What is Academic Writing?

Learning Objectives
At the end of the unit, the students will be able to :
1. define academic writing;
2. explain the functions and purposes of academic writing
3. enumerate the characteristics of academic writing
4. enumerate stylistic elements in an academic paper
5. acquire skills in academic writing especially in formal essay writing
6. display awareness of academic conventions and practices
7. learn to develop argument in academic writing
8. discuss the importance of academic writing
9. write a fomal essay applying all the conventions and priciple of
academic writing
Content
• What is academic writing?
• What are the characteristics of academic writing?Define
your purpose and reader
• Structure your work
• How to incorporate evidence
• Use clear and concise language
• Demonstrate balance in your writing
• Choose the correct tense and voice
• Build your argument
What is academic writing?
• Academic writing is clear, concise, focussed, structured
and backed up by evidence. Its purpose is to aid the
reader’s understanding.

• It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and

does not require the use of long sentences and
complicated vocabulary.
Each subject discipline will have certain writing
conventions, vocabulary and types of discourse that
you will become familiar with over the course of your
degree. However, there are some general
characteristics of academic writing that are relevant
across all disciplines.
Characteristics of academic writing

Academic writing is:

• Planned and focused: answers the question and
demonstrates an understanding of the subject.

• Structured: is coherent, written in a logical order, and

brings together related points and material.
• Evidenced: demonstrates knowledge of the subject area,
supports opinions and arguments with evidence, and is
referenced accurately.

• Formal in tone and style: uses appropriate language and

tenses, and is clear, concise and balanced.
know your audience and purpose
Create structure

Once you have a plan for your writing, you can use this
plan to create the structure of your writing. Structured
writing has a beginning, middle and an end, and uses
focussed paragraphs to develop the argument.

In most formats, writing usually follows the same overall

structure: introduction, main body and conclusion.
The introduction

*outlines the main direction the writing will take,

* and gives any necessary background information and
context.

In the main body

* each point is presented, explored and developed.
* points must be set out in a logical order to make it easier
for the reader to follow and understand.
The conclusion
• brings together the main points
• highlight the key message or argument you want the
reader to take away.
• It may also identify any gaps or weaknesses in the
arguments or ideas presented,
• and recommend further research or investigation where
appropriate.
Arrange your points in a logical order

When you start writing you should :

* have a clear idea of what you want to say.
* create a list of your main points and think about what the
reader needs to know and in what order they will need to
know it.
*select the main points you want to include, ask yourself
whether each point you have considered really contributes
to answering the question. Is the point relevant to your
overall argument?
• Grouping your points may help you create a logical order. These
groups will broadly fit into an overall pattern, such as for and
against, thematic, chronological or by different schools of thought
or approach.

• You can then put these groups into a sequence that the reader
can follow and use to make sense of the topic or argument. It may
be helpful to talk through your argument with someone.

• It may be helpful to arrange ideas initially in the form of a mind-

map, which allows you to develop key points with supporting
information branching off.
 Write in structured paragraphs

• Use paragraphs to build and structure your argument.

• Make your point clear in the first ( topic sentence) or

second sentence( supporting details) of the paragraph.

• The rest of the paragraph should explain the point in

greater detail, and provide relevant evidence and examples
where necessary or useful.
 Use signalling words when writing

• Use signalling words to:

add more information eg furthermore, moreover, additionally

• compare two similar points eg similarly, in comparison
• show contrasting viewpoints eg however, in contrast, yet
• show effect or conclusion eg therefore, consequently, as a result
• emphasise eg significantly, particularly
• reflect sequence eg first, second, finally
How to incorporate evidence
Academic writing must be supported by evidence such as data,
facts, quotations, arguments, statistics, research, and theories.
This evidence will:
• add substance to your own ideas
• allow the reader to see what has informed your thinking and how
your ideas fit in with, and differ from, others' in your field
• demonstrate your understanding of the general concepts and
theories on the topic
• show you have researched widely, and know about
specialist/niche areas of interest.
There are several methods that you can use to incorporate
other people's work into your own written work. These are:
• paraphrasing
• summarising
• synthesising
• quoting

You are likely to use a combination of these throughout your writing,

depending on the purpose that you are trying to achieve.
Quotation
How to quote from others’ work
Quoting is where you copy an author's text word for word, place
quotation marks around the words and add a citation at the end of
the quote. When quoting others’ work, make sure that you:
• copy the quote exactly from the original, as the author has written
it, taking care to include quotation marks
• show where you have made any changes to the text (see citing
quotations using Harvard and citing quotations using Numeric for
more guidance on this)
• include an in-text citation and reference to the original author.
Use clear and concise language

Academic writing is concise, clear, formal

and active. It does not need to be complex
or use long sentences and obscure
vocabulary.
Be concise
In formal academic writing it is important to be concise. This helps
your reader to understand the points you are making.

