Technical Bulletin: 3/2008

Biomass and Biodiesel for Energy Production

from Salt-Affected Lands

S. K. Sharma
Gurbachan Singh
G. G. Rao
N. P. S. Yaduvanshi

Central Soil Salinity Research Institute

(ICAR)
Karnal 132 001, India
Citation : Sharma, S. K., Gurbachan Singh, Rao, G. G. and Yaduvanshi, N. P. S. (2008)
Biomass and Biodiesel for Energy Production from Salt-Affected Lands. p.20

Published by : Director, Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal 132001 (Haryana)
Tel.: +91-184-2290501, Gram: salinity Fax: +91-184-2290480
Email : [email protected], Website : www.cssri.org

Technical Editing : Randhir Singh

Technical Assistance : Ramakrishna Prasad

Photographs : B. NSharma, Ramkrishna Prasad and S. K. Sharma

Designed & Printed at : Azad Offset Printers (P) Ltd. 144-Press Site, I.A.-1, Chandigarh
Tel. : 0172- 2652349, 2651316, 2654411,5001805
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction 1
2. Potential and Scope of Biofuels 2
3. Objectives 4
4. Salient Research Findings 5
Alkali/Sodicity tolerance of Jatropha and Pongamia
Irrigation
Fertilizers
Genetic Variability and plant improvement
Pruning
Spacing Requirement
Intercropping
Response of Jatropha to salinity and saline water irrigation
Tolerance to water stagnation/water logging
5. Limitation and Cautions 18
6. Conclusions 19
7. Future Scenario 20
 Biomass and Biodiesel for Energy Production from Salt-Affected Lands
S. K. Sharma, Gurbachan Singh, G. G. Rao and N. P. S. Yaduvanshi
Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal

INTRODUCTION

w ith worldwide demand for oil rising — and crude oil driving prices upward and touching
128$ per barrel crude oil— the need for alternative oil sources to help nations achieve
greater energy independence has assumed greater importance. As per Planning Commission figures,
India currently imports about 70% of its oil requirement. Therefore, the need for alternative oil
sources to help nations achieve greater energy independence has never been greater. In this scenario,
biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel are becoming more cost-effective and attractive, besides
providing the option of growing some of their fuel at home, curbing the demand for imports.
Production of bio-diesel from Jatropha and other plantations on degraded and marginal lands
assumes high relevance for countries like India which import large quantities of crude oil and have
large land areas already degraded or under the threat of degradation.
Government of India has chosen bio-diesel produced from oil-bearing seeds of Jatropha (Jatropha
curcas) and Pongamia (Pongamia pinnata) as a substitute for HSD (high-speed diesel) under the
National Mission on Bio-diesel (NMB). The challenge is to produce large quantities of biofuels at
prices competitive with those of currently used fossil fuel products on a sustainable and
environmental friendly basis with particular emphasis on the under-utilized and less productive
lands. Initial efforts in this direction, produced mixed results due to lack of information, systematic
research and lack of knowledge about suitable and productive lines and silviculture practices in
different soils and agro-climatic situations. In the present scenario, when most of the cultivable area
has been occupied by conventional / cultivated crops, plant species having tolerance to different
stresses and having potential to produce reasonable biomass in degraded land under less favourable
environmental conditions need to be promoted.
In view of the emerging national priorities for achieving energy security and making judicious use of
salt-affected soils several studies have been initiated at CSSRI, Karnal and its Regional Research
Centers located in different agro-climatic conditions of the country. The ultimate goal is to develop
site-specific suitable genotypes that are tolerant to adverse growing conditions such as salinity,
alkalinity, waterlogging and frost, so as to promote their cultivation in such areas.

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Jatropha curcas (L), known as Ratan Jyot or Vana Erand, is fast growing, providing a source of
renewable energy, produces useful oil from its seed and is also a good soil conservation plant,
adaptable as a wind break and has other multiple uses. Jatropha, which already grows in several parts
of India, is domesticated all over India for more than 400 years, is moderately resistant to drought,
and thrives in arid and semi-arid areas. It is a vigorous plant and is not eaten by animals. It provides
environmental benefits such as protection of crops or pasture lands, as a hedge for erosion control, or
as a windbreak and a source of organic manure and fuel wood. Similarly, another multi-purpose tree
species Pongamia pinnata, known as karanj or papri is also being propagated in the NMB.

