Bolay

Future City 14
Jean-Claude Bolay
Urban Planning
Against Poverty
How to Think and Do
Better Cities in the Global South
Future City
Volume 14
Series Editor
Cecil C. Konijnendijk, Department of Forest Resources Management, University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
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Richard J. Dawson, School of Civil Engineering & Geosciences, University of
Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Patrick Devine-Wright, School of Environment and Development, Manchester
School of Architecture, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Almo Farina, Institute of Biomathematics, Faculty of Environmental Sciences,
University of Urbino, Urbino, Italy
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Centre for Environmental Research GmbH – UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
Mike Jenks, Oxford Institute of Sustainable Development, Department of
Architecture, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
Joan Nassauer, School of Natural Resources and Environment, Landscape Ecology,
Perception and Design Lab, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Stephan Pauleit, Chair for Strategic Landscape Planning and Management,
Technical University of Munich (TUM), Freising, Germany
Steward Pickett, Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY, USA
Robert Vale, School of Architecture and Design, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
Ken Yeang, Llewelyn Davies Yeang, London, UK
Makoto Yokohari, Graduate School of Sciences, Institute of Environmental Studies,
Department of Natural Environment, University of Tokyo, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
Future City Description
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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8178

Jean-Claude Bolay
Urban Planning Against

Poverty
How to Think and Do Better Cities
in the Global South
Jean-Claude Bolay
Cooperation & Development Center
Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne
Lausanne, Switzerland
ISSN 1876-0899 ISSN 1876-0880 (electronic)

Future City
ISBN 978-3-030-28418-3 ISBN 978-3-030-28419-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28419-0
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Acknowledgments
This book is dedicated to Alain Bagré, a Burkinabe urban planner, entrepreneur, and
former national director of urban planning, with whom I did my first field study in
Koudougou in 2014 and who died on March 19, 2016. A man of wisdom, knowl-
edge, and social relations, he helped my dream become a reality. The time we shared
in Koudougou and Ouagadougou will forever remain etched in my mind. Thank
you, Alain, and rest in peace.
I also lovingly dedicate this book to my three children – Matthieu, Caroline, and
Nicolas – with whom I share my passion for travel, discovery, and solidarity, and to
my companion, Joëlle Grignard, who sheltered me from the worries of the world,
with thanks to her smile, tenderness and attention I shared during this time of
writing.
I would like to thank the following people who, each in their own way, made this
adventure beautiful and fruitful: Jessica Strelec, a fantastic and tireless translator;
Marija Cvetinovic, the architect and EPFL doctor who revised and formatted this
book; Chantal Strickler, with whom I debated the project design in 2014; Abigail
Kern and Eléonore Labattut, who were successive heads of the “Habitat and
Sustainable City” section at the “Technologies for Development” UNESCO Chair,
which I head at the EPFL’s Cooperation and Development Center (CODEV) and
with whom I share my commitment to researching and understanding South cities
(our fieldwork together in Haiti, Argentina, Brazil, and Vietnam and discussions
greatly informed this book); Santiago Erbiti, a Nueve de Julio architect, Argentina,
friend of 30 years, and coordinator for the CODEV during the assessment for the
city’s authorities; Teo Vexina Wilkinson, an EPFL architect and two-time intern dur-
ing the course of the project; Prof. Iara Soares de França from the Department of
Geography at the Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros in Brazil, with whom we
carried out field studies there and organized an exchange seminar between research-
ers and professionals from Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, and Switzerland; Prof.
Elizabeth Leon Velasquez, environmental engineer at the Universidad EAN in
Bogota, Colombia, with whom we are planning to continue work on sustainable
urban development in this beautiful, warm country; Professor Loan Ngô Thanh, a
geographer at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities at Vietnam National
v
vi Acknowledgments
University in Ho Chi Minh City, with whom I have been working since 1993 and am
doing a similar study in the city of Chau Doc; Prof. Vijay Modi, director of the
Sustainable Engineering Lab and member of the Earth Institute for his warm wel-
come at Columbia University in New York during my sabbatical in 2014; and Felix
Moesner, director of swissnex Boston, for hosting me during my sabbatical stay and
organizing an exchange seminar with urban researchers at Harvard University. I
would also like to thank my administrative assistant, Corinne Waridel, whose indus-
trious efforts allow everything to run smoothly at the CODEV, both administratively
and humanly. I am indebted to her for this project and publication. I am also grateful
to Fiona Fossati, an indispensable colleague, for her rigorous, efficient travel coor-
dination and her ongoing administrative, logistical, and translation assistance.
I would like to conclude by thanking the EPFL management for having accepted
and supported this research and publication project by granting me a semester of
sabbatical leave in 2014, which allowed to get the ball rolling. Special thanks to
current EPFL President Prof. Martin Vetterli, my boss at the time and former vice
president of the International Relations; Former President Prof. Patrick Aebischer,
for whom the world spans beyond the USA to Africa and other South countries and
who strengthened the North South cooperation in our international strategy; and our
former Provost Prof. Philippe Gillet and his assistant, Nathalie Pichard. It is their
dynamism and confidence that led to the creation of the Center for Cooperation and
Development in 2011.
Contents
1 Introduction�� 1
Reference �� 5
2 Urban Facts�� 7
2.1 Urbanization: A Global Trend�� 8
2.2 Fragmented South Cities. Between Poverty
and Environmental Risks�� 15
2.3 Sustainable Urban Development: Dimensions and Questions �� 25
2.3.1 Urban Environmental Risks �� 28
2.3.2 The Urban Economy and Sustainable Development �� 34
2.3.3 Sustainable Development, Urban Poverty
and Social Disparities�� 42
References�� 49
3 Global Sustainability: How to Rethink Urban Planning�� 57
3.1 Urban Planning in Question �� 58
3.2 The City, Urbanization and Urban Planning�� 60
3.3 Urban Theories and Planning: Links and Practices�� 65
3.4 From Words to Deeds: Thinking About the City�� 71
3.5 South Cities and North Planning�� 73
References�� 80
4 Convoluted Urban Planning�� 83
4.1 African Cities: Non-standard Urban Development�� 84
4.2 Koudougou, a Regional Hub in Burkina Faso�� 94
4.2.1 A Central Pole in Its Region�� 99
4.2.2 Of Texts, Resources and Projects�� 101
4.3 What Urban Planning Means for Koudougou�� 109
4.4 From Marketing to Local Urban Action�� 110
4.5 Planning the African City, a Veritable Challenge
for the Twenty-First Century�� 113
References�� 117
vii
viii Contents
5 An Intermediate City in Brazil: Between Inequalities and Growth�� 121

5.1 From the Medium-Sized City to the Intermediate City,
or How to Rethink Urban Dynamics�� 122
5.2 Montes Claros: A Growing Hub�� 129
5.3 Verticalization of the Central Business District
and Spatial Changes �� 134
5.4 Urban Planning in Montes Claros: A Participatory Process?�� 144
5.4.1 Heterogeneity and Priority Issues to Resolve�� 145
5.4.2 Who Are the Actors of Urban Development
at the Neighbourhood Level?�� 151
5.4.3 Long Live Planning: Players in Motion�� 155
5.5 Regional Integration. Towards True Urban Planning �� 158
6 Urban Dynamics and Regional Development in Argentina �� 167
6.1 An Argentinian City Under Pressure�� 168
6.2 Argentina: One of the Most Urbanized Countries in the World�� 169
6.3 The Province of Buenos Aires: A Dense Territory
Under Influence�� 175
6.4 Nueve de Julio: Modernity and Development Issues �� 179
6.4.1 What Intermediate City for the Region?�� 179
6.4.2 An Ordinary, Modern City in a Rural Landscape�� 181
6.4.3 Between Territorial Expansion and Social Inclusion�� 182
6.4.4 Daily Disturbances: How to Manage Better
the Expansion? �� 186
6.4.5 The Example of Ciudad Nueva, a Low-Income
Housing Area �� 189
6.5 What Direction for Nueve de Julio’s Urban Planning?�� 194
7 Conclusion�� 203
7.1 Between Poverty and Urban Development�� 204
7.2 Planning for Sustainable Urban Development �� 205
7.3 Intermediate Cities: Between Urbanity
and Regional Integration�� 207
7.4 An Alternative Based on Interdisciplinarity
and Social Dialogue�� 208
7.5 A Few Simple Rules for Dealing with Urban
Complexity �� 210
Reference �� 211
Index�� 213
Chapter 1
Introduction
How to Design and Build Cities in the Global
South?
Abstract Urban planning was implemented in Europe and Northern America dur-
ing the nineteenth century with the objective of bringing order and coherence to
cities that were experiencing a whole revolution: new industries, urban sprawl,
migratory flows from rural areas to urban settlements. Without entering into too
much detail, it is important to underline that urban planning was essentially con-
ceived as a technical instrument and as a spatial methodology to organize space,
without paying much attention to social problems. This approach and accompany-
ing specialization of competences were transferred to developing and emerging
countries throughout the twentieth century, oblivious of the problems of another
kind and another magnitude faced by cities in the South.
On the basis of these presuppositions, this book intends to examine urban plan-
ning as it is practiced today in Southern countries, from a double perspective:
(1) how conceptual and methodological precepts can be questioned when applied to
different societal contexts than those they were originally intended for, (2) how to
re-invent urban planning so that this instrumentation be really useful to the cities of
the South in their fight against poverty and segregation while fostering a more sus-
tainable and inclusive urban development. This reflection is very important in any
urban context, but it is particularly urgent that it be addressed in small and medium
sized cities that lack the human and financial resources to tackle these issues.
Keywords Cities · South · Urban planning · Poverty · Inclusive city
As a human institution, cities are a reflection of the history of humankind whose

description, analysis and forecasting have gradually been appropriated and influ-
enced by numerous scientific disciplines, technological advances and humanistic
visions, and highlight cities’ morphology, land use and the diverse forms of socio-
spatial interaction that take place in them.
However, when it comes to cities in emerging or developing countries (especially
small and medium-sized cities), our thinking requires an urgent overhaul. In gen-
eral, these are the areas with the highest population growth rates. And yet, their
urban authorities suffer most from the lack of financial and human resources to
preempt and address these issues. These societies also face major obstacles in terms
© The Author(s) 2020 1

J.-C. Bolay, Urban Planning Against Poverty, Future City 14,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28419-0_1
2 1 Introduction
of human and material precarity, the contamination of natural resources, the infor-
malization of economic activities and dysfunctions in decision-making processes
and governance at the local and regional levels. It is this urbanization that, in the
coming decades, will put these cities under increasing pressure, particularly given
that 95% of urban growth in the future will primarily impact emerging and develop-
ing countries.
What does sustainable development – and sustainable urban development more
specifically – mean in such contexts? And how does it translate into tools and infor-
mation that allow professionals to develop and apply innovative, socially inclusive
and economically productive planning that is respectful and responsible in terms of
natural resources and environmental management?
Hence, the question is whether spatial and social planning that is adapted to these
contexts and can solve their issues actually exists. Were this the case, would we not
be wise to challenge the models on which classic planning is based and substitute
logic measures that promote coherence between theories and concepts, and public
and private practices (and the many strategies to which they give rise)?
Based on this premise, this book is a conceptual reflection and personal journey
through 35 years of scientific and professional projects and activities on four conti-
nents. It is also a debate on urban planning and the arguments for redefining both its
methods and content to meet the social demands and needs identified of Latin
American, African and Asian cities.
During my sociology and political science studies in the 1970s, a young geogra-
phy and anthropology professor often spoke of “similarities and differences” to
impress upon us the idea that reality is never black or white, negative or positive, all
or nothing, but rather is always nuanced, sometimes ambiguous and often
conflictual.
As a young professional in the public service sector and later as a PhD student in
Mexico, I learned that not only was the world made up of such subtleties, but also
of intricacies, contradictions, struggles, conflicts, misunderstandings, and even
pleasant surprises for those who know how to listen and open their eyes.
Trying to remain subjective throughout different experiences and events, I
wanted to develop an analytical approach based on rigorous methods, which
included taking into account the many facets of the social and material complexity
of cities. It had to combine quantitative and qualitative dimensions and have its
roots in the social sciences – of which I was a part – as well as urban planning,
environmental science and engineering.
My first boss at EPFL described the city as a natural and built environment. With
him and another colleague, we seized the opportunity to reverse this metaphor by
making inhabitants our focus: a natural environment, undoubtedly, a material envi-
ronment, obviously. But also and above all a human environment. We combined
analytical rigour with the poetics of language for the title of our collective book on
urban alternatives, Habitat créatif, éloge des faiseurs de ville (Creative habitat, in
praise of city makers) (Pedrazzini et al. 1996).
1 Introduction 3
Our commitment to urban research has endured over time and will serve as a
guide for this work. A threefold observation underlies its message. The first is the
need for objective recognition of a contemporary phenomenon of major importance,
namely the process of continuous demographic and spatial urban growth. The
second is a corollary to this globalized urbanization, with a shift of mass poverty
from rural areas to urban ones and a billion poor mostly living in South cities – a
serious and largely overlooked issue. Finally, urbanity must be recognized as a
driver of territorial fragmentation and social disparities, as well as humanity’s his-
torical development in terms of its culture and technologies. Nonetheless, it remains
a vibrant place of creativity and innovation.
It was in this spirit, which is both scientific as regards analysis as well as com-
mitted to improving the lives of all of its inhabitants (especially the poor), that this
book was written.
Its purpose is to help redefine the objectives of urban planning in emerging and
developing countries, the methods used, the tools and techniques applied to reify
them, and the interventions by public, private and collective stakeholders involved
in urban development.
The first chapter focuses on the data that characterizes the urbanization phenom-
enon that taking place across the world, and South countries in particular. It pro-
vides an opportunity to discuss some of the different perceptions and theories that
underlie the analysis, citing some specific examples of the urban research my col-
leagues and I have done over the years.
The second chapter focuses more directly on the specificities of urban planning,
both in terms of its disciplinary diversity and its sometimes heterogeneous use, par-
ticularly when it reproduces methods and tools that are not adapted to the urban
contexts of South countries. The idea here is to rethink planning based on the needs
and social demands of inhabitants while taking into account the obstacles frequently
encountered in South cities, especially smaller ones – namely a lack of financial
means and competent human resources.
Three case studies will be presented: one from West Africa, and two from Latin
America. Each highlights certain points related to our overarching question and
concretely examines their impact in the field for city dwellers, political authorities
and professionals working in the sector.
The case of Koudougou, a medium-sized city in Burkina Faso – one of the poor-
est countries in the world – with a population of 115,000 inhabitants, for instance,
provides an opportunity to understand how these issues translate in the African
urban context. The reader discovers a regional capital that is struggling with a great
many problems and is unable to solve them in a coherent way due to an insufficient
municipal budget and total dependence on the federal government and outside
donors. Urban development thus depends less on local consultation than on donor
projections and decisions taken at the State level. This proves that reinventing plan-
ning in Africa is of the utmost urgency so that local actors can have greater auton-
omy in deciding how to put it to useful ends.
4 1 Introduction
Conversely, the case of Nueve de Julio, an intermediate city of 50,000 inhabit-

