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Profession
A profession is a field of work that has been successfully
professionalized.[1] Though the following definition
might not withstand historiographical scrutiny, by some
modern definitions a profession is a disciplined group of
individuals (professionals) who adhere to ethical
standards and who hold themselves out as, and are
accepted by the public as possessing special knowledge
and skills in a widely recognised body of learning
derived from research, education and training at a high
level, and who are prepared to apply this knowledge and
exercise these skills in the interest of others.[2][3]
A 19th century etching of a farmer consulting
Professional occupations are founded upon specialized with his doctor, vicar and lawyer
educational training, the purpose of which is to supply
disinterested objective counsel and service to others, for
a direct and definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain.[4] Medieval
and early modern tradition recognized only three professions: divinity, medicine, and law,[5][6] which
were called the learned professions.[7] A profession is not a trade[8] and not an industry.[9]

The term profession is a truncation of the term liberal profession, which is, in turn, an Anglicization
of the French term profession libérale. Originally borrowed by English users in the 19th century, it
has been re-borrowed by international users from the late 20th, though the (upper-middle) class
overtones of the term do not seem to survive re-translation: "liberal professions" are, according to the
European Union's Directive on Recognition of Professional Qualifications (2005/36/EC), "those
practised on the basis of relevant professional qualifications in a personal, responsible and
professionally independent capacity by those providing intellectual and conceptual services in the
interest of the client and the public".

Some professions change slightly in status and power, but their prestige generally remains stable over
time, even if the profession begins to have more required study and formal education.[10] Disciplines
formalized more recently, such as architecture, now have equally long periods of study associated with
them.[11]

Although professions may enjoy relatively high status and public prestige, not all professionals earn
high salaries, and even within specific professions there exist significant differences in salary. In law,
for example, a corporate defense lawyer working on an hourly basis may earn several times what a
prosecutor or public defender earns.

Contents
Formation
Regulation

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Autonomy
Status, prestige, and power
Sociology
System of professions
Characteristics
See also
References
Further reading

Formation
A profession arises through the process of professionalization when any trade or occupation
transforms itself through "the development of formal qualifications based upon education,
apprenticeship, and examinations, the emergence of regulatory bodies with powers to admit and
discipline members, and some degree of monopoly rights."[12]

Major milestones which may mark an occupation being identified as a profession include:[6]

1. an occupation becomes a full-time occupation

2. the establishment of a training school
3. the establishment of a university school
4. the establishment of a local association
5. the establishment of a national association of professional ethics
6. the establishment of state licensing laws

Applying these milestones to the historical sequence of development in the United States shows
surveying achieving professional status first (note that George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and
Abraham Lincoln all worked as land surveyors before entering politics[13][14][15]), followed by
medicine, actuarial science, law, dentistry, civil engineering, logistics, architecture and accounting.[16]

With the rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other bodies began to
claim professional status: mechanical engineering, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, psychology,
nursing, teaching, librarianship, optometry and social work, each of which could claim, using these
milestones, to have become professions by 1900.[17]

Regulation
Originally, any regulation of the professions was self-regulation through bodies such as the College of
Physicians or the Inns of Court. With the growing role of government, statutory bodies have
increasingly taken on this role, their members being appointed either by the profession or
(increasingly) by the government. Proposals for the introduction or enhancement of statutory
regulation may be welcomed by a profession as protecting clients and enhancing its quality and
reputation, or as restricting access to the profession and hence enabling higher fees to be charged. It
may be resisted as limiting the members' freedom to innovate or to practice as in their professional
judgement they consider best.

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An example was in 2008, when the British government proposed wide statutory regulation of
psychologists. The inspiration for the change was a number of problems in the psychotherapy field,
but there are various kinds of psychologists including many who have no clinical role, and where the
case for regulation was not so clear. Work psychology brought especial disagreement, with the British
Psychological Society favoring statutory regulation of "occupational psychologists" and the
Association of Business Psychologists resisting the statutory regulation of "business psychologists" –
descriptions of professional activity which it may not be easy to distinguish.

Besides regulating access to a profession, professional bodies may set examinations of competence
and enforce adherence to an ethical code. There may be several such bodies for one profession in a
single country, an example being the accountancy bodies of the United Kingdom (ACCA, CAI, CIMA,
CIPFA, ICAEW and ICAS), all of which have been given a Royal Charter, although their members are
not necessarily considered to hold equivalent qualifications, and which operate alongside further
bodies (AAPA, IFA, CPAA). Another example of a regulatory body that governs a profession is the
Hong Kong Professional Teachers Union, which governs the conduct, rights, obligations, and duties of
salaried teachers working in educational institutions in Hong Kong.

The engineering profession is highly regulated in some countries (Canada and USA) with a strict
licensing system for Professional Engineer that controls the practice but not in others (UK) where
titles and qualifications are regulated Chartered Engineer but the practice is not regulated.

Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a local professional body before they are
permitted to practice in that profession. However, in some countries, individuals may not be required
by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice, as is the case for accountancy in
the United Kingdom (except for auditing and insolvency work which legally require qualification by a
professional body). In such cases, qualification by the professional bodies is effectively still considered
a prerequisite to practice as most employers and clients stipulate that the individual hold such
qualifications before hiring their services. For example, in order to become a fully qualified teaching
professional in Hong Kong working in a state or government-funded school, one needs to have
successfully completed a Postgraduate Diploma in Education ("PGDE") or a bachelor's degree in
Education ("BEd") at an approved tertiary educational institution or university. This requirement is
set out by the Educational Department Bureau of Hong Kong, which is the governmental department
that governs the Hong Kong education sector.

Autonomy
Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own
affairs: "professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their
work".[18] This usually means "the freedom to exercise their professional judgement."[19]

However, it also has other meanings. "Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of
professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests...this professional autonomy can only be
maintained if members of the profession subject their activities and decisions to a critical evaluation
by other members of the profession."[20] The concept of autonomy can therefore be seen to embrace
not only judgement, but also self-interest and a continuous process of critical evaluation of ethics and
procedures from within the profession itself.

One major implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the
professions, especially accounting, architecture, medicine, and law. This means that in many
jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations and raise
capital rapidly through initial public offerings or flotations. Instead, if they wish to practice
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collectively they must form special business entities such as partnerships or professional
corporations, which feature (1) reduced protection against liability for professional negligence and (2)
severe limitations or outright prohibitions on ownership by non-professionals. The obvious
implication of this is that all equity owners of the professional business entity must be professionals
themselves. This avoids the possibility of a non-professional owner of the firm telling a professional
how to do his or her job and thereby protects professional autonomy. The idea is that the only non-
professional person who should be telling the professional what to do is the client; in other words,
professional autonomy preserves the integrity of the two-party professional-client relationship. Above
this client-professional relationship the profession requires the professional to use their autonomy to
follow the rules of ethics that the profession requires. But because professional business entities are
effectively locked out of the stock market, they tend to grow relatively slowly compared to public
corporations.

Status, prestige, and power

Professions tend to have a high social status, regarded by society as highly important.[21] This high
esteem arises primarily from the higher social function of their work. The typical profession involves
technical, specialized, and highly skilled work. This skill and experience is often referred to as
"professional expertise." In the modern era, training for a profession involves obtaining degrees and
certifications. Often, entry to the profession is barred without licensure. Learning new skills that are
required as a profession evolves is called continuing education. Standards are set by states and
associations. Leading professionals tend to police and protect their area of expertise and monitor the
conduct of their fellow professionals through associations, national or otherwise. Professionals often
exercise a dominating influence over related trades, setting guidelines and standards.[22] Socially
powerful professionals consolidate their power in organizations for specific goals. Working together,
they can reduce bureaucratic entanglements and increase a profession's adaptability to the changing
conditions of the world.[23]

Sociology
Émile Durkheim argued that professions created a stable society by providing structure separate from
the state and the military that was less inclined to create authoritarianism or anomie and could create
altruism and encourage social responsibility and altruism. This functionalist perspective was
extended by Parsons who considered how the function of a profession could change in responses to
changes in society.[24]: 17 

Esther Lucile Brown, an anthropologist, studied various professions starting the 1930s while working
with Ralph Hurlin at the Russell Sage Foundation. She published Social Work as a Profession in
1935, and following this publications studying the work of engineers, nurses, medical physicians and
lawyers. In 1944, the Department of Studies in the Professions was created at the Russell Sage
Foundation with Brown as its head.[25]: 183 

Theories based on conflict theories following Marx and Weber consider how professions can act in the
interest of their own group to secure social and financial benefits were espoused by Johnson
(Professions and Powers, 1972) and Larson (The Rise of Professionalism, 1977). One way that a
profession can derive financial benefits is limiting the supply of services.[24]: 18 

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Theories based on discourse, following Mead and applying ideas of Sartre and Heidegger look at how
the individual's understanding of reality influence the role of professions. These viewpoints were
espoused by Berger and Luckmann (The Social Construction of Reality, 1966).[24]: 19 

System of professions

Andrew Abbott constructed a sociological model of professions in his book The System of Professions.
Abbott views professions as having jurisdiction over the right to carry out tasks with different
possession vying for control of jurisdiction over tasks.[26]

A profession often possesses an expert knowledge system which is distinct from the profession itself.
This abstract system is often not of direct practical use but is rather optimized for logical consistency
and rationality, and to some degree acts to increase the status of the entire profession. One profession
may seek control of another profession's jurisdiction by challenging it at this academic level. Abbott
argues that in the 1920s the psychiatric profession tried to challenge the legal profession for control
over society's response to criminal behavior. Abbott argues the formalization of a profession often
serves to make a jurisdiction easier or harder to protect from other jurisdictions: general principles
making it harder for other professions to gain jurisdiction over one area, clear boundaries preventing
encroachment, fuzzy boundaries making it easier for one profession to take jurisdiction over other
tasks.