POTENTIAL & SCOPE OF BIOFUELS

I ndia is reported to have 107 million hectares of wasteland and it may be possible to bring 10 to 20
per cent of this land under cultivation of plants that can yield biomass for energy. As per estimates
of the International Energy Agency, farmers could supply the world with about 10 percent of its
gasoline by 2025. Biofuels can be produced from a wide range of feedstocks, from traditional corn
or rapeseed oil, or the more unconventional used cooking oil or cheese. Edible oils are used as
biodiesel in Europe, USA and other countries, whereas for countries like India which are already
short of edible oils, use of non-edible oils only seems to be a suitable option. In countries like USA
and Canada food gains like corn and wheat are being diverted for ethanol production. However,
India cannot afford this option owing to limited area for food production to feed a population of
about 1.1 billion.
Jatropha is a multipurpose plant whose every part has some economical value. Plants start producing
oil-bearing seeds within one or two years of planting and optimum yields are obtained by three to
five years and plants are reported to be productive up to 45- 50 years. The main economic part of
Jatropha is its kernel. The oil content is reported to vary from 25-35 per cent in the seeds and 50-60
per cent in the kernel. The oil contains 21 per cent saturated fatty acids and 79 per cent unsaturated
fatty acids. Jatropha oil is also used as an illuminant as it burns without emitting smoke. Its latex
contains an alkaloid known as “Jatrophine" which is reported to have anti-cancerous properties. It is
also used as an external application for skin diseases and rheumatism and for sores on domestic
livestock. Roots are reported to be used as an antidote for snake-bites. We have tried to gather
information about the various uses of different parts of Jatropha and Pongamia and these are
summarized in Table 1. Proper awareness about various uses and products from different parts of
Jatropha along with suitable value addition will boost its economic competitiveness and real
contribution to rural development programmes.

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Table 1. Uses of Jatropha and Pongamia multi purpose tree species

Part Jatropha Pongamia

Seeds Biodiesel, Glycerine Biodiesel

Oil cake Bio Manure Bio Manure, Poultry feed & Insecticide

Stem & Toothache, Gum bleeding & Fuel, Timber for furniture &
Cuttings Pyorrhea, Wood and cuttings different Implements
for fuel available every year
after pruning, Dye for
colouring cloth and fish nets
Good potential to produce
Biomass

Leaves Aqueous Extract Insecticidal Insecticidal properties, Fodder

properties, Fumigation of
houses, As Tussar silkworm
feed, Dye for colouring cloth
and fish nets, Bee keeping
Leaf litter is a good source of
organic matter and nutrients

Leaves, Medicinal uses (Laxative, Arthritis, Medicinal use in Gout

Latex & Gout & Jaundice, Antidote for & Skin diseases
Roots Snake bite, Anti-Cancer drugs ,
Anthelmic

Plants Hedge, Tree & Plantation Crop As Shade & Ornamental

Tree on roadside

Production 1-3 Years Starts after 5 Years

Starts

Age Up to 40-50 Years > 50 Years

Origin & Origin from Mexico & S. America Origin in South Asia
Popularity

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Potential Areas for Cultivation
As per estimates of the Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD), the following areas have potential
for cultivation of Jatropha
•About 3.0 million ha (notional) of land in the under stocked forests out of the total forest cover
•Two m ha of notional plantation is expected on land held by absentee landlords
•On wastelands under Integrated Watershed Development and other poverty alleviation
programmes of Ministry of Rural Development a potential of 2 m ha of plantation is assessed
•One m ha of notional coverage with Jatropha on vast stretches of public lands along railway
tracks, roads and canals.
•Jatropha hedges around agricultural fields can amount to 3.0 m ha (notional) plantation.

OBJECTIVES

S tudies on Jatropha and Pongamia are being conducted by a multi- disciplinary team of scientists
at Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Karnal and its three regional centers with the
following objectives:
Short -term
•To acquire, evaluate and identify plant species and varieties from different areas / sources to
increase genetic diversity suitable for alkali, saline soils and saline-vertisols
•To develop a germplasm base to promote their economic production
•Screen species for germination, propagation, seedling, vegetative and reproductive growth
under salinity / sodicity in pots, micro plots and field situations to assess their productivity
Long-term
• Physiological mechanisms governing tolerance/ susceptibility of lines/ clones of Jatropha and
Pongamia
• Monitoring of the target sites for soil-plant interactions with focus on accumulation and
toxicity of salts and microelements in plant parts and rhizosphere
• Studies on water and nutrient uptake patterns, availability and utilization, processes of gas
exchange, photosynthesis and C-sequestration
! To develop a package of practices for raising Jatropha and Pongamia plantations in salt affected
soils
• Establishing germplasm orchard of tolerant and productive lines of these species
Ultimate objective is to identify suitable and productive genotypes / varieties tolerant to adverse
growing conditions such as salinity, alkalinity, water-logging and frost so as to increase the range of
growth / cultivation.