ants in the Argentinian pampas, addresses new forms of spatial fragmentation and
social exclusion linked to agro-export and crises in international markets. Created in
the nineteenth century along with hundreds of other cities as part of a government
strategy of territorial conquest, the city is a perfect example of an intermediate city,
with respect to its rural region and in terms of the challenges it faces in a globalized,
connected world. With no long-term vision, successive municipal governments
have allowed things to deteriorate; though aware of the problems, they are obliged
instead deal with various emergencies and ongoing crises. As a result, it now faces
poorly-controlled, costly territorial sprawl and has a poor, poorly integrated popula-
tion on its hands. Here, too, sustainability planning is necessary. But leaders are
hesitant: how to sell investments that have no visible or immediate impact when
re-election looms on the horizon?
In 2015 and 2016, Montes Claros, an agglomeration of some 400,000 inhabitants
in the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil, updated its master plan, which dated from the
early 2000s. The operation was carried out by the local authorities with support
from universities and professional groups, but without any real participation by the
population. Somewhere between a total lack of planning (as in Argentina) and exog-
enous, top-down planning (as in Burkina Faso), the Brazilian case allows us to fol-
low an ongoing process. Faced with continuing demographic growth and political
and economic risks, the authorities are concentrating on the city center, thus aban-
doning its peripheries. Instead of using the opportunity to promote citizen participa-
tion, they reduced it to technocratic instrumentation that was biased in its
consideration of the inhabited territory and most fragile populations.
In their own way, each of these three case studies highlights the potential and
limitations of urban planning. Appropriate spatial planning and a better organiza-
tion of social and economic activities are indispensable, particularly when resources
are scarce. Though extremely different in their histories and geographies, the three
cities chosen for our case studies have in common the fact that they are intermediate
cities and play a central role in their regions. Though less confronted by problems
of extreme poverty than larger metropolises, they face issues as their populations –
for whom they must provide essential facilities and services such as schools, hospi-
tals and public transport – increase. This, of course, comes at a cost, as investments
made for the benefit of urban and rural inhabitants necessitate defining choices and
priorities based on universally comprehensible criteria and taking into account the
available means.
In the conclusion, I will again touch upon the similarities and differences between
the different cases. This will allow us to develop alternative urban planning models
that can better tackle poverty and the negative consequences of the urbanisation
process, namely territorial fragmentation, environmental contamination, social dis-
parities and exclusion, informal economy and habitat, urban governance and
democracy.
Reference 5
Reference
Pedrazzini Y, Bolay J-C, Bassand M (1996) Habitat créatif, éloge des faiseurs de ville. Habitants et
architectes d’Amérique latine et d’Europe. Fondation Charles Léopold Mayer pour le progrès
de l’Homme, Paris
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the copyright holder.
Chapter 2
Urban Facts
Abstract Today, the majority of the world’s population – roughly 54% – lives in
urban areas. Though global, this trend nonetheless varies greatly depending on the
country and continent. It appears that in Europe and the Americas (both North
America and Latin America) the urban population has reached roughly 80%, versus
less than 50% in Asia and Africa. Yet, it is in the two latter regions that 90% of the
world’s urban transformation process will take place and have the greatest impact in
terms of living spaces, economic activities, culture, lifestyles and mobility.
While considerable differences exist between countries, the same can be said of
cities. Though most research focuses on major urban agglomerations (cities of over
a million and megacities of over ten million), the fact that nearly 50% of the world’s
urban population lives in cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants has been somewhat
overlooked. Infinite in number, these small and medium-sized cities are extremely
interesting in terms of the role they play as intermediate cities that serve their sur-
rounding regions, providing public and private services and facilities that benefit
both rural and urban populations. Yet, research on these cities shows that they are at
a disadvantage compared to larger cities in terms of poverty, insufficient financial
resources and skilled workers.
By considering the environmental, economic and social dimensions of sustain-
able development independently, we are able to differentiate South cities and inte-
grate our 30 years of research within the framework of this multi-faceted problem.
We argue the fight against poverty and instability are both a common thread and the
greatest challenge to creating sustainable, inclusive cities.
To begin, environmental issues must be analyzed bearing in mind that urban life
generates waste and pollution of natural resources (water, air and ground). The latter
negatively impact individuals’ health when the sources of contamination and their
effects are not monitored. In many South cities, where makeshift housing with sub-
standard hygiene and sanitation conditions prevail, such monitoring is still in its
nascent stage. Thus, many poor are exposed to environmental risks that far surpass
those in other neighborhoods.
In South and North countries, cities are drivers of the economy. As home to half
of the world’s population, they contribute 80% of the global GDP. In emerging and
developing countries this economic dynamic couples with a high proportion of
informal employment, a key source of urban insecurity. Far from being a space of

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28419-0_2
8 2 Urban Facts
transition between the rural and urban economy, the informal economy is an inte-
gral part of the globalization of modes of production and marketing that goes
together with the modern industry sector.
The picture of the South city would not be complete without an analysis of its
social dimensions. Cities continue to grow with waves of rural migrant populations.
These new inhabitants account for about 40% of urban growth in developing coun-
tries. For these individuals and families, urban integration means development
potential not only economically and monetarily but also socially, culturally and
healthwise, especially for new generations who were raised and educated in the city.
This positive urban vision should not overshadow the fact that the city is a
machine designed to produce poverty and social inequalities. Nearly a billion peo-
ple are living in slums, more than 90% of which are in poor countries. Economic
growth is only partially reflected in the improved living conditions of the most des-
titute. The number of urban poor is expected to double in the next 30 years, a glaring
indication of the need to rethink urban planning based on this mixed reality of
wealth creation and growing disparity between social groups.
Keywords Urbanization · Small and medium-sized cities · Globalization ·

Economic growth · Social inequalities
2.1 Urbanization: A Global Trend
Since 1990, the world has seen an increased gathering of its population in urban areas. This
trend is not new, but relentless and has been marked by a remarkable increase in the abso-
lute numbers of urban dwellers. In 1990, 43% (2.3 billion) of the world’s population lived
in urban areas; by 2015, this had grown to 54% (4 billion). The increase in urban population
has not been evenly spread throughout the world. Different regions have seen their urban
populations grow more quickly, or less quickly, although virtually no region of the world
can report a decrease in urbanization. (UN-Habitat 2016) (Fig. 2.1)
In 1950, 30% of the world’s population was urban; by 2050, 66% of the world’s
population is expected to be urban. Today, the most urbanized regions include North
America (82% living in urban areas in 2014), Latin America and the Caribbean
(80%) and Europe (73%). In contrast, Africa and Asia remain mostly rural, with 40
and 48% of their respective populations living in urban areas (Fig. 2.1).
Here, as briefly summarized on the occasion of the Habitat III Conference. The
facts are clear: the world is now mostly urban, with 3.96 billion urban dwellers in
2015 for a global population of some 7.55 billion, and a projected 6.41 billion for a
global population of 9.77 billion in 20501 (UN DSAPD 2017) (Fig. 2.2).
This is the result of urban growth, which is not consistent at the global level.
Such impressive differences have long distinguished continents based on dividing
lines between countries and within each country. Systematically speaking, the more
http://www.urbanet.info/world-urban-population/ (Accessed 21 May 2019).

1
2.1 Urbanization: A Global Trend 9
Fig. 2.1 Ouagadougou, an African capital in constant renovation, 2005. (Reproduced with per-
mission from Bolay)
a rural the country, the higher its current urban growth rate. Conversely, the larger a
country’s urban population, the lower its urban growth rate.
Thus by 2050, more than half of the world’s population growth will be in Africa,
with an estimated additional 1.3 billion people, followed by Asia, with an increase
of 750 million people. Latin America, the Caribbean and North America will also
experience modest population growth (Fig. 2.3). Europe is the only region whose
population is expected to decline between 2017 and 2050. In total, 90% of urban
growth will be in South countries, and in Asia and Africa in particular (UN
DSAPD 2017).
The world urban population has grown rapidly, from 746 million in 1950 to 3.9
billion in 2014. Despite a lower level of urbanization, Asia is home to 53% of the
world’s urban population. With 758 million urban dwellers, China alone accounts
for 20% of the world’s urban population, followed by India with 410 million and the
United States with 263 million. Europe is home to 14% of the world’s urban popula-
tion, and Latin America and the Caribbean 13%.
These changes, both the recent ones and those to come in the next decades, result
in urban population growth rates that vary considerably from one continent to
another. Growth rates in historically urbanized regions like Latin America and
Europe are currently very low (1.3% for Latin America and the Caribbean and 0.5%
10 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.2 Percentage of the population residing in urban areas in 1950, 2014 and 2050. (Reproduced
from UN DSAPD 2015)
6
Urban population (billions)
OCEANIA
5
NORTHERN AMERICA
4
AFRICA
3
LATIN AMERICA AND
THE CARIBBEAN
2
EUROPE
1
ASIA
0
1950
1955
1960
1985
1995
2030
2050
1965
1970
1975
1990
2005
2010
2015
2020
1980
2025
2045
2000
2035
2040
Fig. 2.3 Urban population by major world regions. (Reproduced from UN DSAPD 2015)
for Europe in 2017, according to World Bank data).2 Asia and Africa, on the other
hand, still have relatively high growth rates, though they too have gradually declined
in recent decades (3.55% for Africa between 2005 and 2015 and 2.65% for Asia
over the same period) (UN-Habitat 2016).
Jedwab et al. (2014) also point out that the pace of demographic and territorial
change has accelerated appreciably throughout history and in different parts of the
world (Fig. 2.4).
Urban expansion in the developing world has been dramatic. Between 1950 and 2015, the
total urban population in developing countries increased from 300 million to 3 billion; the
urban share tripled from about 17% to 50%. Overall, there are many similarities with the
urban expansion process of developed countries in the 19th century. Yet, there are also
important differences. First, urban expansion has been so much faster in today's developing
world. In Europe, urbanization accelerated with the advent of the Industrial Revolution,
rising from 15% in 1800 to 40% in 1910. Both Africa and Asia reached the same rate in half
time, moving from 15% in 1950 to 40% in 2010. (Jedwab et al. 2014:6)
In recent decades, the focus has been on large agglomerations of several million
inhabitants (cities of more than million inhabitants) and megacities of more than ten
million inhabitants. Effectively, the numbers in such cities have increased exponen-
tially. In 2000, for instance, there were 16 megacities versus 31 in 2016. It is esti-
mated that by 2030, this number will have risen to 41, with most of the new
megacities being in Asia) (United Nations 2015). Yet, all in all, these megacities will
only be home to 8.7% of the world population in 2030. The 662 metropolises of
more than a million inhabitants (United Nations 2016) on the other hand will be
home to 27%. At the other end of the spectrum and 26.8% of the world’s population
will live in cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants. Small and medium-sized cities
are therefore extremely important, given that they are currently home to 49.1% of
the urban population (44.6% in 2030) (United Nations 2016:3).
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.GROW (Accessed 21 May 2019).

2
12 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.4 Rate of urbanization by major area, 1950–2050. (Reproduced from UN DSAPD 2015)
Fig. 2.5 Distribution of the urban population by city size and world region. (Reproduced from
Berdegué et al. 2014)
Focusing solely on the urban population, we can deduce that nearly half of the
world’s urban dwellers reside in relatively small settlements of less than 500,000
inhabitants (Fig. 2.5). UN-Habitat emphasizes the essential role these cities play in
terms of their relationship to the rural world (UN-Habitat 2015). This phenomenon
is not unique to developing countries; it can be seen on every continent, thus
s upporting on our polycentric our view of population growth and urban develop-
ment (Berdegué 2014; Adam 2006; Cohen 2004). We insist on the fact that these
small and medium-sized cities face specific, relatively unknown issues and effec-
tively play a strategic role in terms of regional development by providing services to
both local and regional populations (Bolay 2016). We will consider this point in
greater detail in Chap. 5 in our discussion of Montes Claros.
This rural-urban connection is all the more strategic for the planet’s future devel-
opment, given the rural population worldwide is still high (currently nearly 3.4 bil-
lion but expected to fall to 3.2 billion by 2050). Africa and Asia are home to nearly
90% of the world’s rural population. Though predominantly rural, Africa and Asia
are urbanizing faster than the other regions and are projected to become 56% and
64% urban, respectively, by 2050.
Small and medium-sized cities often act as intermediary cities, as defined in
previous works (Bolay and Rabinovich 2004; Bolay et al. 2003). Rather than focus-
ing on population size and urban sprawl alone, we decided to examine cities’
dynamics in terms of their intermediary function at several scales: (1) locally, with
regard to their periphery, (2) regionally, with regard to economic activities and the
rural/suburban population, (3) nationally, relative to their role in the urban network
and (4) internationally, in terms of their attractiveness and globalized trade. To com-
prehensively explore the dynamics of urban intermediation, we established several
areas of investigation: demographics (to determine migration flows); economics (to
identify key sectors and markets); politics and institutions (based on the existing
public institutions and the range of services offered); services and amenities (to
highlight the diversity of the offer and demand); the environment (identifying the
natural resources available and the impact of urban life on their balance); social
relations (to analyze behaviors and social networks) and; culture (to understand
local creativity and outside influences).
Using this frame of reference, which is still valid today, we can differentiate
three types of intermediate cities according to their position in the spatial context:
• So-called “affected” intermediate cities: autonomous cities that have a strong
territory position and trade relations with comparable or smaller urban hubs, but
belong to a socioeconomic network that allows them to benefit from the influ-
ence of the closest city.
• So-called “satellite” intermediate cities: intermediate cities near large cities that
offer their complementarity in terms of manpower, infrastructure and facilities;
• So-called “remote” intermediate cities: intermediate cities with a more closed
system vis-à-vis the outside given their remote location (Bolay and Kern 2019).
Although still often poorly defined and often equated with medium-sized towns,
intermediate cities are increasingly attracting the attention of researchers,
policy-makers and politicians3 given that they are now home to a large percentage
of the world’s urban population.4
3
A good example is the first World Forum of Intermediary Cities, organized in Morocco in July
2018.
4
https://intermediarycities.uclg.org/en, (Accessed 21 May 2019).
14 2 Urban Facts
Bellet and Llop (2002) explore the role these medium and intermediate cities
play in their territories at the local and regional scales as centers of social, economic
and cultural interaction. They are also connected with infrastructure networks that
untie local, regional, national and international partners, and are usually home to
various levels of local and regional government administration that must meet the
demands and needs of large sectors of the population – a result of the decentraliza-
tion phenomenon that can be observed in many South countries.
The authors present additional characteristics based on a survey of some 90
intermediate cities around the world. The former must be solidly argued, as they
might seem opportunistic in a somewhat idealized vision of small and medium cit-
ies “where life is good,” versus the “urban hell” of large agglomerations. For now,
however, they must be explored in order to clearly distinguish between the generic
DNA of intermediate cities and their specific characteristics. The authors also speak
of more stable, sustainable systems that allow for more balanced relations with the
respective territories, and of using natural and human resources in a more equitable
way at the regional level. They purport that intermediate cities are more easily gov-
ernable, manageable and controllable, thus allowing for greater civic participation
in the governance, administration and management of the city as well as settlements
that are more human and livable, allowing citizens to identify with their city more
easily. These cities do not suffer the environmental issues associated with megaci-
ties (e.g. social conflict). They are also less economically competitive than cities
where the higher administrative functions tend to be located (Bellet and Llop 2002:
248–249). However, in a more critical stance, Kern and I (Bolay and Kern 2019)
counter argue that a majority of these small and medium-sized cities lack the neces-
sary institutional capacities to manage their rapidly growing populations. Data col-
lected in different countries confirms that residents of smaller settlements suffered
a marked disadvantage in terms of piped water and electricity supply, waste disposal
services and schools compared to residents of larger cities (Cohen 2006), where
levels of infant and child mortality are negatively proportional to city size (National
Research Council 2003). Making smaller cities a focus on urban agendas must be a
priority, particularly given their exponential demographic growth.
The research we conducted on intermediate cities in Latin America at that time
led us to other, more nuanced conclusions about this set of qualifiers (Bolay and
Rabinovich 2004; Bolay et al. 2003, 2004). More equitable, balanced relations
between society, political powers and the environment are far from being the reality
in all intermediate cities. As we will see later in this book, government funding is
often proportionally inferior to that of large cities. Moreover, economic and social
poverty are more prevalent, and paternalistic relations and cronyism between
decision-makers and citizens commonplace, giving rise to dependency, subordina-
tion and even corruption. Infrastructure and technical networks may also be less
efficient than in big cities, which has a negative impact on the quality of natural
resources. What is certain is that intermediate cities – though quintessential given
the issues they raise – remain little studied and merit further investigation.
UN-Habitat effectively reminds us that small and medium-sized cities have the
highest population growth (UN-Habitat 2016) and that little effort has been made to
2.2 Fragmented South Cities. Between Poverty and Environmental Risks 15
solve the urban planning and social integration issues they face, despite their demo-
graphic importance and strategic role, and compared to investments made in major
cities. According to Birkmann et al. (2016), the population of small and medium-
sized cities is projected to rise by 32% between 2015 and 2030 – meaning 469 mil-
lion more people in these cities – whereas large cities and megacities are projected
to grow by 26%, or 203 million people. Satterthwaite (2016) tells us that, in 2010,
while there were 81 cities of more than 500,000 inhabitants in sub-Saharan Africa,
there were 1612 urban centers of less than 50,000. As regional markets, these cities
establish a continuum between villages and rural populations. Yet, the risks their
populations face are greater than those faced by inhabitants of larger agglomera-
tions, as community services – be it water, sanitation, electrical supply or wastewa-
ter treatment – are less efficient and generally less prevalent.
This renewed commitment to medium-sized cities and their strategic role in serv-
ing as a link between the rural and urban worlds came to fruition at the latest UN’s
conference on housing and sustainable urban development in Quito, Ecuador, in
2016. After a week’s worth of work and debates, a theme group issued a declaration
supporting the idea that intermediate cities are an important link in the territorial
system between larger cities, towns and other human settlements. With populations
of 20,000 to 500,000 (and up to one million in some countries), they offer, among
other things, a form of governance that is closer to the people. The also offer health,
education, social and cultural infrastructure that extend to the surrounding rural
areas and, as such, often become “stopping points” for populations who might have
migrated to larger cities and metropolises (Habitat III).5 As previously stated with
regard to the work of Bellet and Llop (2002), the vision here may again seem some-
what idealized and ignorant of the difficulties (including a lack of planning) interme-
diate cities face. However, it does highlight the potential for development, provided
the necessary means are made available in a medium and long term perspective.
2.2 F
ragmented South Cities. Between Poverty
and Environmental Risks
Far from statistical abstraction, an analysis of South cities highlights two symptoms
specific to current urbanization trends around the world: the insecurity and resil-
ience symbolized by the “slum” and the deterioration of natural resources (versus
sustainable development).
Today, insecurity and impoverishment epitomize the construction, development
and thus future of cities. This spatial and socio-economic marginalization (informal/
makeshift settlements, illegal occupation of private/public land, gated communities
and peri-urbanization) can be translated by the symbolic term “slum,” which, in
some Spanish-speaking countries, is translated villa miseria, bidonville in French,
5
http://habitat3.org/the-new-urban-agenda/preparatory-process/urban-dialogues/intermediate-cit-
ies-cuenca/ (Accessed 21 May 2019).
16 2 Urban Facts
favela in Brazilian Portuguese and shantytown in English. Yet, behind these ety-
mologies lies the same reality. The contemporary city – be it planned or not, and
whether well or poorly managed – develops at the price of obvious contradictions:
though a shelter and refuge at the individual and family levels and while serving as
center for economic, cultural and educational opportunities, the city remains an
arena for antagonistic struggles between the common good and individual interests,
public and private, rich and poor.
A third of the world’s urban population – one billion individuals – live in precari-
ous conditions, while 94% of slum dwellers live in developing countries. Africa and
Asia will be predominantly urban by 2030; 72% of urban populations in Africa live
in extremely poor conditions. This figure rises to 80% in the poorest regions of the
world. Cities in developing countries will absorb 90% of the world’s urban growth
over the next two decades. Today, 560 million city dwellers have no access to sanita-
tion. UN figures (UN-Habitat 2008) show that this demographic expansion varies
greatly depending on the world region. In 2010, roughly 32.7% of the world’s urban
population – 61.7% in sub-Saharan Africa, 35% in Southern Asia, 31% in Southeast
Asia, 23% in Latin America and the Caribbean and 13.3% in North Africa – live in
slums,” (Bolay et al. 2016:11–12).
This issue – omnipresent in our work since the 1990s – continues to raise ques-
tions and guide our thinking. How can we invest so many human and financial
resources to better manage cities and their future without having eliminated (or at
least greatly reduced) the thousand and one material and social forms of insecurity
and poverty? In our view, this is still the greatest challenge for urban planning: cre-
ating an innovative approach designed to improve the city’s organization for resi-
dents and visitors and to be more inclusive of populations in need.
Perhaps it is best to begin with some photos taken during our years of urban
research in different countries affected by such realities, in order to highlight some
of the more critical issues (Figs. 2.6, 2.7, and 2.8).
Some 25 years ago, a large-scale interdisciplinary and international research
project was launched for greater Ho Chi Minh City (Fig. 2.6). The project explored
the links between the rising number of informal settlements and water contamina-
tion (Bassand et al. 2000). The goal was to understand what insecurity meant in the
Vietnamese context at that time and to determine how Vietnamese and Swiss scien-
tists from different disciplines could advise the government and support community
groups in their local development activities (Bolay et al. 2002). The country had
recently embraced the market economy; business had improved and control over
individuals was diminishing. The result was strong rural flight towards HCMC that
continues today.
At the time, 25,000 families were listed as living in cabins on stilts on the canals
and rivers that run through the Vietnamese economic metropolis, which was already
overpopulated and had little vacant land. These same canals were and are still used
as dumps and toilets by the people who live along them in makeshift self-built
houses. As such, the water has become highly contaminated, with frequent flooding
during the rainy season. In just a few years, HCMC’s population and inhabited area
grew phenomenally.
Fig. 2.6 Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), Vietnam, 1994. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
Scientific cooperation was established between disciplines that, at first glance,