Professions may expand their jurisdiction by other means. Lay education on the part of professions as
in part an attempt to expand jurisdiction by imposing a particular understanding on the world (one in
which the profession has expertise). He terms this sort of jurisdiction public jurisdiction. Legal
jurisdiction is a monopoly created by the state legislation, as applies to law in many nations.

Characteristics
There is considerable agreement about defining the characteristic features of a profession. They have
a "professional association, cognitive base, institutionalized training, licensing, work autonomy,
colleague control... (and) code of ethics",[27] to which Larson then also adds, "high standards of
professional and intellectual excellence," (Larson, p.  221) that "professions are occupations with
special power and prestige", (Larson, p.x) and that they comprise "an exclusive elite group," (Larson,
p. 20) in all societies. Members of a profession have also been defined as "workers whose qualities of
detachment, autonomy, and group allegiance are more extensive than those found among other
groups...their attributes include a high degree of systematic knowledge; strong community orientation
and loyalty; self-regulation; and a system of rewards defined and administered by the community of
workers."[28]

A profession has been further defined as: "a special type of occupation...(possessing) corporate
solidarity...prolonged specialized training in a body of abstract knowledge, and a collectivity or service
orientation...a vocational sub-culture which comprises implicit codes of behavior, generates an esprit
de corps among members of the same profession, and ensures them certain occupational
advantages...(also) bureaucratic structures and monopolistic privileges to perform certain types of
work...professional literature, legislation, etc."[29]

A critical characteristic of a profession is the need to cultivate and exercise professional discretion -
that is, the ability to make case by case judgements that cannot be determined by an absolute rule or
instruction.[30]

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See also
Anticipatory socialization
Professional
First professional degree
Professional association (or body)
Professional boundaries
Professional class
Professional degree
Professional development
Professional responsibility
Professional ethics
Professionalization
Semiprofession
Norwegian Centre for the Study of Professions
List of occupations

References
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of Professions 2003. Retrieved 19 February 2020.
3. "What is a Profession" (https://www.psc.gov.au/what-is-a-profession). Professional Standards
Council. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
4. New Statesman, 21 April 1917, article by Sidney Webb and Beatrice Webb quoted with approval
at paragraph 123 of a report by the UK Competition Commission, dated 8 November 1977,
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5. Popat, Nitin. Introduction to Accounting (https://books.google.com/books?id=C6ybCwAAQBAJ&q
=oldest+profession+confidentiality&pg=PT215). ISBN 9781329911642. Retrieved 10 September
2016.
6. Perks, R.W.(1993): Accounting and Society. Chapman & Hall (London); ISBN 0-412-47330-5. p.2.
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Fisher, Redwood, ed. (August 1846). "Statistics of the State of New-York" (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=50ZKAAAAMAAJ). Fisher's National Magazine and Industrial
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8. John J Parker, "A Profession Not a Skilled Trade" (1955-1956) 8 South Carolina Law Quarterly
179 HeinOnline (https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/sclr8&div=32&id=
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AAQBAJ&pg=PT147#v=onepage&q&f=false); Richard Colman, "Medicine is a profession not a
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13. Redmond, Edward. "Washington as Public Land Surveyor" (https://www.loc.gov/collections/georg
e-washington-papers/articles-and-essays/george-washington-survey-and-mapmaker/washington-
as-public-land-surveyor/). Library of Congress. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
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18. Bayles, Michael D. Professional Ethics. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1981.
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Further reading
Abbott, A. (1998). The theory of professions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Brint, Steven. 1994. In an Age of Experts: The Changing Roles of Professionals in Politics and
Public Life. Princeton University Press.
Penelope J. Corfield, Power and the Professions in Britain, 1700–1850, Routledge, London, 1995.
Yves Dezalay and David Sugarman, Professional Competition and Professional Power,
Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-203-97721-1.
Eliot Freidson, Professional Powers: A Study of the Institutionalization of Formal Knowledge,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986, ISBN 0-226-26225-1.
Joseph M. Jacob, Doctors and Rules: A Sociology of Professional Values, Transaction Publishers,
New Brunswick and London, 1999.
Montgomery, Jonathan (1989). "Medicine, Accountability, and Professionalism". Journal of Law
and Society. 16 (3): 319–39. doi:10.2307/1409987 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1409987).
JSTOR 1409987 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1409987). hdl:10822/833082 (https://hdl.handle.net/
10822%2F833082).

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