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In order to achieve the above objectives and to exploit and promote the potential of Jatropha and
Pongamia for energy generation and identify the tolerance potential for saline, alkali / sodic soils and
irrigation with poor quality waters besides suitable agricultural practices for optimum productivity,
a series of experiments were initiated at CSSRI Karnal and its Regional Research Stations at
Lucknow (UP), Bharuch (Gujarat) and Canning Town (West Bengal) and the following studies are
being undertaken :
•Evaluation of plant tolerance to salinity and alkalinity/ sodicity stresses in pots and fields
•Studies on irrigation, fertilizer, spacing, pruning requirements and intercropping in semi-
reclaimed alkali soil at Karnal
•Performance evaluation in highly alkali soils at Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
•Performance evaluation in saline vertisols in Bharuch, Gujarat
•Performance evaluation in coastal saline soils in West Bengal

SALIENT RESEARCH FINDINGS

I n this brochure, some of the preliminary observations based upon our experience of working
with Jatropha for the last three years are discussed. These observations / results will be confirmed
over the seasons before making field scale recommendations. These efforts will help identify possible
untapped genetic diversity, enhance the potential value through increased use of the available genetic
diversity and optimizing productivity through proper silvicultural and agronomic practices in the
salt affected lands.

RESEARCH AT KARNAL
Experiments on irrigation, fertilizers, spacing and pruning requirements and intercropping have
been laid in one hectare field having semi-reclaimed soil. Soil samples at the start of the plantation
revealed that surface soil pH ranged from 7.65 to 8.35 at 0-15 cm and 7.70 to 9.20 at 15-30 cm
depths, while lower soil depths (60- 90 cm and 90 -120 cm) had much higher pH up to 10.15
with the range from 8.05 - 10.15. Hard calcareous layer was present at lower depths (90-120 cm)
Which varied in its presence and depth across the field. Variability in terms of pH and hard pan
layer (CaCO3) was present at the initial soil characterization stage. Low to medium organic
carbon (around 0.60 % at surface and 0.20 % at lower depths), low nitrogen and medium P levels
occurred in all the profiles. Lower concentration of DTPA Zn and higher concentrations of Fe,
Mn and Cu in comparison to critical limits of these micro-nutrients were observed. One year old
Jatropha plants were planted in July 2005 using auger hole technology and applying farm yard
manure, gypsum & inorganic fertilizers. The original properties of the experimental soil are
given in Table-2.

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 Table-2. Soil pH and EC of different profiles in the field at the start of Jatropha experiment

Depth Profile 1 Profile 2 Profile 3 Profile 4

(cm) pH 2 EC2 pH 2 EC2 pH 2 EC2 pH 2 EC2
0-15 8.20 1.85 8.35 0.37 8.13 0.30 7.65 0.40
15-30 8.00 1.84 9.00 0.44 9.20 0.56 7.70 0.30
30- 60 7.95 1.95 9.56 0.85 9.90 1.25 7.60 0.26
60- 90 8.00 2.75 9.80 1.12 9.96 1.30 7.65 0.24
90- 120 8.05 0.30 9.70 0.97 10.15 1.61 8.50 0.41

Hard Pan Layer (Kankar)

Alkali / Sodicity Tolerance of Jatropha and Pongamia

Pot studies were conducted to evaluate sodicity tolerance of these species. Different levels of pH
were created artificially by adding desired amounts of sodium bicarbonate to soil having pH 7.8 and
allowed to equilibrate to achieve uniform and stable levels. Twenty Kg of these soils having pH 7.8,
9.0, 9.5 and 9.8 were filled in 30 cm diameter and 30 cm height porcelain pots and 3-months old and
uniform seedlings of Jatropha and Pongamia were planted. Jatropha (Plate-1) and Pongamia (Plate-
3) perform well up to pH 9.5. Significant reductions in shoot and root growth were observed
beyond pH 9.5 in both the species in pots. This indicates moderate tolerance to alkali / sodic stress
conditions (up to pH 9.5). However in field situations, Jatropha plants were able to tolerate
relatively higher pH and the observed growth reductions were lesser than those observed in pots. It

