyo Village, Dukun District, Magelang

20
Kemmerling, quoted by Escher, remarked that the location Raden Saleh chose to create his
paintings on Merapi was Mount Plawangan (1,275 m. above sea level) situated on the southern
slopes of Merapi (Escher 1933: 51). Following Escher, Voight et al. also state that Raden Saleh’s
paintings of Merapi were made from Plawangan (Voight et.al. 2000: 83). On the other hand,
the Indonesian language version of Raden Saleh’s book by Kraus and Vogelsang states that the
location was Jengger Lor (North) (Kraus and Vogelsang 2018: 157). In the travel report compiled
by Hoogeveen, however, he uses only the name Jengger to refer to this location. I agree with
Kraus and Vogelsang that the place which Hoogeveen mentions in his report is also the place
from which Saleh made his sketches of Merapi, namely: Jengger Lor on the western slopes of
Merapi. At present, the villagers in Babadan, Dukun District, Magelang Province, still know
about this hill. Jengger Lor is higher than Jengger Kidul (south) and matches the description
given by Hoogeveen.
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 55

Province), at that time the highest human settlement on the western slopes
of Merapi. Jengger Lor was also a “favourite hiding place” of the Javanese
tiger (Hoogeveen 1865: 11). From here, the party could observe Merapi very
clearly. As stressed by Hoogeveen,

[...] The view from there was striking. Between the two ravines in which we found
ourselves, in a clear sky, we saw the colossal mountain in all its fury and starkness,
free and unobstructed before us. The site chosen by us was ideally suited to watch
the eruption.21 [My translation.]

The party stayed in Jengger for two days, from 10 to 11 November 1865.
The scene was perfect for Saleh as he could witness the “eruption spectacle” of
Merapi unhindered during this two-day visit.
During the observation trip to Jengger Lor, Saleh made sketches of Merapi
which became the basis for his two paintings of the volcano, entitled Merapi,
eruption by day and Merapi, eruption by night, both completed in 1865 (see Figure
12).22 His paintings depict stunning versions of the Merapi eruption which still
intrigue many people to this day. In Merapi, eruption by day, Saleh presents a
pyroclastic flow followed by the glowing clouds of Merapi, while a crowd of
spectators beside Blongkeng Ravine on the western side of Merapi watch near
falling rocks. Details such as a wooden hut and a Dutch flag flying from a long
bamboo pole on Jengger Kidul on the left-hand side of the painting are visible,
presenting an accurate portrayal of the event taking place.23 In Merapi, eruption
by night, Saleh captures the image of the fiery avalanches of glowing lava
which were ejected from the crater on multiple sides and turning into volcanic
ballistics (see Figure 13).24 Commenting on the two paintings, Escher felt that
both images of the active volcano are “fundamentally correct” and display the
characteristics of a 1865 Merapi eruption. However, he questioned whether the
lava streams did occur simultaneously in all directions, as the painting suggests
(Escher 1933: 52-53).

21
Treffend was het uitzigt van dáár. Tusschen de twee diepten waar we ons bevonden, zagen we bij een
helderen hemel den kolossalen berg, in al zijn woestheid en naaktheid, vrij en onbelemmerd voor ons.
De plaats door ons gekozen, was bij uitnemendheid geschikt om de eruptie gade te slaan (Hoogeveen
1865: 7).
22
Raden Saleh made several versions of these paintings in different sizes but they are currently
difficult to trace (Kraus 2012: 194). The National Museum of Natural History in Leiden, the
Netherlands, holds one of the smallest versions, only 20x30 cm in size. Another version of the
two paintings belongs to the Tan Family of art collectors based in Singapore. I show the latter
version of the two paintings here with the written permission from the owner.
23
I refer to the explanation by Hoogeveen in which he states that a few flimsy wooden huts
were constructed on the hilltops of both Jengger [Jengger Lor and Kidul] as encampment for the
party. A Dutch flag on a long bamboo pole was prepared by the District Chief of Probolinggo,
who accompanied the trip (Hoogeveen 1865: 11).
24
For the impacts and risks of volcanic ballistics to people who live near an active volcano, see
R.H. Fitzgerald et al. (2018).
56 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

Figure 12. Raden Saleh (1865), Merapi, eruption by day. Oil on canvas, 59,5 x 92 cm.
(Collection of the Tan Family).