seemed completely unrelated. However, they were quite complementary in their
approaches to and understanding of this complex problem. The result was an innova-
tive and novel scientific partnership between Vietnamese and Swiss researchers in
the areas of economics, sociology, geography, environmental engineering and chem-
istry. Based on this coordination between various disciplines, scientists and urban
managers, we were able to (1) objectively diagnose the nature, causes and effects of
water contamination, (2) determine the human, urban and industrial factors that con-
18 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.7 El Alto, suburb municipality of La Paz, 1997. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
Fig. 2.8 La Paz, Bolivia – left to right: top to bottom 1990, 1997, 1993, 2012. (Reproduced with
permission from Bolay)
tributed to this pollution (and what the consequences on individuals’ health would
be) and (3) evaluate technical solutions in terms of water distribution, waste collec-
tion and wastewater recycling. The goal was to strengthen the HCMC government’s
environmental services in consultation with the grassroots organizations at all levels
and urban decision-making bodies (people’s committees) (Bolay et al. 2000).
1997, La Paz, Bolivia, an Andean city carved into the earth, clinging to the rock
and surrounded by mountains (Fig. 2.8). Your breath forgets to disembark with you
at El Alto airport, 4150 m above sea level. The highway cuts across the overpopulated
slopes, and the city’s historic center (situated at 3600 m) charms visitors with its
Hispanic cathedral, colonial streets and colorful, discreet cholas6 with their bowler
hats. Activity buzzes, indigenous peoples (mainly Aymaras and Quechuas) shoulders
rub with mixed-race townspeople. Yet, a silent segregation can be felt at all levels:
vernacular languages versus Spanish, poor neighborhoods in the Altiplano and rich
residential areas in the southern part of the city, housing, formal/informal economic
integration, cultures and religions (Fig. 2.8). The beauty of the Andean landscape is
impressive, with men and women moving quietly behind the urban bustle of horns
and pollution. The further down one goes, the richer the neighborhoods, with their
milder climate, become. The further up one goes into El Alto, a poor suburban area,
the scarcer the vegetation and more rustic the small adobe mud houses become.
Name of indigenous peasant women in Bolivia.

6
20 2 Urban Facts
At the time, we were working on setting up an inter−/transdisciplinary research

and support group to advise the Ministry of Urban Planning on the implementation
of its new law on social housing involving representatives of the aforementioned
ministry, a banking cooperative, an NGO that supports the construction of low-
income housing in poor neighborhoods and university researchers. This innovative
approach was designed to integrate non-scientific actors involved in implementing
the new regulatory text early on in the process. The goal was twofold: to first take
into account the characteristics of the potential beneficiaries of this new plan and
then to adapt the system to individuals (not the other way around (Bolay 1998;
Bolay et al. 1993). Interdisciplinarity was essential to this process.
The plan posed architectural and technical issues as concerns building materials
(raw earth or adobe, which is used in popular neighborhoods the world over, fired
bricks or cement), sanitary installations and access to public facilities in developing
peripheral areas. Financing was another major concern: what private or public insti-
tution would be willing to make loans to individuals with no fixed income based on
alternative guarantees, versus usurious lenders with interest rates of more than 10%
a month! Administrative and regulatory questions such as building permits and land
ownership recognition are expensive procedures that take months to process for
applicants with no special privileges or who are unwilling to bribe officials, as De
Soto (1989) noted in a liberal view of deregulation. Many popular microcredit
experiments, whose results are still highly debated, have developed around the
world (Glévin and Moulévrier 2011; Marconi and Mossey 2006; Weber 2002).
In the wake of these institutional changes in Bolivia, several non-profit organiza-
tions have become solidarity banks for people with low-income but with the means
to repay individually through savings groups (Velásquez González 2007). The ques-
tion of how to implement technical, financial and institutional solutions that allow
modest citizens who work outside the formal framework (and are thus unsalaried)
to get loans to buy land to build quality housing is still a critical topic.
Contrasting yet similar realities in divergent climatic and socio-political con-
texts: Vietnam – a socialist state that is reaping the benefits of unbridled, globalized
capitalism – on the one hand, and Bolivia – a country entangled in disastrous policy
reversals on the other. Elected in 2005, Presidential Evo Morales, a former trade
unionist and spokesperson for the indigenous majority, called for indigenous social-
ism in a country where a large, though often hidden, proportion of the income comes
from the production of coca leaf and the illegal processing and export of cocaine.7
Initially colonized by powerful Western countries, South countries have seen a
variety of labels, including “underdeveloped,” “developing,” “emerging “and finally
“Global South.” These terms, whose meaning is increasingly blurred and impercep-
tible, symbolically mark the “smooth” transition towards the globalized integration
of these countries as well as the economic and social inclusion of their citizens,
though statistics tend to show quite the opposite: while wealth production continues
to increase at the global level, inequalities between countries are on the rise both at
the country level and between social groups (rich vs. poor, center vs. periphery, etc.)
https://lostiemposdigital.atavist.com/ley-coca-bolivia (Accessed 21 May 2019).

7
(Dabla-Norris et al. 2015; Kanbur and Sumner 2012; Bolay et al. 2005). The global-
ization that allegedly was to democratize international relations and facilitate devel-
oping countries’ entry into the market is in fact a red herring (Artus and Virard
2008; Bolay 2004). Customs control has become increasingly rare and protection-
ism – at least until recently – had fallen out of fashion.8 However, agreements
between industrial superpowers (like NAFTA between USA, Canada and Mexico)
and countries desirous to enter the game strengthen the strong and further weaken
less technologically- and financially-developed countries. Thus today, the
genetically-modified maize industrially produced in the US is cheaper in Mexican
supermarkets than the national maize, jeopardizing the livelihoods of thousands of
small-scale rural farmers whose survival depends on this resource. Joseph Stiglitz
(2010) speaks of globalization intrinsically linked to crises and their contagion.
Willingly or by force, the Global South has been integrated into this connected,
interdependent, unequal planet (Birdsall 2006). But the globalization of trade,
goods, funds and people is not limited to certain regions of the world. The Global
North and Europe in particular is not immune to increasing poverty (Ballas et al.
2017), due in large part to fierce global competition (Europe is expensive!) and
economic stagnation whose consequences on the urban environment are undeniable.
A technical and social assessment of living environments done in Bulgaria in
2000 opened my eyes to an unknown face of Europe. The provincial city of
Targoviste, plagued by the closure of its arms factories, was discovering post-
socialism and doubt in the face of a future that was uncertain to say the least. The
Swiss Cooperation wanted to assess the housing needs of Bulgaria’s poor following
the political and social changes brought about by the end of “socialist” relations
between Russia, the last relic of the former USSR, and Eastern Europe. The imme-
diate consequences of the dismemberment of this “socialist bloc” were the closing
of factories, the privatization of low-income housing developments (tenants
suddenly became owners), the rise of unemployment and open resentment of the
Roma people. In striking parallel to urban evolution in developing countries, the
Malcho Malchev district in Targoviste was home to 5000 inhabitants of Roma ori-
gin for an urban population of some 60,000 inhabitants.
Their self-built houses (40–60 m2 on average) accommodated five or six families
(Fig. 2.9). With drainable trench latrines, running water outside the home, inade-
quate sanitation and unpaved dirt roads, pathologies due to insalubrity were com-
monplace and irregular school attendance remained a problem. Moreover, strong
cultural ties to the gypsy tradition, a markedly ethnic social organization and the
desire to be integrated in the city socially and economically while continuing to live
in “their neighborhood” were all factors for consideration (Bouvet and Bolay 2000).
Two parallel proposals were made to the Swiss Cooperation Agency. The first was
a project to rehabilitate the Malcho Malchev neighborhood based on what existed,
using local labor and providing technical and social assistance. The second was to
8
The election of Donald Trump as US President in January 2017 challenged this international
consensus on the benefits of international rules favoring the free market.
22 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.9 Self-built house in the Malcho Malchev neighborhood, Bulgaria 2000. (Reproduced with
create a privatized housing development management system designed to empower

new owners with administrative and financial organization allowing for the mainte-
nance of buildings and housing units and reappropriation of public spaces. The goal
was to balance the project so as to not focus solely on the Roma, at the risk of mak-
ing them the unintentional victims of resentment from the rest of the population. In
Fig. 2.10 Targoviste, Bulgaria 2000. Privatized units in the Zapad neighborhood. (Reproduced
with permission from Bolay)
the end, the Swiss backer chose to invest in other sectors in the country to facilitate
the transition to capitalism and accelerate its integration into the European Union.
Thus our intervention in Bulgaria was not truly a success. However, it highlighted
the similarities and differences between a European country in transition and our
experience of cooperative projects with Asia, Africa and Latin America. Here, too,
did we observe growing poverty, the need for urban planning that takes into account
the needs of the poor and a widespread desire to become part of a globalized world
with more individual and collective opportunities (Fig. 2.10).
More recently, we considered two cities that seemingly have nothing in common
but are, in fact, both booming intermediate cities – one in Brazil and the other in
Burkina Faso. The first, Montes Claros in the State of Minas Gerais, has 400,000
inhabitants and an impressive concentration of industrial companies (Figs. 2.11 and
2.12). The other, Koudougou, is the provincial capital of Burkina Faso and an eco-
nomic center with 120,000 inhabitants about 100 km from Ouagadougou (Figs. 2.13,
2.14, and 2.15). Both face similar problems associated with spatial extension and
the emergence of new neighborhoods on their outskirts. The local governments,
which suffer from budget shortages and a lack of human skills, are unable to handle
the situation or effectively respond to the issues at hand. Planning is on the agenda
in both cities, which rely on support from the national government, international
agencies of cooperation, NGOs and major industrial groups.
What do we learn from all of these differences and unique forms? First of all that
our concepts, theories and analyses are rooted in a historical and temporal reality
that are of little use if we cannot understand them contextually based on specific
24 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.11 Montes Claros city center, Minas Gerais, Brazil 2015. (Reproduced with permission
from Bolay)
interpretations by different actors who, in their own way, participate in the construc-
tion of the city, to follow ethnopsychiatrist Devereux (1967). At the same time, it is
important to recognize the relationships that researchers, contributors and special-
ists establish with actors on site. Behind the specificities of each city lie major
trends (the globalization of economic exchanges, decentralization of decision-making
powers, territorial extension and ever-present, ever-increasing pauperization).
Individuals and families must navigate these complex waters using formal strategies
(notably work, school, housing and health care), which makes the city highly attrac-
tive, especially in places where the majority of the population is rural (Figs. 2.16
and 2.17).
To conclude, cities are increasing in number, size and population, particularly in
the Global South and Asia and Africa more specifically. However, these regional
and national distinctions do not hide the two key trends that emerge from an analy-
sis of these figures: (1) though the overall changes in the urbanization process
strengthen the position of major cities, metropolitan areas and megacities, nearly
half of the world’s urban population today lives in small and medium-sized cities
(Bolay and Rabinovich 2004) and (2) urbanization gives rise to a double phenome-
non of spatial fragmentation of cities and socio-economic segregation of their popu-
lations (Bolay et al. 2016).
2.3 Sustainable Urban Development: Dimensions and Questions 25
Fig. 2.12 Montes Claros, Brazil 2015, with its new social housing developments (the federal
government’s minha casa, minha vida project). (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
2.3 S
ustainable Urban Development: Dimensions
and Questions
For the past 25 years, sustainable development has been the catchword for global
initiatives designed to preserve the planet’s resources while ensuring better social
and economic conditions for all peoples regardless of the continent, country or
region. This is the case both in the current context and for generations to come,
which brings us back to 1987 and the United Nations World Commission for
Development and the Environment, headed by Mrs. Brundtland, a former Norwegian
minister. It was the report provided by this commission that was to serve as a refer-
ence for the first Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (WCDE 1987). The
report was a historical milestone in terms of raising awareness about environmental
issues and their impact of our societies. We will come back to this point later.
In the years that followed, numerous researchers criticized and questioned the
very foundations of this approach (Pogge and Sengupta 2015; Smythe 2014;
Connelly 2007; Hove 2004; Rist 1996), claiming that the term “sustainable develop-
ment” was as much politically and ‘mediatically’-motivated as scientifically based.
As Sneddon et al. (2006: 254) state, “Inequalities in access to economic opportuni-
ties have dramatically increased within and between most societies, making
pragmatic governance toward social and environmental goals increasingly diffi-
cult.” The authors note, however, that sustainable development’s universal notoriety
26 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.13 The main marketplace in Koudougou, the third largest city in Burkina Faso 2014.
(Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
has put the critical questions of socio-economic equity and human-environment