Plate-1: Pot studies showing Jatropha possesses moderate tolerance to alkalinity (pH2 ~9.5)
6
was probably due to the fact that the soil in pots was having same level of pH throughout the profile
as compared to the field where surface layers had lower pH than the deeper layers. This is also
corroborated by the presence of the major proportion of roots in the upper profiles of the soil as
almost all the primary lateral roots spread near the soil surface horizontally going up to 2 m
distances, whereas vertical roots do not go below 60 cm in low pH and upto 40 cm only at high pH.
Number of fine roots and lateral roots are very much restricted in plants growing at higher pH than
in lower pH soils. Addition of gypsum and organic manure during auger hole planting in the field
studies was helpful to the plants in facing sodic stress during establishment stage (Plate-2). This is

Plate-2: Root growth in lower pH (Left) and higher pH (Right) fields

Pongamia pinnata

Plate-3: Pot studies showing Pongamia possesses moderate tolerance to alkalinity (pH2 9.5)

7
well corroborated by the presence of most of the roots in the upper 50-60 cm soil profile and hardly
any roots going below this depth even though the plants were 30 months old. Almost similar
tolerance levels were indicated in case of Pongamia (Plate-3).
Use of auger hole and application of gypsum or other amendment along with fertilizers help in
establishment and growth of plants in alkali soils having pH 9.5-10.5 and can be helpful in raising
Jatropha plantations on such soils. This technology developed at CSSRI has been successfully used
in plantation of forest and other tree species for rehabilitation and reclamation of alkali soils.

Weather at Karnal During 2006 and 2007

During the year 2006, a total rainfall of 340.7 mm was recorded, which is the lowest rainfall
recorded during the last 34 years since the inception of the Observatory as compared to mean annual
rainfall of 743.4 mm. The maximum monthly rainfall of 128.0 mm was recorded in the month of
July. During the monsoon, the heavy rainstorm of 41.8 mm was recorded on 9th July. The rainfall of
12.5 mm was recorded in January and there were just 25 rainy days during the year.

The total open pan evaporation during the year was 1492.5 mm and the lowest of 0.7 mm was
recordred on 20th December and the highest 12.0 mm was recorded on 15th June. The averages
sunshine hours per day were 7.0. The minimum -0.1oC and the maximum 43.0oC temperatures were
th th
recorded on 8 January and 8 May, respectively. The highest soil temperatures at 5, 10 and 20 cm
o o o th th th
soil depths were 50.0 C, 45.0 C and 37.2 C, respectively, on 11 June, 9 June and 7 July,
o o o th
respectively. The lowest values at the same depths were recorded as 2.0 C, 5.0 C and 9.2 C on 8
January only. The highest and lowest vapour pressure values were 27.4 and 4.1 mm of mercury
th th
column on 24 August and 8 January, respectively.

During the year 2007, a total rainfall of 761.8 mm was recorded as compared to mean annual rainfall
of 743.4 mm (for the last 35 years). The year was a wet year and the annual rainfall was the highest
among the last six years. The maximum monthly rainfall of 216.0 mm was recorded in February,
which was the highest monthly rainfall in February ever recorded at the observatory since 1972.
Three days consecutive heavy rainfall of 61.0, 99.0 and 22.8 mm occurred on 11, 12 and 13
February 2007 (total 182.8 mm) and it also significantly reduced the irrigation demand. There
were 36 rainy days as compared to 25 during the last year (2006).

The total open pan evaporation during the year was 1628.3 mm. The average sunshine hours per day
were 7.5. The minimum 0.8oC and the maximum 45.0oC temperatures were recorded on 12th January
and 10th June, respectively. The highest soil temperatures at 5, 10 and 20 cm soil depths were 48.0oC,
44.0oC and 39.0oC, respectively, on 10 June only. The lowest values at the same depths were recorded as
4.9oC, 8.0oC and 11.8oC on 12th January, 12th January and 1st January, respectively. The highest and
lowest vapour pressure values were 28.0 and 4.1 mm of mercury column on 8th August and

8
4th January, respectively. The monthly weather parameters recorded at agro-meteorological
observatory, CSSRI, Karnal are presented in Table-3.

