Hydraulics and Hydrology

Boundary Layer and Wake

1. Introduction
2. Definition of boundary layer thickness
3. Laminar and turbulent boundary layers
4. Solution of flow over a flat plate
5. Boundary layer separation (wake)
Introduction
 Introduction
Flow around an aircraft in a wind tunnel

Free stream velocity

which approximates
U(x)
potential flow
Boundary Layer
U - thin layer within
which velocity
changes from the
external free stream
velocity U(x) to zero
velocity at the solid
surface
 Boundary Layer and Wake
Significance
Pipe flow and open channel flow
 Friction at the pipe or channel walls
u
 wall shear stress o 0  o
y y 0
What is the origin of this friction or shear stress?
• No-slip condition  forces the flow velocity at
the wall to be zero
• Away from the wall, the flow velocity needs to
increase to its full value over some distance.
u
     
y
 Definition and Importance of BL

 The fluid layer near to the wall (a solid

surface) with a noticeable change in flow
velocity across it is called a boundary layer
 It is responsible for the production of wall       u
y
shear stress and friction on the solid surface
 On a bluff body, the boundary layer will
lead to flow separation and the production
of drag force
 Problems to address
1. How to describe the thickness of a boundary layer?
2. How will a boundary layer develop (grow)
downstream?
3. How much shear stress is produced on the solid
surface?
4. How will the development of a boundary layer lead
to flow separation?
5. What happens after flow separation?
Definition of Boundary
Layer Thickness
• boundary layer thickness, 
• displacement thickness, *
• momentum thickness, 
 Boundary Layer Thickness, 

Boundary conditions:
u0 u(0) = 0, for a stationary wall
and
u  u0 as y  
The boundary layer thickness
can be defined as the vertical
position at which u = 0.99 u0
or similar measure
 o
u
0
y y 0
 Boundary Layer Thickness, 

Some typical values of boundary layer thickness:

Flow
Flow over: Order of 
velocity
Supersonic fighter aircraft wing 500 m/s a few mm

Glider wing (1m wide) 20 m/s a few cm

Land surface 10 m/s a few 100 m

Ship 200 m long (water) 10 m/s 1m

 Displacement Thickness, *
u0 u0 For a given
velocity profile
u(y), * is
proportional to 

 

m   u ( y )dy m   u0 dy
o o


 u
m deficit    (u0  u )dy  u0 *
   1  dy
*

0
o u0 
 Momentum Thickness, 
 

M  m uo  uo  u ( y )dy M    u ( y ) dy
2

o
o
 
u u
momentum deficit: u    u(u0  u )dy
2
o    1  dy
0 0 u0  u0 
u0 u0

u-u0
For a given velocity profile u(y),  is a fixed fraction of 
 Laminar and Turbulent
Boundary Layers
Flow over a flat plate
A classical example of external flow for b.l. studies
Existence of an exact solution for the laminar b.l.
 “Blasius solution”: velocity profile u(y) in the form of
an infinite series.
 Development of Boundary Layer
 Flow over a flat plate
= u0  u0

u0
 Local Reynolds Number for BL development

 Boundary layer develops with x. It is convenient to

define a Reynolds number for boundary layer
development based on the size (thickness) of the
boundary layer
 Size of b.l. is related to the stream-wise distance x
from the start of the b.l.
 (Local) Reynolds number of a boundary layer is:
uo x
Re x 

 Local Reynolds Number for BL development

 On most smooth surfaces, the boundary layer can

remain laminar for Rex below 105~106
 at Rex > 2  106, most boundary layers have already
become turbulent
 Exact value of Rex for laminar-to-turbulent
transition depends on the conditions of the solid
surface, the turbulence level of the free-stream flow
and other factors
Solution of boundary layer
in flow over a flat plate
Analysis of flow inside b.l. with
“momentum integral equation”
Momentum Integral Equation for Boundary layers

p(x)………
u0(x)………

x x
distance: x x + dx
pressure: p p + dp
b.l. thickness:   + d
flowrate: Q Q + dQ Apply momentum equation
momentum flux: M M + dM on ABCD….
Momentum Integral Equation for Boundary layers

p(x)………
u0(x)………

x x
Assumptions:
•Steady, incompressible and two-dimensional flow
•Pressure variations normal to flow (y direction) are
negligible
•flow outside b.l. is ideal and inviscid
Momentum Integral Equation for Boundary layers

Flow rates:
Flow through AD is Q

Q  u( y )dy   udy
AD 0

Flow through BC is Q+dQ.