relations back on the agenda with renewed interest, due to (1) the extremely pessi-
mistic forecasts of specialists regarding the impacts of climate change (IPCC 2014),
(2) debates on current economic guidelines (Milner and Mukherjee 2009; Amin
2004; Bolay 2004; Ravaillion 2003) and (3) the divergent and conflicting interests
that give rise to them. The fact remains that the terminology itself is rooted in lan-
guage and has become quite popular with time. It is therefore fair to regard it criti-
cally and to consider how the term “sustainable development” can useful in
analyzing the modern world and better understanding cities in order to improve them.
The question of sustainability is much more complex than it appears at first
glance, particularly when it comes to harmonizing various areas of development
(environmental, economic and social) that tend to clash in a world with an ever-
growing population (7.3 billion in 2015, 8.5 in 2030 and 9.5 in 2050, UN 20179).
Three key dimensions must be balanced: (1) the preservation of natural resources
and mitigating climate change, (2) economic growth that respects the environment
and (3) social equity and the fight against disparities, a major challenge that research-
ers have highlighted for decades. Since the 1970s, Sachs (1997) has drawn attention
to the contradictions between our devastating economy of non-renewable resources
and the growing number of poor people worldwide. What he called “eco-
https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/ (Accessed 21 May 2019).

9
Fig. 2.14 Stalls at the main market in Koudougou, Burkina Faso 2014. (Reproduced with permis-
sion from Bolay)
development” – in other words, an economy that is respectful of the environment,

lands and cultures – is, among other things, the source of everything included in the
concept of sustainable development beginning in the late twentieth century.
These global challenges inevitably affect cities of all types all over the world,
now that most of the world’s population lives in urban areas and that this rate is
expected to reach 66% by 2050 (United Nations 2015). These issues are being
raised in a critical way given the complexity of urban growth and its importance
demographically, its spatial extension and the need for services and infrastructures
generated by the development of the economic, social and cultural activities of city
dwellers (Klopp and Petretta 2017; Yigitcanlar and Teriman 2015; Khakee 2014;
Bolay 2012; Keivani 2010; You 2007). Urban challenges are now among the 17
sustainable development goals that were established by the United Nations for 2030
at the third Urban Summit in Quito in 2015.10
It is therefore important to reexamine the key points of these dimensions – envi-
ronmental, economic and social – in order to reform urban planning in a way that
integrates them into a future vision and translates them into coherent, coordinated
actions. In this way, economic interests and social concerns can become compatible
with the preservation of environmental resources.
10
http://habitat3.org/the-new-urban-agenda/ (Accessed 21 May 2019).
28 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.15 The new bus station, Koudougou, Burkina Faso 2014. (Reproduced with permission
from Bolay)
2.3.1 Urban Environmental Risks
While everyone publicly agrees that protecting the environment and preserving
natural resources, be it locally (where individuals can act at their own level) or in
light of more global threats (e.g. climate change, desertification, marine pollution
and biodiversity loss), it is hard to find an international consensus on a specific,
comprehensive definition of what constitutes the environment, and more specifi-
cally, the urban environment. This is due to the fact that the city is at the junction
between the natural resources essential to individual and social life – earth, water
and air – and the material resources that comprise the built environment, which
shape human settlements.
This is also understandable given that both the city and its inhabitants are con-
sumers of natural resources (land and water, in particular) and energy (electricity,
oil, nuclear, solar, wind, etc.), as well as massive polluters of these resources (air/
water pollution, lack of wastewater treatment, soil contamination, household and
industrial waste, etc.). This consumption requires sophisticated protection mecha-
nisms, effluent treatment and recycling of used resources. Moreover, the issue can-
not be addressed solely from within the uncertain borders that delimit the urban
area. Urbanity invariably involves interactions with the “outside,” be it a hinterland
comprised of peri-urban and rural areas (Allen 2003), more distant rural and agri-
cultural areas or remote natural areas with little or no population (mountains,
Fig. 2.16 Street vendor in downtown Koudougou, Burkina Faso 2014. (Reproduced with permis-
sion from Bolay)
30 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.17 A main road in Koudougou, Burkina Faso 2014. (Reproduced with permission from
Bolay)
oceans, deserts, etc.). Any change to the external environmental can have an impact
on the supply of natural resources to cities (for example, rising sea levels due to
global warming, desertification, etc.). Similarly, the impacts of human, economic
and/or domestic activities (heating, industrial fumes/smoke, transportation, etc.)
Fig. 2.18 Soil erosion in the city of La Paz, Bolivia 2012. (Reproduced with permission from
Bolay)
can be felt far beyond the urban limits when purification procedures are not system-
atically implemented, as is often the case in South cities (Dodman et al. 2013;
UN-Habitat 2012; D’Amato et al. 2010; Tong-Bin et al. 2005; Hardoy et al. 1992).
Environmental issues have been on the agenda both locally and globally for
nearly 50 years. Many scientists have warned against the negative ecological
impacts of economic development in industrial societies (Fig. 2.18). The book that
raised the most alarm was undoubtedly The Limits to Growth: A Report for the Club
of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind, a report by MIT researchers who
were commissioned by the Club of Rome to demonstrate the risks and limitations of
the current economic model (Meadows et al. 1972). Criticized for its “zero growth”
stance and, hence, its impact on the future of emerging countries and comfort levels
acquired in Western countries, the book nevertheless denotes increased awareness
and the need for better long-term development solutions. It is in this alternative
spirit that, from 1970 to 1990, several researchers fueled the debate, highlighting the
term “eco-development.” The term was first coined by Maurice Strong, Secretary
General of the Conference on the Human Environment11 in Stockholm in 1972, to
https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=2ahUKEwio5
11
rXz0-ncAhUSbFAKHT0sBkAQFjABegQICRAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.un-documents.
net%2Faconf48-14r1.pdf&usg=AOvVaw0VF-o83hQFBfO6QpbAFeSN (Accessed 21 May
2019).
32 2 Urban Facts
signify an alternative form of economic development to the present pattern of eco-

nomic expansion (Mellos 1988). Several authors have contributed to this thinking
(Georgescu-Roegen 1971; Schumacher 1973; Sachs 1978, 1980; Daugherty et al.
1979; Galtung 1980). The fact is that any form of economic production invariably
has an impact on the ecosystem and, as such, must be managed in order to minimize
the latter. Remediation costs therefore must be included in the production process
and product prices.
Extremely innovative at the time, Sachs (1980: 12) makes what today is a very
obvious link between the environment and development. In the introduction to his
book, he says, “The philosophy of development (or if we prefer the ethics of develop-
ment) outlined below applies to both Third World countries and the opulent countries
of the North, and to rural and urban projects and industry. Contrary to what detractors
of eco-development and some outrageous supporters of soft techniques claim, there is
no question of going back to a bucolic way of life that has been nothing more than an
idealization against historical and fallacious of the past. On the contrary, eco-develop-
ment is a tool for foresight and exploration of development options challenging the
prevailing trends that currently prevail. The increasingly dramatic conflict between
growth and the state of nature can be resolved differently than by stopping growth.
The challenge is finding ways and means to grow that create compatibility between
social progress and the sound management of resources and the environment.”
Beyond political and ideological divergences, this period of questioning and
reassessment of the world’s chosen economic path was seized upon internationally
during the famous United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Its
founding text, a report entitled “Our common future,” published in 1987 by the
Committee on Environment and Development, is still a reference today. The report
lays the foundations for what would later be called “sustainable development.” Two
fundamental principles served as its basis: (1) safeguarding the needs of the present
generation without compromising those of future generations and; (2) creating com-
patibility between the ecological, social and economic dimensions of development.
These principles were strongly contested by certain scientists, who saw them as
strategic and political first and foremost (Bolay and Taboada 2011; Brunel 2004;
Bolay 2004; Latouche 1993; Partant 1983). Nevertheless, they resulted in a set of
standards, indicators and initiatives designed to translate these principles into con-
crete actions at the local, national and global levels based on the Agenda 21 action
plan.12 Sneddon et al. (2006:257) clearly discern the challenges behind these issues
and other pronouncements: “Environmental issues are pervasively integrative in the
sense that the value of preserving the environment and maintaining its viability is
widely shared at every level of community, yet the very same issues have led to
pervasive and divisive fragmentation among and within groups, communities, coun-
tries, and international systems when actions designed to implement the proposed
commitments proved to be highly controversial and… largely ineffectual.”
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf (Accessed 21 May

12
2019).
Ignacy Sachs was one of the first to put the urban question in the spotlight in the
1980s, highlighting its vital importance in the quest for “harmonious” development
that respects the environment. He argues that because “the urban explosion in Third
World countries is the most significant event in the second half of the 20th century,
so much that, soon, the majority of the world’s inhabitants will be living in slums in
Asian, African and Latin American cities,” (Sachs 1984:802) that “the approach to
eco-development is precisely characterized by a desire to harmonize social, eco-
nomic and ecological objectives. This applies to both urban and rural development”
(Sachs 1984:806).
During a research project on Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam’s economic metropo-
lis, in the 1990s (Bolay and Du 1999), we found obvious ambiguities in the analysis
of the environmental impact of urban development and the appropriate scales of
intervention to recommend. On one hand, preserving natural resources (water, air
and soil) that were being threatened by pollution and often at the expense of indi-
viduals’ health (especially the poor) was critical. Yet, it was also necessary to
improve living conditions by providing jobs and services to the community. In
addition to these concerns about priorities in terms of responsible public action was
the question of the reference territory, between macro-dimensional analysis, which
incorporates the entire metropolitan and suburban area, and micro-dimensional
action at the neighborhood and communities level, which takes into account the
environmental risks specific to each location and the living conditions of each fam-
ily and/or social group.
For these reasons, we describe the urban environment at four levels:
1. The local level, which focuses on the environmental damage produced by urban
activities and their impact on the quality of local resources (e.g. clean water sup-
ply, waste water treatment system, treatment of household waste and human
excreta, etc.) within the urban fabric, taking into account its immediate effects on
the population’s health.
2. A level connecting local and surrounding regional levels that focuses on the
interfaces between the city and its hinterland, whose repercussions are less
immediately felt by urban populations but rather extend beyond its borders (e.g.
like the air pollution resulting from most urban transport, the pollution of rivers,
lakes and seacoasts, the deforestation of nearby forests, and the spread of the
suburbs at the expense of agricultural lands and other green areas.
3. An extra-urban level that focuses on the impact of long-distance urban activities
(e.g. greenhouse gases, industrial acid emissions and aquatic transport of heavy
metals).
4. A global level whose origin is not specifically urban but that affects the living
conditions of urban populations, among other things (e.g. natural disasters, hur-
ricanes, earthquakes, global warming impacts such as rising sea levels in coastal
areas where urban populations are higher (Baird 2009); 40 to 50% of the urban
total population according to Barragan and Andrés 2015).
34 2 Urban Facts
Hardoy and Satterthwaite (1991) distinguish the different geographical scales at

which environmental issues must be analyzed, the first being the home and work-
place. According to the authors, the fact is that much of the urban population in the
Global South lives in poverty. Hence they argue that it is mainly at home and in the
workplace that people run the risk of coming into contact with pathogenic micro-
organisms (especially those found in human excreta and in crowded, cramped, liv-
ing conditions). Such poor hygiene conditions can also often be found in the
workplace, be it on the streets or in companies that operate in non-compliance with
environmental regulations (when they exist). In their neighborhoods, these same
individuals are the first to suffer from the lack of infrastructure and services (piped
water supply, sewage connections, garbage collection and basic measures to prevent
disease and provide health care). Moreover, these neighborhoods, which are often
informally settled, are often located in officially unbuildable urban and peri-urban
areas because they are dangerous or present risks (e.g. steep hillsides, floodplains,
polluted areas around solid waste dumps, near open sewers or in industrial areas
with high levels of air pollution).
At the wider city level, the three main environmental risks are toxic waste, water
pollution and air pollution. These issues require heavy investments from authorities
in the form of decontamination systems for industrial fumes, wastewater treatment,
vehicle control, household/industrial waste management and recycling. However,
the costs far exceed the financial capacity of urban governments and inhabitants.
The interaction between the city and surrounding region is also a source of envi-
ronmental concern: the more cities grows in terms population and industry, the
more external inputs (water, fossil fuels, land and material goods for these popula-
tions and industries) they require, and the more contamination (air, untreated water
discharged into rivers, lakes and seas, waste dumping, etc.) they emit beyond their
limits. As a result of pollution and poor management of natural resources, cities can
become “one of the most health-threatening of all human environments: disease-
causing agents and disease vectors multiply; the large concentration of people living
in close proximity to each other increases the risk of disease transmission; and
health care systems become unable to respond rapidly and effectively” (Satterthwaite
2003:77). This poses a constant threat to all inhabitants and the poor in particular,
who cannot solve these problems on their own due to lack of financial means
(Fig. 2.19). Environmental degradation alone does not help us fully grasp urban
poverty, however (Satterthwaite 1999). Thus, we will now consider the urban econ-
omy, which is both a driver of growth and a marker of social difference.
2.3.2 The Urban Economy and Sustainable Development
We can safely say that the economy, the production of goods and services and con-
sumption are inherent to life in society, regardless of the type of modes of produc-
tion or their commercial success. Given that an increasing majority of individuals
live in urban areas, we can easily assert that the urban economy plays a determining
Fig. 2.19 Waste in a suburb of Ulan Bator, Mongolia 2013. (Reproduced with permission from
Bolay)
role in the dynamics of cities and the integration of their inhabitants. Albeit work
and income are not the only reasons people settle in cities (Bolay 1986), the need to
“earn a living” remains predominant and thus, in part, explains rural-urban
migration.
Analyzing the urban economy is first and foremost a way of trying to understand
the spatial relationships between places (cities), the people living and working
there, and the production/commercial sectors present in them. Based on this analy-
sis, which combines both territorial and human dimensions, we can better grasp the
current dynamics and the strength that economic development brings to cities and
their inhabitants. As Polèse (2013) argues, a city’s location and size (from small
towns to mega-cities) undoubtedly determine what types of activities will be profit-
able and which will not. Nevertheless, the link between geographical position and
cities’ function is shifting. In late twentieth and early twenty-first-century moder-
nity, two factors have proven decisive in the transformation of urban economies:
technologies and their use by urban actors, and the city’s connection with the out-
side, be it in terms of transportation or through accessibility to telecommunications
networks. The case of the city of Nueve de Julio, which we will analyze later in this
book, aptly illustrates this.
As Davis and Vernon Henderson (2003) note, it is clear that, historically speak-
ing, cities’ development is symptomatic of the rise in power of the secondary
(industrial) and tertiary (services) sectors, and to the detriment of the primary sector
36 2 Urban Facts
(i.e. agricultural) at both the national and global levels. Regional and national differ-
ences in terms of the concentration of labor by sector and the geographical distribu-
tion of economic activities can be explained in part by the raw materials available,
the age of the infrastructure, the lines of communication between cities and regions
and the profitability of each sector. Public policies, which can be more or less inter-
ventionist, in turn influence these changes over time. African cities are the counter-
example; their lower economic performance is more closely related to shortcomings
in the urban infrastructure (UN-Habitat 2011a, 2013a).
Changes in the economy, both locally and globally, now favor cities, be it with
regard to movement between economic sectors or modes of production. According
to Dericke (2009), the dramatic rise of the tertiary sector benefits cities (Fig. 2.20),
restructuring the economy as a whole and strengthening the urban network in paral-
lel to international globalization (Bolay 2004). The recent liberalization of interna-
tional trade rules and instantaneity of telecommunications have favored the
development of a more virtual economy. According to Sassen (2001), this global
opening of the economy will serve to favor multifunctional, global cities like
New York, London, Zurich, Shanghai, Buenos Aires and Sao Paulo that are linked
to international networks. Following the author, these cities are more than that: they
are city-regions – immense spaces with population basins of millions or even tens
of millions.
This is obviously the case of Greater Buenos Aires, where two-thirds of the 14
million inhabitants live on the outskirts of the Argentinian capital. The same can be
said of the Mexico City metropolitan area (the Federal District, Mexico’s capital),
which is home to nine of the urban agglomeration’s 22 million inhabitants. However,
this reticular view of the global city and its interconnected economy can be extend
to an entire diverse and multifaceted region (such as by referring to Switzerland as
a “Swiss metropolis”). With its 8.6 million inhabitants (Bassand 2004), Switzerland
has made the mobility of social and economic activities its primary factor of distinc-
tion, above and beyond urban-rural differentiations. This metropolitan focus high-
lights the largest cities but tends to overshadow small and medium-sized ones,
though the latter, which likewise enjoy technological advances, can also exploit
their comparative advantages economically.
According to the McKinsey Global Institute, “[h]alf of the world’s population
already lives in cities, generating more than 80 percent of global GDP today
(Fig. 2.21). But the urban economic story is even more concentrated than this sug-
gests. Only 600 urban centers, with a fifth of the world’s population, generate 60
percent of global GDP,” (Dobbs et al. 2011:1). Yet, only 20% of the world’s popula-
tion lives in them. For their analysis of the world’s 2000 largest cities, they found
the latter contribute 75% of the global GDP. In the top percentile, the 23 megacities
of more than ten million inhabitants generate 14% of the global GDP, proving that
economic power and capital production are still highly concentrated in a few major
urban centers.
Fig. 2.20 Shopping mall in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, new urban services, 2013. (Reproduced
38 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.21 The world’s 2000 most economically dynamic cities. (Reproduced from McKinsey
Global Institute 2011)
Following McKinsey, however, the economic importance of the largest agglom-