Table-3. Weather conditions at Karnal during 2007

Rainfall* Evaporation Sunshine Wind

Month Monthly No of Heavy/ mm/ mm/ (hrs/ speed
(mm) rainy date day month day) (km/hr)
days
Jan. 14.4 2 10.4/31 1.6 48.8 6.9 6.6
Feb. 216.0 5 99.0/12 1.9 54.0 5.6 3.2
Mar. 60.3 3 32.8/13 3.6 111.6 7.9 4.0
Apr. 0.0 0 -- 6.9 206.7 9.7 3.6
May 7.2 1 06.0/27 9.2 284.6 9.0 6.3
Jun. 108.9 5 40.4/17 8.6 257.4 8.1 7.9
Jul. 100.3 6 40.4/16 5.4 168.5 6.7 5.5
Aug. 133.1 8 50.4/13 4.8 149.4 6.7 4.6
Sept. 119.0 6 57.6/22 3.8 111.1 8.6 2.9
Oct. 0.0 0 -- 4.0 122.9 8.0 2.3
Nov. 1.2 0 -- 2.0 60.9 6.4 1.7
Dec. 1.4 0 -- 1.7 52.4 6.0 3.0
Total 761.8 36 -- 53.5 1628.3 89.6 51.6
Average -- -- -- 4.5 135.7 7.5 4.3

Irrigation
Irrigation and fertility are important factors in determining optimum productivity of Jatropha in
semi-arid and salt-affected soils. The following irrigation treatments were imposed:
I0- No irrigation (Rainfed)
I1- 2 irrigations (Life saving- May/June (Extreme heat wave) & Dec. /Jan.(Frost) / year
I2 - 4 irrigations / year
I3 - up to 8 Irrigations / year

Preliminary results over two years show that application of at least 2 crucial irrigations i.e. during
peak summer (May-June) and peak winter (Dec.- Jan.) seasons is essential for optimum survival and

9
productivity of Jatropha in the first two years. An additional irrigation during flowering period is
helpful, in case rains fail. Applying irrigation before the expected frost is helpful in overcoming the
injurious effects of frost. Effects of different irrigation schedules on various growth parameters of
Jatropha after 10 months of planting are reported in Table-4 and Plate-4

Rainfed 4 Irrigations

2 Irrigations 6 Irrigations

Plate 4. Effect of irrigation treatments (0, 2, 4 and 6 irrigations) on root growth of two and a half year old
Jatropha plants

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 Table-4. Effect of irrigation on plant growth parameters of two and half years old
Jatropha plants growing in semi-reclaimed alkali soil (Each value is the
mean of 12 observations)
No. of Plant Canopy Stem No. of No. of No. of Fruit
irrigations height spread diameter branches fruiting fruits/ weight
(cm) (cm) (cm) per plant branches plant (g)/plant
/plant

0 292 198 4.97 27 10 72 352

2 275 212 5.14 29 13 98 457
4 311 234 5.37 30 16 221 670
6 301 228 5.53 31 12 167 639

Fertilizers
Though Jatropha is reported to be adapted to low fertility sites and saline soils, better yields can be
obtained if fertilizers are added. Supply of inputs in terms of organic and inorganic fertilizers
promote better establishment of plantation, plant growth and seed yield. Studies were conducted to
see the effects of fertilizers with the following treatments:
F0 - Control
F1 - NPK (50 g Urea + 120 g Single Super Phosphate (SSP) + 20 g Muriate of Potash (MoP)/plant
F2 - 2 Kg. FYM/plant
F3 - NPK + FYM (F1+F2)

In addition, application of mycorrhiza also help Jatropha plantations in better establishment, disease
protection and yield thus, giving higher vegetative biomass and seed production. Mycorrhiza
appears to be effective in promoting plant establishment, plant and biomass growth under alkali/
sodic conditions and protecting against wilt and other fungal diseases.
Genetic Variability and Plant Improvement
Low yields and plant to plant variability is a limitation in Jatropha. Yield variations from a few
hundred grams to 2 Kg were observed in the first two years whereas yields from few grams to 12 Kg
have been reported in literature in 4-5 year old plants. This indicates presence of genetic diversity
for seed yield and is a limitation as well as opportunity for plant improvement efforts as availability
of good materials in terms of seed and / or nursery and related infra-structure network for
procurement and processing is a pre-requisite for success of such new programmes. However, much
more research efforts are required to answer these questions and also to come up with suitable
provenances or lines to ensure proper incomes to farmers and protect national interests.