By continuity, there must be an inflow
distance: x x+dx of dQ through top of b.l. at CD.
pressure: p p+dp
b.l. thickness:   +d m CD   Q  dQ  Q  d Q 
 Q 

flowrate: Q Q+dQ   
 dx    udy dx
momentum flux: M M+dM x x  0 
Momentum Integral Equation for Boundary layers

Momentum flux:

M  udy  u   u dy
2
-through AD is M
AD 0

- through BC is (M+dM)

Momentum flux due to inflow through CD is:


  
M CD  m
 CD u0  uo   udy dx
x  0 
 Net change in x-momentum  M  dM   M  M  M dx  M

CD CD
flux through ABCD is: x
  2    
   u dy dx  uo   udy dx
x  0  x  0 
Momentum Integral Equation for Boundary layers

Forces on ABCD:
Net force in x direction:
Fx  p  ( p  dp)(  d )  ( p  12 dp)d   o dx
p
 dp   o dx   dx   o dx
x

Momentum equation on CV:

Net force = change in momentum flux:
p   2    
  dx   o dx    u dy dx  uo   udy dx
x x  0  x  0 
Momentum Integral Equation for Boundary layers

Momentum Integral Equation (M.I.E.)

p   2    
  dx   o dx    u dy dx  uo   udy dx
x x  0  x  0 
 is a constant  the wall shear stress is:
     2  p
 o  uo   udy      u dy   
x  0  x  0  x
Flow outside the b.l. is ideal p u
p  12 uo  constant
2
  uo o
 Bernoulli’s equation applies   x x

 ... ... ...   o  

 2
x
 
uo   uo * uo

x
Momentum Integral Equation for Boundary layers

Momentum Integral Equation (M.I.E.)

o  
 2
x

uo   uo
x

* uo

Wall stress due to: Rate of growth of b.l. External velocity change

• When free-stream velocity is constant, pressure also does not

change with x  p  uo  0
x x
• This situation is known as the flow of “zero pressure gradient”
o d
M.I.E. becomes 
uo2
dx
Momentum Integral Equation for Boundary layers

o d

uo2
dx
Wall shear stress depends only on how fast the momentum
thickness grows with x.

Smooth plate  smaller o Rough plate  larger o

 slower b.l. growth  faster b.l. growth

Also, o is higher at the upstream part of the plate

 Solution of MIE for Laminar B.L.
Solving the M.I.E.  know how b.l. properties changes with x
 wall shear stress o = ?
 overall frictional force = integration of o over plate surface

 For laminar flow,    u

y
 If u = u(y) is known, M.I.E. can be solved
 The velocity profile varies with x but fortunately, the shape of
variation is similar at all x 
u y
u  u( y)  f ( )  f ( )
u0 
 Solution of MIE for Laminar B.L.

• Consider the simplest case of a

laminar boundary layer over a flat Try:
plate at zero pressure gradient f    2  2 3   4
• The exact shape of f() can be
measured from experiments
• Or we can use an algebraic
expression to approximate the
expected shape of f()
• The choice of the expression should
satisfy these boundary conditions:
f(0) = 0, f(1) = 1, and f’(1) = 0
 Solution of MIE for Laminar B.L.
f    2  2 3   4

u u
1
   1  dy    f  1  f  d 
37

0 o
u uo  0
315

 u
1
   1  dy    1  f  d  
* 3
0
uo  0
10

u uo f 2uo
Wall shear stress is:  o    
y y 0
    0 
M.I.E.:
o d 2uo 37 2 d
  uo
uo 2
dx  315 dx
 Laminar B.L.: Growth of B.L. Thickness
2uo 37 2 d
 uo
 315 dx
2 630 
Integrating by separation of  x  constant
variables gives: 2 37 uo

 (x=0) = 0  constant = 0 
  5.8355 x
The solution of b.l. thickness is: uo
All b.l. thicknesses (, *, and  ) grow as the ½ power of x