Figure 13. Raden Saleh (1865), Merapi, eruption by night. Oil on canvas, 58,6 x 91 cm.
(Collection of the Tan Family).
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 57

However, when we consult Hoogeveen (1865) on this matter, we find

that he witnessed an event similar to that depicted by Saleh in his paintings.
Describing the rock avalanches during the day, Hoogeveen said,

The falling of the multitude of stones and slags attracted our special attention.
From the crater rim, 8,940 feet [2,724 m.] high, they came, smoking heavily, down
the slopes of the erupting cone, in tremendous, oft-repeated leaps and bounds,
flying thousands of feet downwards, as if they wanted to flee the unholy mouth
of the craters with unbridled speed.25 [My translation.]

Describing the glowing streams of lava at night, he states,

Merapi seemed transformed into a true Pandemonium. Awful, fearful, terrifying,

horrific was that sight, but nonetheless beautiful, glorious, brilliant, alluring,
insanely beautiful. Out of the crater, whose rim was glowing, now rose a fiery
column of smoke, while the lava was ejected glowing white and, like fantastic
racehorses, rushing wildly, tracing fiery arcs, made devilish leaps into the
nocturnal abyss, and rapidly exploded into myriads of fiery sparks. So swiftly
did the eruptions follow upon each other, they produced continuous surprises
and the straining eye had difficulty in watching them. The one stream of fire
was repeatedly followed or surpassed in shape and appearance by the other;
often, too, some of them collapsed as they spread and the mountain seemed
marbled with fire. On all sides and in all directions, we saw it pouring out and
undulating, radiant and flickering, sometimes rushing down like fiery waterfalls
and, at times, the whole volcano stood before us, lit up in one fiery ​​glow. It was
if the Phlegethon, the fiery river of the underworld, had forced its way upwards
by force.26 [My translation.]

According to Hoogeveen, the eruptions were so rapid and frequent they

caused the glowing avalanches of lava to fall simultaneously on every side of
the volcano. Therefore, what we see in the two paintings of the Merapi eruption
by Saleh are actual depictions of a major volcanic eruption – a singular moment
in geological time unique to 1865 – from the standpoint of a painter who

25
Het nedervallen der steenen en slakken bij menigte trok bijzonder onze aandacht. - Van af den kraterrand,
hoog 8940 voet, kwamen ze sterk rookend, langs de hellingen van den eruptiekegel, in geweldige, dikwijls
herhaalde sprongen, duizende voeten vliegend naar beneden hollen, als wilden ze met toomelooze vaart
den onzaligen mond des kraters ontvlieden (Hoogeveen 1865: 10).
26
De Merapi scheen herschapen in een waar Pandaemonium. Vreeselijk, huiverend, ijzingwekkend,
afschuwelijk was dat gezigt, maar ook tevens prachtig, glansrijk, schitterend, aanlokkelijk, overzinnelijk
schoon. Uit den krater, wiens rand in hellen gloed stond, steeg nu een vurige rookzuil op, terwijl de
slakken wit gloeijend werden uitgeworpen en fantastische renboden gelijk, wild voortijlende, onder
het beschrijven van vlammige bogen, duivelssprongen in de nachtelijke afgronden deden, of in haar
onzinnige en tuimelende vaart in myriaden vuurspranken uit elkander ploften. Zóó snel volgden de
eruptiën elkander op, dat zij een aanhoudende verrassing opleverden en het ingespannen oog moeite had
ze immer te bespieden. De eene vuurstroom werd door den anderen, in gedaante en voorkomen telkens
verscheiden, nagejaagd of voorbij gestreefd; dikwijls ook vloeiden eenige bij hun uitspreiding ineen en
scheen de berg dan door vuur gemarmerd. Van alle zijden en in alle rigtingen zagen wij ze stortend
en golvend, stralend en flikkerend, soms als vurige watervallen afwaarts snellen en bij wijlen stond de
gansche vulkaan in één robijnen gloed voor ons. Het was de Phlegethon der onderwereld die zich met
geweld een uit togt naar boven baande (Hoogeveen 1865: 12-13).
58 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

witnessed and recorded the event. The two paintings signify a combination of
the raw power and majesty of nature, arousing human curiosity, frightening
but also alluring at the same time. The depiction of volcanic eruptions in
paintings had begun earlier in Europe where prominent painters such as
J.M.W. Turner (1775-1851) had produced painting of the eruption of the Soufrière
Mountains, 30 April 1812 (1815) and Johan Christian Claussen Dahl (1788-1857)
with An eruption of Vesuvius (1824).27 Saleh continued this trend in Java, the
natural home of dozens of active volcanoes, when he painted the true character
of a large Merapi eruption in 1865.