11
Establishment of germplasm orchards at Karnal and Bharuch is an effort in this direction which will
help promote further efforts in plant improvement. Thirty six lines/ selections of Jatropha have
already been collected from different areas and sources besides identifying 'candidate plus trees' for
higher biomass and seed yield. All these collections have been planted in germplasm orchards for
further evaluation and salt tolerance. Two contrasting genotypes showing poor and good growth are
shown in Plate 5, 6 and 7. These materials have been collected Jatropha lines / varieties from

Plate-5: Views of germplasm orchard of Jatropha at Karnal

Plate-6: Fruit bearing in 1.5 year old Jatropha plants growing in a semi-reclaimed alkali field

12
 Plate-7: Slow Growth- No Fruiting; Good Growth and Fruiting

Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Haryana and Chattisgarh. Further efforts are being
made to strengthen this collection and also procure non-toxic and edible lines from Mexico and
Latin America.
Late formed flowers do not develop into fruits
It was observed that early flowering varieties i.e. July to early September flowering are more suitable
for the North Indian conditions where night temperatures start falling during the month of
October. Flowers in the late flowering
varieties formed later due to
indeterminate nature of flowering are
not able to develop properly because of
availability of lesser time for fruit
development and further lower
temperatures prevailing during that
phase hamper these processes (Plate-8).
Consequently, fruits developing out of
the later formed flowers either abort or
are relatively much smaller thus, leading
to lower yields. Indeterminate flowering
over prolonged periods is thus a limiting
factor in the productivity of Jatropha in
North India.
Plate-8: Photo showing poor or no development
of fruits from the late flowers

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Pruning
Some reports indicate pruning to be a useful practice for obtaining better yields in case of Jatropha.
It is generally recommended to prune upper two-third portion of the branches (Plate-9). This was
done in Feb.-March after leaf fall and seed harvest in Karnal conditions. Newly formed branches
produce side shoots for better sprouting, flowers and seed. In Gujarat conditions, pruning needs to
be done by mid-November. The cleanly cut top produces 8-12 side branches. It is a good practice
which help in restricting the plant canopy to heights of 2.5 meters for convenient seed harvesting. In
the subsequent years, the lateral branches are cut back during the dormant period so as to give a
bushy shape to the plant. In addition, more than 10- 15 kg fresh biomass becomes available per plant
every year as a result of pruning. Thus, 16.67 to 24.90 tonnes fresh biomass can be obtained with
normal 2x 3 m planting having 1666 plants per hectare which can provide 5 to 9 tonnes of dry sticks

Plate-9: Two year old Jatropha plantation showing good growth and biomass 5 months after pruning

Plate-10 : Dried bio-mass after pruning of one and a half year old Jatropha plants
14
which can be used as fuel for domestic use in rural areas (Plate-10). The fresh biomass can also be
used in the gassifier to generate energy / electricity.
Spacing Requirements:
Experiments to work out optimum spacing requirements for Jatropha in a semi-reclaimed field were
also conducted. Row to row spacing of 3m was tried in combination with 2, 3 and 4 m plant
spacings having 1666, 1111 and 833 plants per hectare. Plant growth and biomass of different plant
parts of two and a half years old plants under different spacings are presented in Table 5 and Plate-11.

Table 5. Fresh biomass of plants and plant parts (Kg) of two and a half year
old Jatropha plants (9 month after pruning) under different planting densities
Plant part Spacing
Weight (Kg) 3x2m 3x3m 3x4m Mean
Shoot 12.70 29.00 54.33 32.01
Roots 4.00 8.90 13.30 8.73
Leaves 256 2.71 3.91 3.06
Total Plant 19.30 40.65 71.52 43.81
CD at 5% Spacing-2.93, Plant parts-3.38, Spacing x Plant parts-5.86

a b c
Plate-11: Photograph of the two and a half year old Jatropha plants showing the effect of different
spacings (2x3 m (a), 3x3m (b) and 4x3m (c)

15
Intercropping
Intercropping with other value-added crops, particularly low water requiring crops including
aromatic and medicinal plants can be an option which provides additional income to the farmer
during the initial years. Optimum yields in case of Jatropha are reported from 3 to 5 years and is
longer in case of Pongamia where fruiting starts around 5 years. To evaluate this option studies
involving moong, mustard, dill, turmeric, tulsi, and matricaria as intercrop with Jatropha were
carried out in different agro-climatic and soil conditions. Since Jatropha can be grown as block
plantations, row fences or in combination with the agricultural crops, there is a need to test such
plantation models in field so as to optimize yields for adaptation by the farmers and
entrepreneurs.
Specific intolerance with these crops was not detected when intercrops were sown in Jatropha or
Jatropha and Pongamia plantations. On the contrary, the shade can be exploited by shade-loving
plants. Indian mustard gave a seed yield of 1.08 t/ha providing Rs. 26,000/ in addition to Jatropha
seed, when planted as an intercrop between Jatropha and Pongamia plantations on a semi-
reclaimed alkali soil. Similarly, dill (Anethum graveolens L.), a moderately salt tolerant spice crop
forms a good proposition for intercropping with Jatropha on Vertisols with sub-surface salinity
and irrigated with saline ground water(Plate-12). While, Jatropha produced 2.45 q/ha seed, dill
produced 670 kg of seed/ha. Gross returns from dill when intercropped with Jatropha worked
out to be Rs. 23000/- per hectare.