erations is decreasing, especially in megacities of more than ten million inhabitants.
Thus, by 2025, megacities’ contribution will represent 11% of the global GDP, ver-
sus 13% for cities of five to ten million, 18% for cities of two to five million, 19%
for cities of 150,000 to two million, and 38% for smaller cities and rural areas. The
distribution of economic hubs also indicates a profound change in the world econ-
omy, whose center of gravity in a globalized economy is shifting from formerly
industrialized Western countries to emerging countries. Thus, 70% of the 600 most
dynamic cities in the world are now in South countries, led by China, whose cities
will contribute 30% to the increase in global GDP. The 143 cities in sub-Saharan
Africa included among the 600 in the MGI report (above) provide 50% of the
region’s GDP and will represent 60% in 2025. This inevitably results in a significant
increase in the middle and upper classes’ buying power. Thus, by 2025, the authors
estimate that among the 600 cities evaluated in the report, the 423 located in emerg-
ing or developing countries will have 235 million households earning more than
$20,000 annually, versus 210 million households in “developed” countries.
Using the World Bank’s figures, Xing Quan Zhang (2016) shows the close link
between urbanization and wealth creation, suggesting that “that urbanisation is a
very strong indicator of all aspects of productivity growth over the long run. It dem-
onstrates the co-relationship between urbanisation and economic development
level. The higher the urbanisation level in a country is, the higher the GDP per
capita. This trend is more obvious for countries with GDP per capita below USD
10,000. Very few countries have reached income levels of USD 10,000 before
reaching about 60 percent urbanisation level” (Zhang 2016:243). The statistics the
author uses demonstrate that, in general, cities have a higher rate of economic pro-
Fig. 2.22 The economic contribution of the world’s 2000 most active cities. (Reproduced from
McKinsey Global Institute 2011)
ductivity than rural areas, particularly in developing countries – a fact that has been
confirmed by the United Nations (UN-Habitat 2011b). The example of certain large
South metropolises and megacities like Sao Paulo, Buenos Aires, Shanghai,
Mumbai, Nairobi and Dar es Salaam proves this: with 32.5% of the national popula-
tion, Buenos Aires produces 63.2% of Argentina’s GDP. Mumbai, which is home to
2% of the Indian population, produces 6.3% of the national GDP. Nothing, however,
is said about small and medium-sized cities’ specific contribution to economic pro-
duction, though we are well aware that it is these cities whose populations and
urbanized spaces are increasing the most rapidly.
Beyond these macroeconomic considerations, Glaeser and Henderson (2017)
highlight what it is that differentiates the urban economies of Western countries
from those of South countries by considering two characteristics that distinguish the
latter as “developing economies.” The first is the prevalence of the informal sector
in economic production (which is very clearly the case in urban areas). The second
concerns the dominance of the state sector in the economy at the expense of private
enterprises.
Michael Cohen (2016) confirms that all countries depend heavily on the produc-
tivity of urban areas for economic growth, given that 75% of the global GDP comes
from cities of various sizes (Fig. 2.22). According to the author, the informal sector
accounts for 50% of urban employment in developing countries. Small and medium-
sized businesses (SMBs) provide 80% of formal employment.
40 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.23 Building the city, Suzhou, China 2013. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
The statistics presented by WIEGO (Women in Informal Employment:

Globalizing and Organizing) are even more alarming. According to them, the per-
centage of informal non-agricultural jobs is 82% in Southern Asia, 66% in sub-
Saharan Africa, 65% in East and South-East Asia and 51% in Latin America (Vanek
et al. 2014). This obviously has a major impact on the urban economies of South
countries and on their overall competitiveness (i.e. lower productivity, poor social/
physical protection for workers, and more limited access to the market) (Fig. 2.23).
Moreover and less directly, the informal sector has little concern for environmental
issues and thus is more polluting. Finally, as the revenue generated is not officially
recorded, it does not contribute to public revenues (taxes and taxation), thus limiting
the government’s financial investment capacity. In contrast to this critical analysis,
some opponents argue that the informal sector can actually encourage entrepreneur-
ship and innovation during the early stages of economic development (Jütting and
Fig. 2.24 Street market in Port-au-Prince, Haiti 2015. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
de Laiglesia 2009). More importantly, given the reality of rural-urban changes, it is

the only way to integrate new urban dwellers and poor populations into urban eco-
nomic life.
Notably – and contrary to conventional wisdom – the informal sector is not a
transition from ancestral and/or traditional forms of production inherited from rural
agricultural societies to nineteenth-century industrial modernity. The OECD states
that the informal sector is not only contemporary, but is also expanding both geo-
graphically and in terms of number of active workers. While this is clearly the case
in Latin America and Southeast Asia (Jütting and de Laiglesia 2009:12), it is in fact
true for all South countries and even certain North countries (Brown and McGranahan
2016) due to increasingly globalized competition and pressure with regard to pro-
duction and marketing costs. Hence, with regard to the formal sector, the informal
sector is actually more complementary than competitive (Portes et al. 1989).
Many of these scholars emphasize the dual nature of the urban economy in the
Global South, with a growing proportion of the labor force joining the informal
system of production of goods and services (Fig. 2.24). However, there is little spe-
cific information on the sectors that make up the urban economy or their influence
on and evolution in both the formal and informal systems. While local studies have
been done, a global synthesis is still missing.
Controlling and guiding this economic aspect of urban development is one of the
goals of urban and regional planning. As such, public policies must define the
42 2 Urban Facts
framework conditions in which economic actors can act. Land must obviously be
allocated for these activities, and infrastructure and community services created in
order to facilitate economic development (i.e. energy supply, telecommunications
networks, traffic lanes and means of transportation). Regulations and training strate-
gies must likewise be considered. The community must also benefit from these
investments through job creation, production conditions that respect the natural and
social environment and the redistribution of the revenue generated through taxation
and public finances. It is in this perspective that the UN’s Habitat agency makes
recommendations for a responsible, job-creating urban economy.13 The agency also
emphasizes that these goals can only come to fruition if urban competitiveness is
founded on economic rationality, which is strongly linked to political stability
(UN-Habitat 2013b).
Several SDGs (sustainable development goals) thus focus on the different facets
of economic development.14 Goal – “decent work and economic growth” – empha-
sizes the need for strong growth that creates decent jobs, promotes the role of women
in the economy and protects natural resources, especially in developing countries.
Goal 9 – “industries, innovation and infrastructure” – focuses on the multiplier
effect of jobs created in the industrial sector and on the key role of SMBs, which
provide 90% of jobs worldwide. Thus, research, innovation, quality infrastructure
and support for small and medium-sized industries are both an indispensable and
profitable investment. Goal 12 – “responsible consumption and production” – con-
siders the raw materials and processes required for any economic production and
their recycling at the end of their lifecycle. Three key areas can be distinguished
here: water, energy and food, the goal being more efficient management and less
contaminating processes for 2030. Goal 11 – “sustainable cities and communities”
–, which focuses on the city and its inhabitants as its name indicates, posits that a
positive dynamic between economic, social and environmental dimensions in urban
and peri-urban areas requires a strengthening of urban and regional planning.
2.3.3 S
ustainable Development, Urban Poverty and Social
Disparities
The city is a gigantic machine that produces and consumes. It is also a place where
people live, and a natural/built environment – comprised of landscapes, geography,
a climate, history and atmosphere -that makes it unique and facilitates or not the
integration and fulfillment of those who live there. Once again, economic, environ-
mental and social dimensions are inseparable, whatever order we consider them in.
To begin, the magnitude of social challenges due to a growing urban population at
https://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/economy/ (Accessed 21 May 2019).

13
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ (Accessed 21 May

14
2019).
Fig. 2.25 Colonia Seminario, Toluca, México – left to right: street plan and satellite image
(Reproduced from Google maps 2018)
the global scale is exponential. As such, more individuals means more infrastructure
and services in order to enjoy decent, healthy living conditions. Moreover, living in
the city is a choice, an aspiration for many of the individuals, families and
communities that make up urban society. While the city fosters integration, social
inclusion, sharing, exchanges and solidarity, it can also create differences, segre-
gate, exclude and marginalize certain individuals.
This is one of the major challenges facing sustainable urban development, a chal-
lenge that gives rise to the questions: what unites us? What reinforces (and deepens)
inequalities? Sociological and political analysis are essential for understanding how
urban societies are structured and the dynamics that are changing social hierarchies,
be it socioeconomic classes, gender or immigrant groups.
As a PhD student in Mexico in the early 1980s, I interviewed more or less recent
rural migrants living in the outskirts of the city of Toluca, some 70 kilometers from
Mexico City (which then was home to some 500,000 inhabitants, versus the 22 mil-
lion in the federal capital) (Fig. 2.25). Colonia Seminario was the name of this infor-
mal settlement that since has grown, with three geographical areas corresponding to
three waves of rural migrants. Most of the migrants, who are from the State of
Mexico,15 had come to make a better life for themselves and their children, but still
maintained ties with their native villages and continued to participate in family
farming (corn, beans and other commodities).
Moving from one sub-district to another, I conducted in-depth interviews with
heads of household (male or female, depending on their availability) to look at simi-
larities and differences in the forms of urban integration over time. After obtaining
a description of their families and activities, one of the first questions I asked was
why they had come to the city. I visited their homes: some were meticulous, as cer-
tain families had already been living there for 20 years, others were mere shelters of
salvaged materials. I was surprised by their answers, which were often similar and
15
Mexico has 32 federal entities called “States,” including the State of Mexico, which borders the
federal capital, Mexico City, to the north, east and west.
44 2 Urban Facts
far from my initial preconception. All said the two main reasons they had come to
the city were the quality of the schools for their children and the proximity to health
centers. I had expected them to talk about jobs and income.
Surprised, I asked if finding a job had not their main reason for moving. Their
response was even more surprising: “Work? We’ve always worked, in the country-
side and now here in the city now. We were born poor and will certainly die poor.
But being in the city is a new opportunity for our children, whose lives will be better
than ours.” The argument was clear, logical, undeniable, and explained the city’s
attractiveness, its function in a long-term vision of their families’ development (the
proverbial “success story,” even at a modest level) and a magnificent projection into
the future through family ties and community solidarity as new citizens with kinship
ties in the countryside.
This introduction could be considered a methodological bias, as it suggests that
urban growth is solely linked to the arrival of migrants from rural areas. However,
this is only partially true and is becoming less and less so. Once again, logic would
have it that the more a country urbanizes, the more urban growth depends on the
natural growth of the resident population and, to a lesser extent, immigration, as
Montgomery confirms (2008: 763). Based on his sources, he concludes that “in
developing countries, about 60% of the urban growth rate is attributable to natural
growth; the remaining 40% is the result of migration and spatial expansion. Recently,
a very similar rule was established for India over the 4 decades from 1961 to 2001,
with urban natural growth again accounting for about 60% of the total.” Potts’s
(2009) hypothesis based on statistical and demographic studies in 14 African coun-
tries in the 1980s and 1990s drew similar conclusions. This analysis would be more
nuanced in modern-day Africa due to the urbanization process being less advanced
there than on other continents. Brandful Cobbinah et al. (2015) distinguish three
factors with regard to demographics: natural urban population growth, rural-urban
migration and the reclassification of rural settlements as urban. However, according
to these authors, rural-urban migration is once again on the rise and now accounts
for 40–50% of urban growth in Africa. In addition to urban attractiveness, two other
factors partially explain this trend: the organization of the agrarian system with its
low rate of employability, and climate/social insecurity (drought, war, interethnic
conflict, etc.). Rural migrants, who are poorly trained for urban jobs, represent the
majority of urban Africa’s unemployed.
In addition to wanting to enter the growing urban market, migration flows, which
are often seasonal and individual initially but later become familial and definitive,
can be explained in several ways. To begin, there are cultural reasons (individualism
and the draw of “the bright city lights”). There is also the question of social protec-
tion (better-educated children who, in turn, get safer, better-paid jobs and thus com-
pensate for the welfare, unemployment and retirement benefits that do not exist in
many South countries. Following the analysis of Lall et al. (2006), these rural-urban
migrations are selective and mainly concern young adults (mostly male) in a context
of compounded ‘push factors’ that force migrants out of rural areas and ‘pull fac-
tors’ that attract them to urban areas. The origins and destinations of these move-
ments reflect the strengths and weaknesses of certain cities and regions. Far from
being a break, urban migration acts as support for rural families “back in the vil-
lage” thanks to the transfer of remittances.
Given this, it would be illusory to confuse immigrants of rural origin and urban
poverty, even if many of these new city dwellers live in slums. This is obvious from
the analysis of Tacoli et al. (2015:17), who show that “migrants may be dispropor-
tionately represented within some of the worst-quality informal settlements (for
instance, temporary camps for construction workers or small temporary structures
on public land or settlements set up by recent migrants on the urban periphery).”
Two indicators can be used to assess rural and urban poverty in South countries.
The first, which is monetary and defines poverty based on a family or individual
income threshold, is useful for international comparison (i.e. by putting poor people
with incomes below a given poverty threshold, usually 1 or 2 $ US per person per
day) (O’Hare and Rivas 2007:309). However, the practice of applying this calcula-
tion as a standard for the entire national or even world population without taking
into account differences in terms of cost of living (which is much higher in urban
areas) has been criticized. The second type of indicator, which is non-monetary,
attempts to assess how basic needs such as housing, access to health care and educa-
tion, as well as provision of water and electricity supply are more or less satisfied.
We essentially worked using this second type of indicator, regardless of the
country, based on the idea that the main question was not whether individuals and
families could be considered very poor, poor or lower middle class, but rather how
they can best fit into the city and benefit from its development potential, both in
terms of integration into the job market and more fundamentally as citizens, through
access to basic urban services. This is why we focused on living environments
(decent housing, social housing, public policies and the real estate market) (Bolay
and Rabinovich 2003; Wust et al. 2002; Bolay 2002) and social/material forms of
urban insecurity (access to technical networks and community services such as
schools and health centers, the informal economy, etc.) (Bolay 2006; Bolay and
Cissé 2001) to better understand the gaps and bottlenecks and recommend new
ways of improving living conditions in the city, especially for the poor.
An emblematic figure of precarity and poverty, the slum represents the urban
reality for nearly a billion people across the planet (Bolay et al. 2016). To say all
slum dwellers are poor would be an exaggeration. Rather, it is fair to say that com-
ing to the city and making a place for oneself (however modest) is less of a choice
than an opportunity to be seized, with the hope that their descendants will become
bona fide citizens of fact and law a couple of generations down the road.
Urban poverty is multifaceted and diverse. Ursula Grant (2010: 11) lists some of
its features: “Urban spatial poverty traps exist within urban areas (e.g. urban slums
along transport routes, peri-urban areas, city dumps, etc.). Such sites tend to be
informal or illegal, which leaves them less likely to be represented in formal data
collection and therefore less likely to be recognised within formal policymaking
processes. The urban poor tend to live in disadvantaged neighbourhoods, where
average income is low, employment is informal and public services are limited.
Residence on the outskirts of the city, where links to work opportunities are
restricted, is also characteristic. Urban spatial poverty traps can also be found at
46 2 Urban Facts
Fig. 2.26 Slum and housing along the canal in HCMC, Vietnam 1993. (Reproduced with permis-
sion from Bolay)
national level, where urbanisation has occurred alongside low or no economic