The influence of landscape art and the humanities on paintings of Merapi

The two paintings of the 1865 Merapi eruption by Raden Saleh were the only
major artworks depicting the volcano in the second half of the nineteenth
century. After Saleh, with the exception of four drawings of the volcano and its
surrounding landscape by O.G.H. Heldring, a Dutch officer in the Koninklijk
Nederlandsch Indisch Leger (KNIL) dated 1880-1884, we do not find any other
depictions of Merapi.28 Indeed, there were no “Grand Tours” to Merapi as was
the case with Vesuvius in the eighteenth-century European painting tradition.
Travelling to Merapi remained largely a colonial administrative venture and
much less an artistic endeavour until the end of the nineteenth century. The
“winds of change” in the painting of Merapi began to blow at the beginning
of the twentieth century. In tandem with the trend of landscape art in the
Indies or the Mooi Indië (Beautiful Indies), a new generation of professional
painters, both European and Indonesian, arrived on the scene and began to
paint the landscape of Merapi more frequently.
In the early twentieth century, painters depicted Merapi as they painted
the beauty of the surrounding landscape in their work. In such paintings, it
appears Merapi was “remembered” and “re-presented” in its dormant state
rather than its “fiery wrath” during its frequent past eruptions. Of course,
the preference for viewing nature in this fashion did not appear of its own
accord. First and foremost, between 1915-1920, 1925-1929, and 1935-1939
Merapi experienced dormant periods (Voight et al. 2000: 91-98). Therefore, the
people who lived on its slopes enjoyed a comparatively long period without
any volcanic eruptions. Secondly, by the early twentieth century, a market
for colonial art had been established in the Indies. As members of the elite
of colonial society, in the Indies painters followed contemporary colonial
(European) tastes and conventions. They were motivated by the newly
emerging market for this art (Protschky 2007; Jim Supangkat and Gunawan
Mohammad 1976). Therefore, it was a matter of course that the landscape art
left its mark on the painting of Merapi in the early twentieth century.

27
J.C.C. Dahl was Saleh’s teacher in Dresden, Germany, during the painter’s period in Europe.
Saleh might have known Dahl’s two paintings of Vesuvius, including his An eruption of Vesuvius
(1824) painting. See Kraus (2012: 99).
28
Shelfmark: KITLV 36D497, KITLV 37B479, KITLV 37B487_2, KITLV 37B498. Collection of
KITLV – Leiden University Libraries (https://digitalcollections.universiteitleiden.nl).
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 59

Two painters who depicted Merapi in their artwork in this period were
celebrated painters of Java. Abdullah Suriosubroto (1878-1941) was an artist
who had followed his formal training in the Academy of Fine Arts in the
Netherlands (Supangkat and Mohammad 1976: 5). Between roughly 1900
and 1930, Abdullah produced paintings of the exceptional beauty of the
southern slopes of Merapi. We do not have any specific information about
the circumstances concerning his depiction of Merapi at this time. His
Pemandangan di sekitar Gunung Merapi (View of the environs of Mount Merapi)
(Figure 14) depicts a terraced wet rice-field in the middle of a forest close to
a flowing river, while the Turgo and Plawangan Hills, two landmarks on the
southern slopes, stand farther in the background and in which Merapi itself
is also majestically framed.

Figure 14. Abdullah Soeriosoebroto (c. 1900-1930), Pemandangan di sekitar Gunung

Merapi (View of the environs of Mount Merapi). Oil on canvas, 59 x 95 cm. (Source:
Lee Man-Fong 1964 No. 9; collection of the Presidential Palace of Indonesia).

In Figure 14, even from a distance we can still recognize the morphological
features of Merapi and its immediate surroundings, including the crater rim,
Pasarbubar and Ijo Hill on the north-eastern side of the volcano. Unfortunately,
the exact date of this painting is unknown so we cannot correlate the painting
with the historical record of volcanic activity occurring in this period.
Mas Pirngadie (1865-1936) was a Javanese painter who rose to prominence
at the beginning of the twentieth century. His exceptional talent was recognized
by Johan Ernst Jasper (1874-1945), then a government official (later Resident
of Tapanuli and Governor of Yogyakarta) responsible for indigenous arts and
crafts. This recognition led to Pirngadie being employed as a draughtsman by
the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen (Sumaamidjaja
60 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