Plate-12: A view of mustard and dill intercrops in Jatropha and Pongamia plantations

16
 STUDIES AT BHARUCH, GUJARAT
Response of Jatropha to Salinity and Saline Water Irrigation
Studies showed that Jatropha grows and performs well in soils having salinity up to 10 dS/m. Similarly,
Jatropha plants irrigated with saline ground water (11.6 dS/m) on Vertisols with sub-surface salinity
also indicated good response in terms of growth, flowering and seed production (Table-6)

Table 6. Effect of saline water (11.6 dS/m) irrigation on seed and oil yield of
Jatropha on saline Vertisols second year plantation (1111 plants/ha)

Irrigation Irrigation Plant Seed yield Seed yield Seed oil Seed oil
frequency water height (g/plant) (kg/ha) content yield
(days) applied (m) (%) (kg/ha)
(l/plant)
10 (6) 90 1.36 268 2977 35.2 1047.9
20 (3) 45 1.22 184 2044 36.2 739.9
30 (2) 30 1.14 173 1911 36.3 693.7
CD at 5% – 0.06 8.54 15.57 NS 10.53
(Figures in the parenthesis indicate number of irrigations)

Plants irrigated with saline water at three different intervals i. e. once in 10, 20 and 30 days indicated
that there was no significant difference between 20 and 30 days irrigated plants in terms of growth
and seed yield.
This suggests that marginal quality of saline ground water can be saved if the crop is irrigated during
hot summer once in a month. Though only a marginal decline in seed yield occurred in plants
irrigated by saline water at 20 or 30 days, by foregoing this seed yield loss, there can be a saving of
marginal saline water by 50-66 per cent. Application of lesser quantities of saline water also reduces
salt build up in the soil.
Tolerance to water stagnation / water logging
Jatropha is well known for its drought tolerance and can survive dry conditions. It will also stand for
long periods without water and surviving on whatever little rains, if available. However, in order to get
optimum yield, irrigation is required. The observations at Samni farm, Bharuch in Gujarat indicate that
the plants can also withstand water stagnation for 2-4 weeks on saline Vertisols without any mortality
(Plate-13). Contrary to the general feeling that Jatropha cannot withstand water stagnation, we noticed
no plant mortality even after waterlogging for 2-4 weeks. Further studies to evaluate tolerance to
waterlogging in the germplasm available and the mechanisms governing the responses are underway.

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 Plate-13: A field view of water stagnated Jatropha plants at Samni farm, Bharuch (Gujarat)

LIMITATIONS AND CAUTIONS

D espite several useful characteristics, the full potential of Jatropha is far from being realized.
There are several reasons and issues: technical, economic, cultural and institutional - that
need further intensive research, discussion, formulation of policies and creation of proper infra-
structure. There is a need to be sure about all aspects of Jatropha, especially its effect on
environmental ecology and humanity as some reports indicating possible harmful effects have
appeared. Authenticity or validity of such reports needs to be looked into properly in a scientific
and rational manner. Due to its wide adoptability to different stress conditions, Jatropha can
spread as a weed raising possible environmental concerns. Evaluation for various diseases and
pests in large plantations or monoculture through higher inputs like irrigation and fertilizers is
also a priority.
A National Workshop was organized by Planning Commission & ICAR in New Delhi on Feb. 1,
2008 under the chairmanship of Prof. V. L. Chopra, Member, Planning Commission. Major
recommendations were that research activities related to genetic improvement, crop management
and development of high-yielding varieties for specific conditions and regions may be conducted on
priority. Jatropha cultivation may be taken up on wastelands only in the country. This
recommendation is important in view of the projections and estimates suggesting that 12 million
hectares of land will have to be brought under biofuel crops to meet the target of meeting 10% of
total transport fuel with biofuels by 2017.