  5.8355  0.685 * 1.751

 5.8355   
x u o x Re x x Re x x Rex
 Laminar B.L.: Wall Shear Stress
Wall shear stress varies with 1 and thus with x1/2
2uo 1
o   0.343 uo
3

 x
0.343 uo
2

In terms of Rex:  o  Re x

xL
FD    dx
x 0
o

Flat plate of length L (infinitely wide)

xL
 3 1 
   0.343 uo dx
x 0  x

FD  0.343 uo 2 L
3
 
 Laminar B.L.: Skin Friction and Drag Coefficient

Defining a Reynolds number for the plate length: Re  uo L


L

FD  0.686 uo L  0.686 uo L
3 2

uo L
L
FD  0.686 uo
2

Re L
FD 1.370
Drag coefficient on the plate: C D  
1
2  u
2
o L ReL

o 0.685
Local “skin friction coefficient”: c f  1 2 
2 u o
Re x
 Solution of MIE for a Turbulent B.L.
The turbulent boundary layer is usually thicker than the
laminar boundary layer, and the velocity gradient is steeper
at the wall boundary
For flow over a flat plate,
y the “one-seventh power law”

 is usually used:
1
u  y 7
 
uo   
1
f     7

u
 f ( )
u0
 Solution of MIE for a Turbulent B.L.
1
f     7

1 1

    f  1  f  d  
7
    1  f  d  
* 1
72 0
8
0

For turbulent flow, there is NO known relationship

between wall shear stress and velocities
Needs results from experiments  o on a flat plate:
1
   4
 o  0.0233 uo 
2

 uo 
 Growth of Turbulent B.L.
1
 o d   4
7 d
  0.0233  
uo dx  u0  72 dx
1

 72   
1 4
 d    0.0233 
4
 dx
 7 
 o 
u
1
Integrating, with 4 5
   4

B.C.:  = 0 at x = 0   4
 0.2397
 u  x
5  o
1

The b.l. thickness grows with x0.8    45 5

  0.381  x
(faster than x0.5 in a laminar b.l.):  uo 
 0.381
 1
x Rex 5
 Turbulent B.L. : Skin friction and Drag

Variation of wall shear stress along the plate: 1


1 1
 4
1 4
2   2    
0.381   x 5 
4 4 5
 o  0.0233 uo    0.0233 uo    u 
 uo   uo    o 

 
0.02966 uo2
o  1
On one side of a plate of length L, Re x 5

the drag force per unit width is:

1
0.0371uo L
2
xL
   5 L 
1
FD 
FD    o dx 0.02966 uo    x dx
2 5 1

 uo 
ReL 5
x 0 0
1
 45  1
0.0741
2  
5  5L  2   5 CD 
 0.02966 uo      0.0371 uo L  ReL
1
5
 uo   4   uo L 
 
 Example
Oil, with a free stream velocity of 2 m/s, flows over
a thin plate with 2 m wide and 3 m long.
Calculate the boundary layer thickness and the
shear stress at the mid-length point.
(Density of oil = 860 kg/m3, Kinematic viscosity of oil = 1.0105 m2/s)
Boundary Layer Separation
and Wake
 Boundary Layer Separation
Effect of pressure gradient

Negative pressure gradient (A to C)

 “favourable” pressure gradient pushing flow forwards
 helps the flow to overcome the shear inside b.l.
 b.l. thickness increases more slowly
 Boundary Layer Separation
Effect of pressure gradient

Positive pressure gradient (C to E)

 “adverse” pressure gradient opposing the flow
 additional retarding action
 b.l. thickness increases at a faster rate
 Boundary Layer Separation

Under positive pressure gradient

•b.l. grows rapidly in thickness
•momentum of fluid inside b.l.
quickly runs out
•After some distance, the
accumulated retarding action
finally bring the fluid near the
solid wall to stop (Separation)

Separation is followed by a region of slow and/or reversed

velocity flow  “Wake”
The wake is in a state of partial vacuum and the pressure is
lower than the free-stream value
 Pressure (Form) Drag

On a bluff body:
• Flow separation  wake behind body
• Wake pressure is below free-stream
value.
• At front side of body, fluid is either
brought to stagnation or slowed down
 pressure above free-stream value

Pressure distribution  a large drag force

This is called “pressure drag” or “form drag”.
“Pressure drag” + “skin friction” = total drag
 Flow
Direction

A bluff body: Pressure drag >> skin friction

A streamlined body: Pressure drag < skin friction
Drag Coefficient
 Control of Flow Separation
Flow separation can be delayed/prevented

Provide suction Inject high speed fluid

 Control of Flow Separation

Flow separation
at leading edge

Slotted wing
prevents
flow separation
 Tai Lam Chung
Reservoir Overflow
Spillway

Tai Lam Chung

Side Channel Spillway
1:50 model
 Field Observation

September 1993

Tai Lam Chung

spillway
overflowing.

Note how the water surface changes from smooth to

“white-water” close to the spillway crest (when the
turbulent boundary layer reaches the water surface)