1981: 64). Between approximately 1920 and 1935, while working at the Batavia
Society, he made a small sketch entitled Merapi, now held in a collection of the
World Cultures Museum, the Netherlands. This attractive drawing depicts
an idyllic landscape setting. In it, Mount Merapi is portrayed emitting smoke,
while the surrounding landscape, including those villagers who lived nearby,
remain unperturbed. Unfortunately, like the painting of Merapi by Abdullah,
Pirngadie’s sketch of Merapi is undated.
In September 1930, during the Great Depression, Merapi entered a new
eruption phase. A huge explosion occurred between 18-19 December 1930, when
the western side of the crater suddenly collapsed, spewing lava and gas and
pyroclastic flows down the western slopes of Merapi into the town of Muntilan.
The vast arable lands along the Senowo, Blongkeng, and Lamat Rivers were
destroyed, 1,369 people died, 2,100 cattle perished and 1,100 houses in eleven
villages were completely obliterated in this catastrophe (Voight et al. 2000: 99).
To help the victims of the 1930-1931 eruption, people from across the Indies
and the Netherlands, and elsewhere, rallied to offer financial support. A Merapi
donation fund was set up for the victims. The amount of attention devoted to
the Merapi disaster was so great that one newspaper satirically commented that
even the unemployed Dutch in the Indies envied the support provided for the
Merapi victims (Het Nieuws van den Dag voor Nederlandsch-Indië 17-01-1931). At
this time, Frederik Kasenda (1891-1942), a Manadonese painter, came up with
his own way to raise funds for the victims of Merapi. He created several Merapi
disaster paintings and sold them at solo exhibitions in various cities in Java,
between January and July 1931.
Frederik Kasenda was born in Remboken, Minahasa, North Sulawesi. In
his youth, he displayed exceptional talent as a “self-made man” in the art of
painting. Kasenda received support from Johan Ernst Jasper which enabled
him to continue his study of painting in Java. He quickly completed his studies
and subsequently rose to fame as one of the important landscape painters of
the Indies (De Indische Courant 05-01-1942). In the late 1920s, he maintained a
permanent exhibition at his art gallery in the Bojong District of Semarang and
advertised his collections and portrait-painting service in Semarang-based
newspapers, including De Locomotief and Algemeen Handelsblad voor Nederlandsch-
Indië. Shortly after the eruption of Merapi, Frederik Kasenda organized a solo
exhibition (31 January-2 February 1931) in Tunjungan Lodge, Surabaya. De
Indische Courant advertised the event:

On Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday, the painter Frederik Kasènda will hold
an exhibition of his work in the hall of the Lodge on Toendjoengan. The collection
will be on display from 8 a.m. until 9 p.m. the entrance fee for Europeans is set at
f 0.50 and for Natives and children at f 0.25. Twenty percent of the net proceeds
of the entrance fee is intended for the Merapi Fund. The painter is exhibiting
forty paintings, especially relating to Merapi and the destruction caused by the
volcano. In addition, fifty other canvases and water-colours, depicting nature in
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 61

Java, are also on display. Kasenda, who has a sterling reputation, is worthy of
attention. We shall return to this exhibition.29 [My translation.]

From this initial four-day exhibition, twelve paintings were sold to the
public, including four paintings of the Merapi disaster (De Indische Courant
02-02-1931).
After this event in Surabaya, Kasenda held a series of solo exhibitions
presenting his work on the Merapi disaster. On 16-24 May 1931, another
exhibition was held in the pavilion of Hotel des Indes in Batavia. At this
event, some of the prices of his Merapi paintings were reported in the press.
For example, his paintings which depicted Merapi prior to the disaster were
offered for f. 60 while those of Merapi after the disaster were offered at f. 55
(Het Nieuws van den Dag voor Nederlandsch-Indië 16-05-1931). After this event,
he held another exhibition in Societeit Concordia in Malang, East Java on 4-5
July 1931 (De Indische Courant 04-07-1931), while yet another exhibition was
held in the Tunjungan Lodge in Surabaya, East Java, on 11-12 July 1931. By
this time, we learn that Kasenda had only sixteen paintings of Merapi left to
display of the initial forty he had made earlier in the year (Het Nieuws van den
Dag voor Nederlandsch-Indië 09-07-1931). The public’s positive response to his
exhibitions, as reported in the press, indicates the strong sense of charity and
mutual sympathy for the victims of the Merapi disaster prevailing in Indies
society. His pragmatic approach to fundraising, using his paintings which
depicted the disaster, was a unique gesture during the colonial period.
Kasenda’s paintings of the Merapi disaster belong to the genre of disaster
art. They depict the horror which erupts at a time of calamity but they also
capture a message about humanity. In his painting entitled Refugees on the road
during the eruption of Merapi dated 1920 (1930?),30 Kasenda depicts men, women,
children, and the elderly fleeing from the violent eruption and seeking refuge in
the foreground of the painting, facing in the viewer’s direction, as if asking for
help (see Figure 15). Among the many figures in this painting are three buffalo-
drawn wagons crammed many people moving rapidly between other refugees
on foot. All this is happening as the entire area around them has been devastated
by the eruption. This painting stands in stark contrast to the landscape painting
of Merapi in the early twentieth century or the other drawings of Merapi from
the nineteenth century. The only similar portrayal of a disaster is the painting of
the Merapi eruption by Raden Saleh in 1865. However, Kasenda’s paintings of