growth, e.g. in small or medium-sized towns and in refugee centres. Rapid urbanisa-
tion associated with conflict-related displacement is linked to poverty.”
Poverty, precarity and disparity are three terms that punctuate urban literature on
South countries. In this chapter, we have attempted to focus less on statistics to
quantify the phenomenon, despite its magnitude. The slum, which itself can be
defined and analyzed from different angles, transcribes the most glaring social
inequalities and their physical manifestation (i.e. territorial fragmentation), into the
urban space (Fig. 2.26). As we mentioned in our recent book on the subject, “A third
of the world’s urban population – a billion individuals – live in precarious condi-
tions, while 94% of slum dwellers live in developing countries. Africa and Asia will
be predominantly urban by 2030; 72% of urban populations in Africa live in
extremely poor conditions. This figure rises to 80% in the poorest regions of the
world. Cities in developing countries will absorb 95% of the world’s urban growth
over the next two decades” (Bolay et al. 2016:11).
We must maintain therefore a critical stance and may even feel a sense of awe
when listening to the official discourses of cooperation agencies and the United
Nations in particular, which praise the many advances made in terms of urban
development and the strengthening of policies that favor more inclusive cities, all
the while recognizing that this picture does not reflect the reality. The reality is that
the world’s urban population is growing, and this growth is predominantly in Asia,
Africa and Latin America. Many of the urban dwellers in these regions are poor and
live in situations of multiple risk. This trend is in line with population growth, which
is steadily increasing and is mainly due to increasing socio-economic disparities

among urban populations in recent decades, despite the fact that studies comparing
income levels between rural and urban populations show the latter are compara-
tively privileged (PRB 2015; Pradhan et al. 2000).
According to the World Bank, 76% of the 1.3 billion poor surveyed in 2008 lived
in rural areas (World Bank 2013). However, things are changing; poverty is shifting
from the countryside to cities. Again, the World Bank’s report on urban-rural
dynamics shows that poverty is becoming increasingly urban in a continuum that
extends from the countryside to small towns to larger agglomerations. This contin-
uum “reveals interesting insights on the relationship between poverty and city size.
Recent research for a large number of countries shows that it is clearly in the largest
cities” (World Bank 2013:87).
In its report on children in the urban world, UNICEF shows that disparities
between social strata are widening and that, in some countries, these urban dispari-
ties are now more pronounced in urban areas than in rural ones (UNICEF 2012).
Worldwide statistics show that children from disadvantaged neighborhoods have
more limited access to schooling, clean water, sanitation and hygiene facilities.
Several examples of countries cited in the report highlight the extent of these
inequalities.16 In Angola, for instance, between 2000 and 2010, the poorest 40% of
the population shared 8% of national household income, while the richest 20%
enjoyed 62% of the latter. The situation was similar in Bolivia during this decade,
with 9% of the wealth shared by 40% of the poor and 61% by the top 20%. In Brazil,
the figures were 11% for 58% of the same population segments. They differed
slightly in Chile, however, with 24% for the poorest and 31% for the richest, versus
18% for 45% in Vietnam and 18% for 47% in Burkina Faso. Among the Western
countries, Germany had a more egalitarian distribution, with 22% of income shared
by the poorest 40% and 37% by the wealthiest 20%, 24% for 37% in Norway, and
16% for 46% for the United States. More generally, these figures are surprising as
the distribution of wealth at the global and regional levels hardly differs.
It would seem that no major differences exist based on a country’s level of devel-
opment. Of all the continents, it is in Latin America – which is far from being the
poorest region in the global South – that the distribution is the most unequal. A
country-by-country analysis would be needed to investigate public policies as well
as business and personal strategies that accentuate or reduce inequalities within the
society.
Moreover, these disparities are not homogeneous across national territories.
Spatially, this means that the gap between dynamic urban areas with new produc-
tion activities and cities less anchored in economic modernity will widen (Venables
2005). Comparing social and technical data on 167 cities around the world, Liddle
(2017) finds that urban growth does not necessarily translate into lower pov-
erty rates.
16
The statistics are national and cover the 2000–2010 period. It would be necessary to look at how
this information applies to the urban population and to differentiate it from the rural one.
48 2 Urban Facts
Table 2.1 Distribution of wealth by socio-economic strata (Reproduced from UNCTAD 2012)
% share of household income (2000–2010)
Lowest 40% Highest 20%
Africa 16 49
Sub-Saharan Africa 16 49
Eastern and Southern Africa 16 50
West and Central Africa 16 48
Middle East and North Africa 19 44
Asia 18 46
South Asia 20 45
East Asia and Pacific 16 48
Latin America and Caribbean 12 56
CEE/CIS 18 45
Industrialized countries 18 43
Developing countries 17 48
Least developed countries 18 46
World 17 47
However, by way of an example, growth of 1% in the GDP per capita in these

cities was reflected in a 0.3% increase in access to electricity. Similarly, this growth
led to only a 0.4% decrease in the population living in slums. Generally speaking,
statistical analysis shows that urbanization is generally positive with regard to
income and access to urban amenities and services, but that this correspondence
only applies to the upper quantiles of the urban population. Confirming this analy-
sis, Gonzaléz-Pérez (2018) goes even further, arguing that this trend towards inner
city polarization and social inequalities is symptomatic of the early twenty-first cen-
tury city. To his mind, it is directly related to the globalized evolution of capitalism,
the effects of the 2007–2008 economic/financial crisis and austerity policies at the
local and national levels in most countries, which have a discriminating urban
impact on North and South cities alike.
As Vieira highlighted (2012:4), “Income inequalities have been increasing sig-
nificantly in emerging economies between early 1990s and 2008, reflecting the con-
centration of income among top earners.” This general trend continues today, even
if the effects of the crisis a decade ago are beginning to fade (Table 2.1). These
inequalities are reflected in urban areas, as the majority of the populations of most
South countries reside in cities. These social disparities are amplified over time
when the strategies of economic actors’ target profitability over territorial and social
redistribution of wealth. As many studies have shown, integrating rural migrants
and poor people in urban areas remains on the margins of public policies and pri-
marily take the form of social and individual struggles. It is in this context of urban
precarity and given the urban authorities’ inability to face social demands that we
must rethink urban planning so that it reflects an inclusive, harmonious vision of the
city with realistic rules and tools that reflect present and future economic, financial
and human resources.
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Chapter 3
Global Sustainability: How to Rethink
Urban Planning
Abstract In this chapter, we will dissect the salient elements of urban planning in
terms of theoretical foundations and methodology, in order to demonstrate that in
addition to criticism expressed by a certain number of authors regarding its transfer
to cities of the South, urban planning does not focus on the key issues faced by local
authorities and inhabitants, both in terms of target population groups and the infra-
structures and services that should be given priority.
We will highlight the translation of these theories, essentially of western origin,
and their application to “other societies”, trying to understand how throughout the
course of history, this intellectual configuration of the city has been replicated in
contexts subject to other injunctions and constraints. We will then deconstruct urban
planning, viewing it not as a science but rather as a method that is applied with field-
adapted techniques, based on precepts that often lack clear definition, yet that is
guided by instruments that can spatially and materially organize the distribution of
individuals, their activities, goods, services, facilities and equipment, within a terri-
tory that is identified for geographical and administrative reasons. Urban planning
takes into account the potential and the limitations of the natural (spatial and envi-
ronmental) and human entities in question, including in its analysis the causes and
impacts of the dynamics that affect the transformation of the city and its dwellers.
The difficulty with urban planning is that it is based more or less explicitly on dif-
ferent disciplines (urbanism, architecture, engineering, economics, sociology, geog-
raphy, etc.), that function independently with no formal obligation to work together/
cross reference, which means that many professional practices are used periodically
and repeatedly.
Sustainable development and urban sustainable development represent a concep-
tual framework allowing us to rethink urban planning. More than a technical tool
giving voice to all stakeholders, a participatory approach is the most advanced
methodological manner of anchoring planning in a local and regional democratic
policy.
As broadcast by the United Nations in 1987, “sustainable development” is
defined above all by two essential components. First, the time factor, by emphasiz-
ing that development can only be sustainable if it “meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28419-0_3
58 3 Global Sustainability: How to Rethink Urban Planning
Second, the focus on “an equal balance between the necessary ecological, social
and economic dimensions of development”.
In addition to these aspects of sustainable development, two complementary
dimensions will directly involve urban stakeholders. On the one hand, spatial orga-
nization would better regulate the distribution of human settlements and economic
activities in the territory. It would also mitigate the excessive concentration of peo-
ple and activities in saturated and weakened areas in favor of a decentralization that
maximizes spatial planning with a lower ecological imprint on available resources.
On the other hand, there is a cultural dimension, in that the proposed changes would
take into consideration the value systems, the historical development of the human
communities involved, the socio-political context as well as the social and cultural
organizational structures prevailing in the regions concerned.
These conceptual precepts have to be linked to technological innovations capable
of facilitating the creation and processing of urban and regional data, such as geo-
spatial software (free and open source) and crowdsourcing.
Keywords Sustainability · Urban theories · Urban planning · Conceptual

framework · Spatial organization · Cultural dimension · Technological innovations
3.1 Urban Planning in Question
I have spent more than 30 years following the changes in the urban world in both a
general way and more specifically through fieldwork in three major world regions:
Latin America, Asia and West Africa. This work, which takes the form of research,
teaching and publications, has a common theme: namely issues of social, economic
and territorial inclusion of the poor in urban areas. This includes individuals and
families who living in urban areas for a generation or more, as well as new urban
immigrants (mostly of rural origin) living in the precarious conditions. Through this
work, I have gained a clearer understanding of their attempts to settle and make a
life for themselves, generally outside the legal framework through informal arrange-
ments, interpersonal/community cooperation and connivance with landowners and
government agencies, and despite their limited means. Whatever the objective real-
ity, their urban integration (i.e. housing, access to infrastructures, facilities, com-
munity services, job opportunities, income, education and health) must be a priority
on urban agendas. Let us not forget that a third of inhabitants of South cities live in
slums – an estimated 863 million people in 2014 (UN-Habitat 2014), or roughly
one-third of the Global South’s urban population, a figure that has been steadily ris-
ing for decades. This is mainly due to strong urban growth combined with socio-
economic segregation and increasingly fragmented urbanized areas.
The concerns that prompt this need to rethink urban planning are simple. Experts
and decision-makers alike would like cities to be more human, more inclusive and,
as such, more harmonious for inhabitants. However, translating these laudable prin-
ciples into decisive actions is more complex and obviously less concrete.
3.1 Urban Planning in Question 59
Implementing spatial planning solutions different from those that have failed in the
past is difficult, as it forces us to rethink the entire issue, given that it is no longer
simply a matter of tweaking existing techniques. Rather, it is a question of identify-
ing fundamental issues, translating them into planning objectives and determining
what actions to take.
In the previous chapter, we saw that urbanization is most prevalent in South
countries and brings with it an increase in urban poverty. This poverty is reflected in
material, economic, social and even psychological impacts on city dwellers’ well-
being, despite thinking and investments to make cities more hospitable and produc-
tive (international programs, public/private funding, sharing experiences, etc.).
Hence, there is a real discrepancy in the diagnosis of the causes of urbanization
in the Global South and in the efforts being made to develop the city. This has
resulted in a sincere, deep questioning of urban planning practices in developing
countries, whose impacts in the short, medium and long term are not truly felt and
often fail to meet the challenges at hand. How is it that the number of urban poor
continues to rise, despite record-high investments in planning and construction?
From whence the hypothesis that informed the studies used as examples in this
work: in most South cities, urban planning does not serve to (1) visualize the future,
(2) prepare for it at the urban and regional levels, or (3) guide its development. The
reason for this is simple: urban planning, as it is conceived and applied, is based on
precepts that were forged outside of the contexts it is intended to address. Hence its
impact is limited, and impacts neither the entire urban space nor its population, and
thereby directly or indirectly accentuates social disparities and territorial
fragmentation.
The goal of this renewal in the urban sciences and planning practices is to ana-
lyze the many forms of urban poverty (precarity, segregation, marginalization,
informality, exclusion, vulnerability and growing disparities, to name a few) and to
take a closer, more anthropological look at what “institutional and social practices
in urban planning” actually means in real life. How can public, private, associative
and community stakeholders position themselves and partake in designing planning
solutions that are better suited to the territorial/societal context and better managed
by urban actors in the long-term? The ultimate goal is to create more coherent,
friendly cities that meet the needs, expectations and demands of all citizens, includ-
ing the poor.
Of all the analyses made of urban planning – be they theoretical, conceptual or
relative to methodologies, practices and their impact in the field – it appears that this
vision of the city and the resulting urban and/or regional organization is historically
rooted in the West. Its translation to the Global South was long replicated based
mainly on technical and procedural considerations, and without taking into account
the human, cultural, geographic or urbanistic realities of local and regional contexts.
The results have been mixed to say the least, and in reality are rarely instrumental in
the planning and development of cities and the human activities that take place
there. Many of the changes that take place in urban environments do so outside of
normative and programmatic frameworks. The public administrations responsible
for planning must manage investments and urban administrations that lack human
and financial resources and whose goals are often based on the political priorities of
leaders, without any link to master or sectoral plans. Inhabitants – especially the
poor – must therefore “navigate” outside the formal framework, which is often inac-
cessible to them (land rights, building authorization, legal access to basic networks,
etc.) to meet their basic needs while awaiting the authorities’ recognition of the fait
accompli. Urban planning that takes into consideration the realities of inhabitants
should, by our analysis:
• be based on a multidimensional diagnosis of the social, economic, environmen-
tal, spatial and urbanistic reality;
• forge a vision of the city and region based on the interaction between urban, peri-
urban and rural areas combined with the demographic dimension with societal
dynamics (urban/supra-urban infrastructures and amenities, economic exchanges,
social relations, environmental impacts, etc.);
• develop medium and long-term planning based on both needs analysis (accord-
ing to expert studies) and requests from civil society (inhabitants, stakeholders,
lobby groups, community associations, etc.), in order to establish a comprehen-
sive, coherent assessment of unresolved issues and priority initiatives;
• formulate plans tailored to the priorities outlined in the diagnosis, given the
available financial (budgets, fees/taxes, outside funding, loans for new facilities
and to ensure maintenance costs thereafter, etc.) and human (administrative/tech-
nical skills, delegation to third parties, public-private partnerships, citizen par-
ticipation, control, communication) resources;
• negotiate these priorities with partners involved in governing, financing and
supervising planning (Ministries and national directorates for urban planning,
provincial and/or regional administrations, private companies and international
cooperation) to consider them within a framework that sets out the obligations,
limits and potential of urban management;
• translate these plans into actual urban guidance through the use of project and
monitoring tools (GIS and planning software, databases, monitoring, control of
procedures and processes, accountability, exchanges between actors, tools and
technological innovations).
3.2 The City, Urbanization and Urban Planning
Urbanity is almost as old as humanity itself. However, its description, analysis,