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Some varieties of Jatropha from Mexico and Latin America are reported edible in nature as their
seeds are used for eating after roasting and oil is also used for edible purposes. We are trying to
procure such materials for introduction, evaluation and plantation in India.
Proper planning and coordinated efforts on the part of governments, researchers and farmers might
ensure that fields of Jatropha and other abundant oil tree and crops will stand alongside oil fields in
meeting the growing emphasis the world over on renewable energy sources, accompanied by rising
crude oil prices and uncertain world supply position are likely to provide a favourable scenario to the
benefit of Jatropha and other bio-diesel crop growers. However, there is a strong case to intensify
research efforts to develop sustainable technologies to make Jatropha and Pongamia a viable bio fuel
industry before making large scale investments.

CONCLUSIONS
! Irrigation and fertility are important factors in determining optimum productivity of Jatropha
in semi-arid and salt-affected soils. Application of at least 2 crucial irrigations i.e. during peak
summer (May-June) and peak winter (Dec.-Jan.) seasons is essential in the first two years for
optimum survival and productivity. An additional irrigation during flowering period is helpful,
if rains fail.
! Pot studies of Jatropha and Pongamia indicate moderate alkali tolerance up to pH2 9.5. There is
a need to evaluate more germplasm to identify identify more promising/ salt tolerant lines
! Field and other studies show good salt tolerance of Jatropha during establishment period as not
much reductions occurred in soil salinity of 10-12 dS/m and irrigation with saline waters. Thus,
saline ground waters can be used to raise and/or provide critical life saving irrigation(s) to
Jatropha plantation in case of limited or no availability of good quality waters
! Low yields and plant to plant variability is a limitation. Yield variation from a few hundred
grams to 2 Kg per plant was observed in the first two years in a semi-reclaimed alkali soil
! This confirms the presence of genetic variability in the germplasm thus, offering scope for plant
improvement efforts. Establishment of germplasm bank will help further efforts in improving
productivity.
! Early flower initiation (July-Aug.) is a desirable trait in the North Indian conditions as late
formed flowers and late flowering varieties face lower night temperatures thus hampering
proper seed development and maturity.
•Jatropha plants have good potential to produce biomass for fuel and other purposes and yield
significant leaf litter to improve soil quality. These are additional supplementary benefits
besides its medicinal uses, dye production, use as Tussar silkworm feeding, bee keeping etc.
•Pruning after seed harvest and leaf fall help promote biomass, flowering and seed production in

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 the following season besides providing 16.7 to 24.9 tonnes of fresh biomass every year which
after drying can be used as a domestic fuel and can also be used for conversion into bio fuels
with the newer technologies becoming available
•Plants raised through vegetative propagation show early establishment, flowering and seed
yield and are also relatively more uniform than the plants raised from seeds
•Applying irrigation before the expected frost helps in overcoming injurious effects of frost on
plants. Occurrence of frost in north Indian states is a limiting factor for Jatropha cultivation
These conclusions are based upon our experience of working with Jatropha and Pongamia for
the last about 3 years. Further observations and testing will continue to make final
recommendations.

FUTURE SCENARIO

T here is a need to examine the potential role of Jatropha in meeting the needs for energy services
for rural communities, creating avenues for greater employment and overall national energy
scenario. Keen interest and initiatives by Central and State governments and some major private
companies in taking up major plantations is a good forerunner in this direction and holds much
promise with lot of benefits for future.
Proper planning and coordinated efforts on the part of governments, researchers and farmers might
ensure that fields of Jatropha and other abundant oil trees and crops will stand alongside oil fields in
meeting the world's future energy needs providing a much-needed boost to rural economies around
the world.
More emphasis need to be given to harnessing use of other bi-products like available biomass with
potential use as a domestic fuel and as a source for bio-energy besides other multiple uses like
addition of leaf litter, honey bee keeping, silk worm rearing and other medicinal uses. These value
additions will make it a more productive and competitive system.
The growing emphasis and interest the world over on renewable energy sources, accompanied by
rising crude oil prices which has touched 128 $ per barrel and uncertain world supply position, are
likely to provide a favourable scenario to the benefit of Jatropha and other bio-diesel crop growers.
Some varieties of Jatropha from Mexico and Latin America are reported edible in nature as their
seeds are used for eating after roasting and oil is used for edible purposes. Efforts are being made to
procure such materials for introduction, evaluation and plantation in India.
Raising these plantations can also earn rewards for C-sequestration as Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) under Kyoto Protocol. On the basis of the prevailing trading rate of 25 dollars per tonne of
carbon dioxide, the country will be in a position to trade carbon dioxide and earn Certified Emission
Reductions (CERs), as one hectare of Jatropha plantation is estimated to absorb 10 tonnes of carbon
dioxide from atmosphere. India can acquire 10-15 per cent of the emerging global CDM market.
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