29
“Vrijdag, zaterdag, zondag en maandag a.s. zal de kunstschilder Frederik Kasènda een tentoonstelling
van zijn werk houden in de zaal van de Loge op Toendjoengan alhier. De collectie zal zijn te bezichtigen
van 8 uur v.m. tot 9 uur n.m. tegen entree, voor Europeanen gesteld op f 0.50 en voor Inlanders en
kinderen op f 0.25. 20 procent van de netto-opbrengst dezer entrée’s is bestemd voor het Merapifonds.
De schilder heeft veertig schilderijen geëxposeerd, speciaal betrekking hebbend op den Merapi en de
verwoestingen, welke de vulkaan heeft teweeggebracht. Bovendien worden tentoongesteld 50 andere
doeken en aquarellen, naar de natuur op Java geschilderd. Kasènda, die een goede pers heeft, verdient
belangstelling. Wij komen nog op deze expositie terug“ (De Indische Courant 30-01-1931).
30
The catalogue lists the completion date of this painting as “1920”, but this might be a
typographical error. The catalogue also states that it was exhibited in Bandung, April 1931 (No.
42). However, I could not confirm the date of this exhibition. See Pictures of Indonesia 2005: 10.
62 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

the Merapi disaster are about human suffering. According to one newspaper,
Kasenda’s paintings were the first artworks to depict the various phases of the
Merapi disaster which had been exhibited up until that time (Het Nieuws van
den Dag voor Nederlandsch-Indië 16-05-1931). Unfortunately, we do not have
any information about the whereabouts of the remaining thirty-nine paintings
of the Merapi disaster by Kasenda.

Figure 15. Frederik Kasenda (1920/1930?), Refugees on the road during the eruption of
Merapi. Oil on canvas, 61 x 104 cm. (Source: Pictures of Indonesia 2005: 10).

Following Kasenda’s paintings of the Merapi disaster, landscape painting

returned to being “dominated” by the stereotypical image of Merapi. Gifted
artists from various backgrounds produced important paintings of Merapi in
this period. Basuki Abdullah (1915-1993), the son of Abdullah Suriosubroto,
was one of the painters who created a new series of paintings of Merapi. In
his Mount Merapi and the Opak River, which was completed between roughly
1930 and 1965, he depicts Mount Merapi belching clouds of ash and lava
(www.archive.ivaa-online.org/, accessed on 21-05-2021). The Opak River,
a tributary of the Gendol River, which flows along the southern slopes of
Merapi, looks tranquil in this painting. Basuki also depicts Merapi in his 1935
religious painting entitled Maria Assumpta, now part of the collection of the
Jesuit Order in Nijmegen, the Netherlands. This painting portrays the Virgin
Mary in traditional Javanese dress, blessing the land and the people beneath
her, including an area on the slopes of Mount Merapi and Mount Merbabu.
The Jesuit Father Jan Betvelzen has said that Abdullah painted this work as
a gift to the Jesuit Order, as it had supported his education in the Academie
van Beeldende Kunsten, The Hague, The Netherlands (www.kemlu.go.id/
accessed on 21-05-2021). Unfortunately, we do not have any data to explain
the basis for the images depicted in these paintings.
 Ghamal Satya Mohammad, Mount Merapi in paintings 63