projection and transformation have, over time, been commandeered by scientific
and technological advances, social causes and political ambitions that aim to govern
its morphology, land use, infrastructure, equipment, networks and connections with
the immediate and surrounding environment. This has taken place at both the tech-
nical level as well as based on the social and economic dynamics that transform
cities and the socio-spatial interactions they generate.
3.2 The City, Urbanization and Urban Planning 61
This urban paradigm that has evolved over time mirrors the changes that have
taken place in societies where this model of “living together” developed (i.e. more
or less densely populated human settlements with cultures, histories and relation-
ships to the land).
The approach to addressing settlement and development issues in cities in emerg-
ing and developing countries must be completely rethought in an innovative way
based on the scope and nature of more or less urgent needs. As mentioned previ-
ously, South cities have the highest population growth rates (Fig. 3.1). Yet, their
urban administrations suffer most severely from a lack of financial and human
resources for the issues associated with this growth. These complex urban societies,
whose local and national realities often vary markedly, must endure the conse-
quences of planning’s failures, i.e. material/social precarity, contamination of natu-
ral resources, informal economic activities, spatial marginalization, failures in
governance, lack of citizen participation, etc.
We will begin by reviewing the theoretical foundations of theories on the con-
temporary city that, though rooted in a specific history and context, are also chang-
ing with local, regional and global challenges. This will enable us to better grasp the
models they inspire, both in terms of the universality of the approaches taken and in
their local implementation. Because of their varied and controversial nature, these
“ideas of the city” have guided builders, i.e. “city makers” (Harvey 2012; Paquot
and Younès 2010; Ascher 2010; Costès 2010; Pattaroni et al. 2009; Choay 2006;
Davis 2006; Agier 1999; Lefebvre 1968;). We will now look at how these ideologies
have spread throughout the world and inspired thinkers, researchers and operators
in their effort to understand the city in its actual context to determine whether or not
urban theories are taken into account in the actual planning and development of
human settlements.
The question therefore is whether these theoretical debates are invariably
reflected in plans based on the precept that urban planning is a translation of con-
cepts into concrete approaches and methods. Yet doubt remains, given the seeming
disconnect between the “intellectual” production of the city and its “material” pro-
duction (Fig. 3.2). Given the magnitude of this obstacle, other major issues must
also be taken into account, notably the origin of the ideas, methods and techniques.
The translation of these theories (which mostly are of Western origin) to “other”
societies (colonialism, post-colonialism, commodification and a globalized
Northern vision imposed on the South) has been denounced. We must now attempt
to understand how this conceptualization of the city has been historically replicated,
translated, transformed, denied and even fought on in Asia, Africa and Latin
America.
We will also consider urban planning as a concretization of the theories designed
reflect and transform the material, social, economic, environmental and political
dimensions of reality. What do we observe in South cities from the field? How are
Western planning theories and approaches used? Are existing models merely repli-
cated, or have they been revisited and/or hybridized based on the requirements and
constraints of the context?
Fig. 3.1 Destruction for renovation in downtown Shanghai 2014. (Reproduced with permission
from Bolay)
Planning in itself is not considered a science but rather a methodology designed

to meet the needs of a given field. This methodology, which is based on precepts that
are often either poorly defined or altogether inexplicit, is then reoriented using tech-
nical tools designed to spread individuals, activities, goods, services, infrastructures
3.2 The City, Urbanization and Urban Planning 63
Fig. 3.2 From planning to reality, Huaian, China 2014. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
Fig. 3.3 Master plan model for the city of Huaian. China 2014 (Reproduced with permission from
Bolay)
and amenities over a territory defined by administrative and/or geographical borders

(Fig. 3.3). Urban planning should take into account the potential and limitations of
this “entity” both spatially and in terms of the population’s characteristics. Its
analysis should also incorporate the causes and consequences of the dynamics that
affect residents and cause urban transformations, though this does not always occur
in practice. The difficulty in designing urban planning and making it operational
stems from its multidisciplinary heritage (planning, architecture, engineering, econ-
omy, sociology, etc.) but demands no specific requirements when it comes to justi-
fying choices.
This diversity has given rise to a number of professional practices that are often
used as a basis for specific and recurrent exercises. However, two disciplines in
particular enjoy the upper hand: urban planning (often as a simple extension of
architecture) and engineering (civil and environmental). The social sciences (geog-
raphy, economics, sociology, management and finance) usually play as a supporting
role rather than that of methodological co-creator.
Our thinking – both ambitious and modest – revisits the dictates, methods and
applications of urban planning based on the societal, spatial and environmental
realities of the cities we have studied in recent years. Our goal is to identify their
similarities and differences, and to understand how their realities are interpreted and
3.3 Urban Theories and Planning: Links and Practices 65
translated into planning practices. The idea is to provide urban actors with a path
that will take them from analysis to actual urban planning tools. This process is
pragmatic, realistic and useful in terms of finding lasting solutions to the problems
urban populations in general face (given that they are recurrent in most cities in
developing countries) as well as more specifically, given the histories of places and
people and current/future constraints and potentialities.
We shall start by looking at the general goals and move on to the theories that
underlie them and methods and tools for implementing them (Table 3.1). This
should provide outputs with deliverables that benefit the decision-makers, stake-
holders and social actors who “live in and create the city.”
3.3 Urban Theories and Planning: Links and Practices
Though often appreciated for its projective and operational capacities, urban plan-
ning can also be used to observe and analyze a territory’s material and human real-
ity. It is also informed by various theories, i.e. a body of knowledge and/or ideas that
helps us understand and give meaning to a reality in the present based on its histori-
cal foundations and future projections. It is difficult to separate these two distinct
but complementary dimensions of planning – one theoretical, the other practical –
though the two are rarely combined in the discourse or practice of urban stakehold-
ers (i.e. researchers or urban practitioners), as we will see in the case studies.
There is a discourse – or rather there are discourses – on the city; our vision of it
is changing, echoing the shift from the city to the urban, to follow Françoise Choay
(1999). Spaces, which have become globalized in accordance with normative global
urbanization models, are nonetheless born of distinct, contextually-specific local
and national histories, indigenous cultures, social practices and geographies, all in
the complex ambiguity of massive heterogeneity (Paquot et al. 2000). This com-
plexity must be taken into account in discourses on cities and urban environments.
For Castells (1969), and referring to the work of Chicago School researchers in
the 1920s, the contemporary city can theoretically be understood as a “specific cul-
tural system that produces norms and values that are characteristic of modern soci-
eties; a space shaped by changes in the socio-economic structure; and self-balancing
environmental organization to respond to the new needs that develop inside or out-
side of it, “ (Castells 1969:173). This definition is still valid today and allows us
maintain certain generic elements that will guide our future analyses. The first and
most important is that the city is a social system that reflects a modernity forged on
societal and technological interactions. Urban morphology is changing in tandem
with society and the economy. The city is an environment that is both natural and
built, and whose endogenous dynamics, external interactions, balance and break-
points we will analyze.
Neil Brenner (2009) explores the many profound changes that have taken place
in our contemporary societies in recent decades. The urban sector continues to
expand in highly industrialized parts of the world with the diversification of land
Table 3.1 The different dimensions and steps of an alternative planning

Sustainable Spatial and Urban planning
Ultimate urban Appropriate Socio-economic environmental and architectural
goal development planning dimensions dimensions dimensions
Objectives Urban Priorities: Planning: Methods: Tools: Adapted to
planning Functional, Suited to the Inspired by the stakeholders’
efficient needs of South reality of the (inhabitants,
planning cities and their people and community groups,
current/future resources private
capacities available to professionals,
resolve priority public
issues administrators)
skills
Theories The city and Priorities: The Urban spatial Territorial, urban
urban setting Up-to-date contemporary and planning,
knowledge city in environmental architectural and
developing organization: constructive
countries: Characteristics, organization, for
Social, impacts, whose benefit?
economic, consequences
cultural, and costs, for
institutional and whom, borne by
political whom?
organization,
for whose
benefit?
Methods Approaches Priorities: Socio-spatial Spatial/ Urbanistic and
and indicators Methods diagnosis: environmental architectural
regarding for Settlement diagnosis: diagnosis:
urban issues diagnosing history, census Inventory of the Territorial
(quantitative, the local/ of the state of natural mapping,
qualitative global population and resources infrastructures and
and situation its activities, (water, air, soil), housing amenities
iconographic) urban public water supply,
policies, drainage
evaluation of systems, land
needs (by and property
inhabitants/ status
specialists),
participatory
approach,
SWOT, etc.
Tools Information Priorities: Pre-existing Pre-existing Pre-existing
and analysis Tools that documents, documents, documents,
tools can be used surveys, surveys, plans, surveys, plans,
in a context quantitative/ interviews with interviews with
of limited qualitative specialists, specialists,
resources surveys, computerized computerized
individual databases databases
interviews,
focus group
(continued)
Table 3.1 (continued)
Sustainable Spatial and Urban planning
Ultimate urban Appropriate Socio-economic environmental and architectural
goal development planning dimensions dimensions dimensions
Outputs Analyses and Priorities: Diachronic and Diachronic and Diachronic and
recomme Decision synchronic synchronic synchronic
ndations support knowledge of knowledge of knowledge of
social, territorial, urban planning,
economic and environmental architectural and
institutional and climatic material issues
issues updated, issues updated, allows for the
helping to allowing for the establishment of
establish setting of priorities in terms
priorities in priorities in of intervention
terms of terms of
intervention intervention
Outcomes Urban Priorities: Social, Spatial, land Urban planning,
planning Use of a economic and and architectural and
context- institutional environmental infrastructural
appropriate elements used elements used elements used to
planning to measure to measure measure urban
method/ urban planning urban planning planning actions
tools by action are actions are are defined,
urban identified and defined, identified and
operators classified identified and classified
classified
Products Software & Priorities: A tool A tool A tool combining
training: Creation of combining combining urban planning,
Creation of a a free, social, territorial, architectural and
high- innovative, economic/ environmental infrastructural data
performance, efficient institutional and climatic allowing for the
easy to use software data allowing data allowing configuration of
software program for the for the modes of
program configuration of configuration of intervention, their
modes of modes of location, graphic
intervention, intervention, configuration and
their location, their location, temporal/remote
graphic graphic control is created
configuration configuration
and temporal/ and temporal/
remote control remote control
is created is created
use, new infrastructures and the regional reconfiguration of rural-urban interfaces

and modes of investment and governance. Marcuse et al. (2014) highlight the lack
of reflection at the micro, meso and macro urban scales and the power struggles
these urban dynamics generate. More recently and more pertinent to our discussion
here is the fact that urbanization follows on the coattails of the globalization of eco-
nomic exchanges and rural-urban demographic shifts. Moreover, it now affects the
entire planet and is jostling more or less un-urbanized countries with record speed.
The intensification and extension of the urbanization process is therefore changing
the territory and social relations at various scales.
Three of Lefebvre’s (1970) observations are still valid today. The first is the idea
of urban centrality based on a concentration of inhabitants, infrastructures and
activities. For the author, this centrality, which is economic and political first and
foremost, is the result of the capitalist mode of production that now pervades the
world. This echoes what we now refer to globalization, which is a process that is
recognized for its largely economic dimension and wherein cities are a structuring
element (Newman and Thornley 2011; Bolay 2006; Sassen 2000). However, we
must also manage new rarities such as space, land and water, as well as climatic
conditions, which further complexifies the urban reality. Lefebvre was far ahead of
his time when he predicted the major environmental and service supply issues con-
temporary cities would one day face (Bolay 2012). Finally, this human, environ-
mental and technological complexity makes the urban phenomenon a reality that
‘fragmentary sciences,’ as Lefebvre called them (i.e. disciplines of and relating to
the city), can only partially analyze. Truly understanding this complexity requires
an interdisciplinary vision that transcends scientific divisions (Bolay 1995).
As Scott and Storper (2013) point out, the debate is endless. The clash between
different schools of thought is inevitable given that the subject itself is in constant
transformation. While some deny the existence of ‘urban singularity,’ others con-
versely dissect cities’ divergent natures (the global city (Sassen 1991), the neo-
liberal city (Storper 2016), the creative city,1 the ordinary city (Robinson 2006), the
postmodern city (Newman 1995) and the smart city (Marsal-Llacuna et al. 2015)).
The disembodied virtuality of new communication technologies have not replaced
the physical/human reality. Rather, they reinforce these links and extend them
sociologically and spatially (Riggs and Gordon 2015; Shiode 2000). Cities are also
places where power (political namely, in the form of national, regional and/or local
authorities, depending on the city) concentrates. However, this power is not only
political; in their socio-territorial context, cities are places for decisions that have an
impact well beyond their borders (public administrations, banks, small/large com-
panies, lobbies, etc.) (Parker 2010).
These typological distinctions are real and merit investigation. Certain general
trends should nonetheless be borne in mind, given the global nature of this phenom-
enon, which heavily impacts emerging and developing countries. To begin, there is
the synergy between economic development and urban growth as, generally speak-
ing, cities tend to be highly technified hubs and motors of the contemporary econ-
https://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/ (Accessed 27 May 2019).