Here are some tips to help you:

• Only include one main idea per sentence.
• Keep your sentences to a reasonable length (generally not more
than 25 words). Long sentences can be difficult to follow and this
may distract from your point.
• Avoid repetition.
Avoid using redundant words. For example:

* Use “because” instead of “due to the fact that”.

• Use “alternatives” instead of “alternative choices”.
• Use “fundamentals” and not “basic fundamentals”.
• Use “concisely” instead of “in as few words as possible”
Use formal language

• Avoid using colloquialisms or slang terms such as 'sort of' or

'basically'. Instead you could use 'somewhat' or 'fundamentally'.
• Write words out in full rather than shortening them. For example,
instead of writing “don't” or “isn't” you would be expected to write
“do not” or “is not”
• The use of clichés is not appropriate in academic writing. These
are phrases such as “at the end of the day” or “in the nick of time.”
Instead of this you might write finally or at the critical moment.
Use a blend of active and passive verbs

Most verbs can be used in either an active or passive form. It is

usually appropriate to use a mixture of passive and active forms
within academic writing. Always check with your department to see
what form of writing would be most appropriate for your subject
area..The active voice places the subject of the sentence in charge
of the action.
For example: “The research assistant designed the survey.” Here the research
assistant (the subject) designed (the verb) the survey (the object).

It is usually more direct and easier to read than the passive voice.
More characteristics of academic writing
Demonstrate balance in your writing

In your university assessments, there is rarely one answer

to a question or assignment. Research, ideas and
arguments should always be open to being challenged, so it
is important that the language you use acknowledges this.
• In your academic work, you should not present something
as a fact that might not be. In academic writing, you can
use language that we often refer to as hedges or boosters
to show how confident you are about an argument or
claim you are discussing.
Hedges
• When writing, be careful of using words such as "definitely" or "proves". Ask
yourself whether your statement is a fact or whether there may be some
doubt either now or in the future.

Some useful hedging words and phrases to use in your work are:
• “This suggests...”
• “It is possible that...”
• “A possible explanation...”
• “Usually...”
• “Sometimes...”
 Read the following two sentences:
• “Research proves that drinking a large volume of fizzy drinks containing sugar
leads to the development of type II diabetes.”
• “Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing sugar
may contribute to the development of type II diabetes.”
• In sentence 1, the statement is presented as proven fact: that a high volume of sugary fizzy
drinks will definitely lead to type II diabetes. This leaves no room for doubt or criticism or the
fact that some people may drink large volumes of fizzy drinks and never develop type II
diabetes.

• In sentence 2, the writer has used 'hedging language' – 'suggests' and 'may contribute' – to
show that while there is evidence to link sugary drinks and type II diabetes, this may not be
true for every person and may be proven to be incorrect in the future.
 Boosters
You might want to express a measure of certainty or conviction in
your writing and this is when 'booster' language can help.

Some useful booster words and phrases to use in your work are:

• “Clearly” (only use if you are certain it is clear)

• “There is a strong correlation...”
• “Results indicate...”
Take the same sentence as used in the previous section:

• “Research suggests that high consumption of fizzy drinks containing sugar

may contribute to the development of type II diabetes.”
• “Research indicates a clear link between the high consumption of a large
volume of fizzy drinks containing sugar and the development of type II
diabetes.”
• In sentence 1, the writer has used the hedging language 'suggested' and
'may contribute', to show that while there is evidence to link sugary drinks
and type II diabetes this may not be true for every person and may be
proven to be incorrect in the future.
• In sentence 2, the writer still uses language to allow for doubt and argument
but it is clear that this writer is more convinced by the research.
Use the correct tense and voice