Conclusion
From 1800 to 1930, Mount Merapi emerged as an important subject in paintings
and drawings of the natural world in Java. This volcano was drawn and
painted by a range of artists, including H.C. Cornelius, A.A.J. Payen, F.V.A.
de Stuers, F.W. Junghuhn, J.H.W. Le Clercq, A.B.S. van Oldruitenborgh, R.
Saleh, O.G.H. Heldring, A. Suriosubroto, M. Pirngadie, B. Abdullah, and F.
Kasenda. Mount Merapi first appeared as part of the natural background in
the drawings of the ruins of the Candi Sewu Temple, a major object of interest
in Java in the early nineteenth century. Shortly afterwards Merapi became an
intrinsic object of interest in the wake of the scientific explorations conducted
in Java and the rise of geology and volcanology as important scientific fields in
Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Merapi became a popular
subject in artworks in the early twentieth century because of the developing
trend in landscape art in the Indies society. The artists of this period depicted
Merapi in a variety of themes, including ruins and antiquities, science, volcanic
eruptions, landscapes, and natural disasters. This paper shows that most of
these drawings and paintings which depicted Merapi were among the first
of their kind in Java thematically speaking.
Interestingly, all the nineteenth-century paintings discussed in this paper
were realistic, suggesting the strong influence of science in the artworks of
this period. In the twentieth century, we see more variation in the depiction
of Merapi, primarily through the disaster art of Kasenda which resembles
contemporary expressionist style painting. Although there is no indication
that each drawing and painting of Merapi between 1800 and 1930 corresponds
to earlier ones, they are part of a “cumulative history of visual production”
(Gennifer Weisenfeld 2012: 29) in which the representations of culture, nature,
and trends in modern art intertwined in the visual images of Merapi and its
surrounding.
Examining volcanological aspects, the author has found a strong
correlation between depiction of volcanic activities in the artworks of
Merapi created during 1800-1930 and actual eruption events. The depiction
of volcanic activities in drawings and paintings of Merapi, except when not
dated, corresponded to a scientifically validated eruption. Some exceptions
are probably attributable to the low level of volcanic activity at the time the
artwork was completed. The depiction of volcanic degassing, as presented
in the drawing of Merapi by Payen (1825) in Figure 3 and, most likely, in the
drawing by Le Clercq (1845) in Figure 11, were not included in the eruption
record of their respective years. Kasenda’s painting of the Merapi disaster is an
unusual case because he specifically drew the Merapi eruption in 1930 through
the expressionist lens of disaster art. In the depiction of natural hazards and
disasters in the artworks of Merapi, the author has discovered the significance
of beauty and harmony in the portrayal of volcanic activities. This ties in
with what David E. Alexander (2016) has said about the portrayal of disaster
in the fine arts in the West. He concludes that artists tend to portray the full
spectrum from beauty and harmony to chaos and destruction (Alexander 2016:
64 Wacana Vol. 23 No. 1 (2022)

10). In the case of Merapi, the depiction of volcanic activities was frequently
combined with the idyllic nature of the Merapi landscape. These artworks
testify to the power and beauty of nature which was frequently on display in
the vicinity of Merapi between 1800 and 1930.
When confronting the power of nature as manifested in Merapi, this paper
stresses that the artists of this period were “sensitive” to outbursts of volcanic
activities. These artists had an environmental awareness of the need to depict
what they actually saw in nature and “record” it on paper or canvas. Three
basic factors contributed to this situation, namely: the influence of science,
landscape art, and a sense of humanitarianism. The emergence of western
science in Java encouraged an “empirical approach” to drawing and painting
in this period. This development influenced artists to work on-site and then
draw or paint in a style which reflected a “precise” depiction of nature (Gaynor
and McLean 2008: 192). In the nineteenth- and twentieth-century paintings
of Merapi, the influence of landscape art motivated painters such as Saleh to
take this inspiration forward to create his own unique paintings of Merapi
eruptions. A sense of humanitarianism was also a contributing factor behind
the environmental concern of the artists who took Merapi as their subject. The
catastrophic Merapi eruption of 1930 prompted Kasenda to use his painting
skills as an expression of humanitarianism in Java by creating his own works
of disaster art. Immediately following the Merapi disaster of 1930, Kasenda
made a singular artistic attempt to support the victims of Merapi by organizing
a series of solo exhibitions.
Lastly, the historical-geophysical context of each artwork played a role
in the way the artist depicted Merapi. The artworks and historical-scientific
data of this period complement each other in confirming the significance
of the artworks in depicting the actual real-time situation of Merapi and its
surrounding areas. The artworks of Merapi between 1800 and 1930 discussed
in this paper provide past dynamic glimpses of Merapi. They inform us that
Merapi has been a “site” of many past severe eruptions as a consequence of
its historical location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.

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