Do:
* use the correct tense and voice in your written work. You will
probably need to use different tenses throughout depending upon
the context.
* use only first person voice in reflective writing
Academic arguments are not usually presented in the first person
* use more objective language, logic and reasoning to persuade
(rather than emotional or personal perspectives).
This may not apply, however, if you are asked to write a reflective
report based on your own thoughts and experiences.
 * use past tense to speak about your method
If you are writing about an experiment you carried out or a method
you used then use the past tense. For example: "Our experiment
showed wide variations in results where the variable was altered
even slightly."
* use present tense to conclude or discuss established
knowledge
If you are writing about established knowledge then use the
present tense. For example: "Diabetes is a condition where the
amount of glucose in the blood is too high because the body cannot
use it properly." (Diabetes UK, 2015)
 * When you are reporting on the findings or research of others then
you should use the present tense. For example, you might write:
"Smith's research from 2012 finds that regular exercise may
contribute to good cardiovascular health."

* When you are writing about your conclusions or what you have
found then use the present tense. For example: "In this case there
is not a large difference between the two diameter values (from
Feret's diameter and calculated equation), which again is probably
due to the fact that the average circularity ratio is on the high end of
the scale, 0.88, and therefore infers near circular pores."

• I
• If you are writing about figures that you have presented in
a table or chart then use the present tense. For example:
"These figures show that the number of birds visiting the
hide increase every year in May..
Build your argument
• The most important voice to get across in your writing is
your own; it is how you can show the reader (usually your
tutor) what you are thinking, what your views are and how
you have engaged critically with the topic being
discussed. You can do this by building an effective and
persuasive argument for your reader.
Make an argument
Your argument is how you express your viewpoint and
answer the question you have been set, using evidence.
 Your argument can help you plan the structure of your
work and guide you to find the evidence you need to
support it.

Make sure that your argument runs throughout your writing

and that everything you include is relevant to it. Try to sum
up your argument in a few words before you start writing
and keep checking that it remains the focus as you
research and write your work.
Structure your argument
Guide your reader through your argument in a logical way. Think
about what questions your reader might have. If you can answer
these questions through your argument, it will seem more
convincing.
Present both sides of the debate, along with your thoughts, linking
together the different elements.
You can then work towards a conclusion by weighing the evidence
and showing how certain ideas are accepted and others are
rejected. Your conclusion should make clear where you stand.
 Include your own voice in your writing
Your voice will emerge through your discussion, interpretation, and
evaluation of the sources.

Here are some ways you can establish your voice in your writing:
• Make your unattributed (not referenced) assertion at the start of
paragraphs followed by evidence, findings, arguments from your
sources.
Example:
• “To date there is no well-established tool to measure divided attention in
children. Current methods used to assess divided attention usually involve a
variation of the CPT with an additional task included e.g. counting or listening
to auditory stimuli (Salthouse, 2003).”

2. Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between sources.

Example:
“Smith (2009), however takes a different approach...
3. Explicitly tell your reader what the connections are between
those sources and your main assertion.
Example:

“Netzer's argument challenges the term 'renaissance', as it displays

repeatedly the use of classical imagery during the medieval period,
therefore illustrating that canonising a chronological period can be
disadvantageous as characteristics of the term.”
4. Use language to show your strong
agreement/disagreement/cautious agreement with sources.
Example:

“Smith's (2009) findings show a clear...A serious weakness with

this argument is...The research suggests...”
5. Include “so what” summary sentences (evaluative sentences) at the end of
paragraphs.
Example:
“This shows that it is detrimental to strictly categorise chronological periods
with artistic genres, as many art historians suggest different movements were
taking place in separate geographical locations at the same time.”
• Using different verbs in your writing will show your understanding of the
sources, for example:
• “Stevenson (2015) explains that...”
• “Stevenson (2015) argues...”
• “Stevenson (2015) describes how...”
You can also use verbs to show your agreement or disagreement
with other author's arguments. For example:

• “Stevenson (2015) correctly identifies...”

• “Stevenson (2015) fails to consider...”
* “Stevenson (2015) reveals...

Adapted from the University of Leeds

• “library.leeds.ac.uk/info/14011/writing/106/academic_writing/8