1
omy2 (Csomós 2017; Ellen Mac Arthur Foundation 2017; Sassen 2011). The
concentration of infrastructures and the sophistication of technologies and services
are assets that reinforce cities’ spatial centrality, economic primacy and social inter-
actions (Duranton 2014).
It is in this multi-dimensional spirit that the Institute for Urban Strategies (2017)
ranks the 40 most powerful cities in the world according to six urban functions –
economy, research and development, cultural interaction, livability, environment
and accessibility – and 70 identification.3 We might easily be tempted to do the same
for agglomerations on a country by country basis, while attempting to compensate
for what is – in our opinion – the lack of a political dimension in this global nomen-
clature. Intentionally or not, the authors forget that governments and their adminis-
trations also bring power to cities. The work of GPCI also helps us better understand
what is happening in terms of urban planning and places where public action
concentrates.
Before considering how and whether planning as it is designed and practiced
today is adapted to South cities, we must recognize certain emblematic features that
characterize all cities. These include spatial/economic polarity, political/economic
power, a concentration of individuals, capital, goods and activities, and dynamics of
proximity, gathering and interaction. Cities themselves are systems, networks of
interdependent technological, institutional and sociological elements that form a
system of systems (Wyly 2012). Today, cities are the framework upon which con-
temporary societies and decision-making are configured and organized.
These urban characteristics are everywhere, in both the histories of cities and in
their contemporary geographical diversity. It is based on this interplay of similari-
ties and differences that we know how to think and act knowledgably in cities.
However, it is essential that we become more aware of the challenges the Global
South faces through the application of urban planning tools. In their introduction to
Urban Theories beyond the West, Edensor and Jayne (2012) show that theoretical
debates on “the urban reality” are dominated by Europe and North America, and
that South cities are almost always studied in contrast to these models (Fig. 3.4).
And yet, their human and spatial realities differ in numerous ways.
Regarding attention to social practices in the field, I clearly recall the authority
of tribal leaders in the Nylon zone of Douala, where old Biteck (now deceased) held
authority over almost 200,000 people – which is more than the government dele-
gate, prefect or governor who actually requested his authorization to renovate the
neighborhoods in question (Bolay 1988). I also recall the religious and sacred
dimension of certain public spaces in African cities, like the Sacred Wood, which
urban planning colleagues in Lomé, Togo, showed me.
These are not the remnants of the past but rather of another modernity that shapes
the cosmopolitanism of South cities. It is not possible to consider the urban South
simply in light of the processes taking place at the planetary level. Rather, these cit-
2
https://www.citylab.com/life/2015/03/sorry-london-new-york-is-the-worlds-most-economically-
powerful-city/386315/ (Accessed 27 May 2019).
3
These criteria define Global Power City Index (GPCI).
Fig. 3.4 The poor Nylon neighborhood in Douala, Cameroon, in 2013, with its informal settle-
ments. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
ies are marked by the multifunctionality of their spaces (be it the different uses of
sidewalks, when they exist, or roadsides with no pedestrian crossings and that serve
as areas for foot traffic, vending and informal business). They are also shaped by
forms of control, social integration, exclusion and negotiation that have little to do
with what we know in Europe or the United States. It is therefore both impossible
to model South cities on theories produced elsewhere and unrealistic to implement
planning models created in environments and societies that are different in more
ways than they are similar.
3.4 From Words to Deeds: Thinking About the City 71
3.4 From Words to Deeds: Thinking About the City
According to Fainstein and De Filippis “…Planning theory is divided into those

who understand planning through analyzing existing practices and those who theo-
rize in an effort to transform planning practices,” (2016:2). They add: “most plan-
ning practitioners largely disregard planning theory and not so often think of any
planning theory course they had to take a student...” (De Filippis 2016:3). Hence the
difficulty of considering a continuum that does not exist (planning) through the
theories that define it, as planning is derived from various scientific fields and uses
specific methods. Planning practices are self-referential, meaning that current and
future planning are based on an analysis of the objectives and results of previous
works and rarely question their aims, or how they contribute to a certain “idea of
city” or projection of urban society in the making. Focusing specifically on urban
planning practices is therefore extremely important as it reveals their theoretical and
ideological underpinnings.
Returning once again to the two authors cited above, we easily understand the
distinction they make between what they consider to be the two crucial dimensions
of planning: “We also see planning theory as sitting at the intersection of the city
and region as a phenomenon and planning as a human activity. Planning adapts to
changes in the city and region, which in turn are transformed by planning and poli-
tics. Planners not only plan places; they also negotiate, forecast, research, survey,
and organize financing. Nor do planners have an exclusive influence over territories;
developers, business groups, politicians, and other actors also shape urban and
regional development” (De Filippis 2016:4).
In my opinion, planning should primarily be regarded as an anticipatory action
whose purpose is to modify the city in the long term and, as such, the spatial plan-
ning and socio-spatial organization of the urban environment. The goal of planning
therefore is to make a difference by reckoning the whole, and not merely acting as
the sum of the sectoral entities and projects for the months or years to come.
Planning drinking water supply and household waste treatment are essential but
must be part of a more global vision of the idea of “today’s city” in 10, 20 or
50 years. Plans must establish an order of priorities that will ultimately be translated
into actions and anticipate the effort required to do so. Ideally, urban planning
should extend beyond personal, corporate and special interests to reflect an entity
(the city) and a collectivity (urban society) without naivety, differences of view,
conflicts of interest or power struggles. Such an approach must be supported by
institutions (i.e. local government) and shared with individuals and entities who will
(1) participate in its implementation (planning professionals, companies, social
organizations, politicians, etc.) and (2) theoretically benefit from it (namely inhabit-
ants, the public community, political representatives and the managing urban
administration). The latter must ensure that the approach and interventions planned
are legitimate in the eyes of inhabitants and urban stakeholders.
There is, of course, a broad spectrum of possible interpretations in such a
dynamic, notably with shared implementation and decision-making between the
public and private sectors and given the political forces involved, their ideologies
and their vision of the “city of the future”. This multiscale process is linked to the
collaborative (i.e. non-oppositional) relationship between decision makers at the
local, regional and national levels based on the distribution of their decision-making
powers in terms of policies in general and urban planning more specifically. Thus,
depending on the city, it may be conceivable to move from a highly “centralized”
model that is fully supported by the public sector to a highly “liberalized” one in
which the local government delegates urban management to private companies.
Between these two extremes we find other configurations. Some are chosen (e.g.
public-private partnerships (PPP)) while others are the fruit of necessity or indiffer-
ence (i.e. laissez-faire or focusing on only certain sectors where the local govern-
ments’ intervention is deemed necessary and which vary from one city to another
(e.g. electricity supply, public transportation, subsidized housing)). In either case,
these models are chosen in lieu of others, which are deemed either secondary (and
thus are left to private initiative, e.g. housing, health, culture) or too expensive and
beyond the financial means of urban governments (e.g. waste recycling or the fight
against air pollution).
Identifying the variations between the different areas, sectors and projects, and
determining who is responsible for them would allow us to develop an analysis grid
that can provide an overview of the city’s layout and operational organization. Such
analysis is critical to urban planning design and production for the decades to come,
quite simply in order to determine who will do what, with what authority and with
what financial resources. This should take place at three key phases in the planning
process: the design phase, the realization phase and in the maintenance and develop-
ment of existing works.
Newman and Thorney (2011) point out that understanding the national context is
important for understanding urban planning in both its historical context and current
reality. Even if the national government defers certain decisions to the supranational
level (as is typically the case in the European Union) and delegates other responsi-
bilities to lower levels of the political structure (provinces, federal states, cantons),
as in the United States, Switzerland and many South countries (e.g. Brazil, Mexico
and Argentina), the contemporary era is marked by decentralization that is not only
limited to highly industrialized countries. Decentralization, which is a key phenom-
enon in the transformation of political systems and can be observed in both Latin
America and Africa, has obvious repercussions on the territory. As the case studies
presented hereafter show, the central government remains a decisive player in plan-
ning and establishes the normative framework for the different sectors involved in
urban development and land use. However, the State is often the main lender due to
the more or less conditional granting of public funds and/or international loans at
the regional and communal levels. Given this, the interfaces between the local,
regional and national levels are also decisive in determining the degree of legiti-
macy of the planning programs and projects envisaged. Conversely, decentraliza-
tion will have to be carefully examined to fully grasp the scope of the delegation of
power – from the relocation of central political bodies to the redistribution of bud-
gets and national, regional and municipal devolution of decision-making powers
3.5 South Cities and North Planning 73
(taxation of individuals/businesses, property and property taxes and other market

and service taxes).
One must also not forget funding from foreign cooperation agencies, NGOs and
other foundations that, more often than not, also play a role in urban development
on a project by project basis. However, as Beard et al. (2008) note based on analyses
of decentralization processes in different South countries, certain similarities were
observable between decentralization policies and neoliberal policies during the
1980s and 1990s. At the time, it was not simply a question of restoring certain
decision-making powers to the local governments, but also of transferring responsi-
bilities in terms of the management of services provided to the community (water,
energy, public transportation, etc.) to the private sector. This often involves heavy
investments that not all communities can afford but that, in most cases, are also
significant sources of income.
The picture would not be complete without again considering the city’s size (area
and population) and function given that, as mentioned earlier, small and medium-
sized cities are often overlooked or discredited. Yet, we know that replicating the
planning used for big cities is not appropriate (Way 2016). Not carefully consider-
ing the characteristics of intermediate cities would mean ignoring their potential for
growth and development (Bolay and Rabinovich 2003). We must therefore look
more closely at how the situation is developing in the Global South, both in terms
of the perception of the relationships between urban theories and at how planning is
concretely implemented.
3.5 South Cities and North Planning
Among the authors who have explored urban planning in the Global South, it
appears that the initiatives taken in this area are far from being consistently satisfac-
tory and only partially address the problems at hand.
The first shortcoming is that plan development, be it comprehensive (e.g. master
plans) or sectoral, is no guarantee of future investments and actions. The necessary
funding is not always available at the local level, and foreign lenders generally pre-
fer to support individual projects than series of projects over time (Fig. 3.5). This is
what we found in Koudougou, Burkina Faso, which we will be the topic of a later
chapter.
The second shortcoming that often emerges concerns the territorial scope of
planning. Often, potentially hazardous informal urbanized areas (i.e. land regular-
ization, the construction of new infrastructures, evictions and material destruction)
are simply ignored. Development planning tends to focus on city centers and formal
(i.e. legal) residential areas and to improve amenities and collective services in
them, thus reinforcing the socio-spatial segregation of the poorest segments of the
urban population. This is what we gleaned in Montes Claros, Brazil, and will con-
sider later in the book.
Fig. 3.5 The new bus station in Koudougou, funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and
Cooperation 2014. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
Finally, issues emerge from the potential contradictions between the local gov-
ernment, planning agencies and residents, who are often the informal producers of
poor neighborhoods (Fig. 3.6). Planning processes seldom allow for a true societal
dialogue that takes into account social demands and jointly set priorities (Fig. 3.7).
Nueve de Julio in Argentina has been facing such issues for over 25 years, as we will
discuss later in the book.
All of these shortcomings combine and, again, can be attributed to the fact that
the foundations of urban planning were developed in Western countries (i.e. norms,
cultures and ways of life) and are thus ill-suited to the realities of South cities. This
is what Devas (2001) concludes from a comparative study conducted in nine South
cities. He found that, in all of the cases, the standards chosen in terms of infrastruc-
ture, amenities and buildings were unsuited to the conditions of the poor and actu-
ally constitute a system that is designed for citizens with economic, financial and/or
Fig. 3.6 A poor neighborhood in Montes Claros, Brazil in 2018. (Reproduced with permission
from Bolay)
political power. Based on comparable criteria, Nagendra et al. (2018) compare
North and South cities, showing that the differences clearly outweigh the similari-
ties: “As demonstrated, the city prosperity index, infrastructure development index,
quality of life index and environmental sustainability index are significantly lower
Fig. 3.7 A poor neighborhood in Nueve de Julio in 2018. (Reproduced with permission from
Bolay)
in cities of the global south compared with the global north” (Nagendra et al. 2018:
341). Like many authors, they also add that urban knowledge is largely founded on
examples from the Global North: “Many metrics of sustainable cities were devel-
oped using data from European and North American cities, and may not sufficiently
take into account the vastly different per-capita consumption levels between the
north and south, as well as within the south” (Nagendra et al. 2018:243).
At the same time, South cities are gradually being integrated into the global
economy and are thus benefitting from computer connectivity and new communica-
tion technologies. This economic and political integration of countries that
20–30 years ago were more or less marginalized offers new technological capabili-
ties for better managing cities and foreseeing future changes. Yet, this integration
further commoditizes the relationship between urban society and its territory
through investment priorities (public budgets facilitate the emergence of or increase
in private operators) and the privatization of collective services (namely water,
energy, transportation, culture and public spaces). The most “dynamic” cities – i.e.
the most populated and internationally-connected – will be the first to enjoy this
“internationalized urban liberalism.” (Fig. 3.8) What is less clear is the fact that
small and medium-sized cities are the prime targets of this urban marketing and that
differences between cities are likely to become more marked if management models
are based on economic profitability alone. Small and medium-sized South cities of
5000, 10,000, 50,000 or even 100,000 inhabitants rarely have urban planning
departments. When they do, are merely bare-boned and without permanent and/or
competent staff trained in state-of-the-art GIS and mapping techniques, high-
performance equipment or the latest generation of computer systems. In some cases,
Fig. 3.8 Shanghai and Huaian in 2014: new cities, construction and destruction. (Reproduced
they do not even have an internet connection. Practically speaking, in most cases,
the local government mandates foreign or local private firms to produce urban plan-
ning documents. Regardless of the quality of the plans it is clear that, for these
firms, the issues are not the same as for the political authorities or local government
officials. For private firms, it is a business that must be profitable and meet the terms
of the contract, with little time to spend on citizen consultation procedures or other
participatory planning processes.
Watson (2009) reminds us that demographic and territorial growth in South cities
inevitably results in a concentration of poverty and social, economic and spatial
inequalities. Today’s urban planning is therefore unable to anticipate the needs of
these cities, much less solve their many interrelated issues (individual/family/com-
munity needs, projections for the entire territory, etc.). The result is slums that,
located on the margins of the models applied by decision-makers and planners, are
in fact the epicenter urban problems due to their number, size (area and population)
and the urgency and severity of the issues they face. The slum is a tutelary figure of
the contemporary South city founded on disparities and shortages.
However, slums are also representative of urban dynamics that favor the integra-
tion of the poor into urban life through job creation, income generation, community
organization and collective participation in rehabilitation projects in informal areas.
Dharavi, the biggest slum in Mumbai and perhaps the world, is a perfect example of
this economic and social creativity (Crerar 2017). Again, according to Watson, the
question is twofold: on the one hand, the planning models and practices come from
North countries whose socio-spatial contexts are incomparable; on the other hand,
planning is applied in a strictly technical way and has little regard for local urban
history, local actors, specific interests or a holistic vision of urban society.
In a more recent article, Watson sarcastically evokes “African urban fantasies” to
describe the pharaonic plans the continent’s major cities are making in collaboration
with major North American and/or Asian urban planning agencies (Watson 2013).
According to the author, these “urban follies” have certain elements in common that
merit critical analysis: “They are large scale, in that they involve the re-planning of
all or large parts of an existing city or (more often) restructuring a city through the
creation of linked but new satellite cities; they consist of graphically represented
and three-dimensional visions of future cities rather than detailed land use plans,
and most of these visions are clearly influenced by cities as Dubai, Shanghai or
Singapore; they are clear attempts to link physical visions to contemporary rhetoric
on urban sustainability, risk and nest technologies, underpinned by the ideal that
through these cities Africa can be “modernized”; they are either on the websites of
the global companies that have developed them or are on government websites with
the references to their origins within private sector companies; their location in the
legal or governance structures of a country is not clear – where formal city plan exist
these visions may simply parallel or over-ride them; there is no reference to any
kind of participation or democratic debate that has taken place” (Watson 2013:217).
Implementing such projections would have an undeniable social cost for popula-
tions in urbanized and restructured areas as well as for rural populations whose land
would be monopolized to create new cities. Again, these investments – initially pri-
vate but built on public lands – would mainly benefit the most powerful players in
the largest cities and further widen the gap with small and medium-sized cities.
Quoting Roy (2005), no connection exists between the spatial and social levels;
territories, networks and amenities are not actually designed based on how people
live. Moreover, a blind eye is turned to informality, which is the only way for the
poor to integrate the city, whether they want to or not. In most cases, the poor are
neither consulted nor involved in planning decisions. Rather, they simply suffer the
consequences rather than enjoying changes that would improve their daily lives.
Later in this book, we will closely examine the master plan creation process in
Montes Claros, Brazil. The results of such top-down approaches are poorly-targeted
investments that do not solve the crucial issues poor urban dwellers face. The ques-
tion arises for both the choice of amenities and, more commonly, accessibility, with
costs that are disproportional to the financial conditions of the poorest segments of
society. We found evidence of this in a comparative study of different urban services
in Argentina, Bolivia and Cuba (Bolay et al. 2004, 2005).
These changes result in increasingly fragmented urban territories, gentrification
(depending on neighborhoods’ amenities) and socio-economic segmentation of
functions and uses of the city (Marcuse 2006). In short, slums on one side, gated
communities on the other, and a city center in collapse.
Taking the example of the Palestinian territories and reflecting on planning alter-
natives in a context of high demographic pressure, Yiftachel (2006) feels it would be
useful to rethink planning based on five crucial points for more coherent develop-
ment of the urban territory. These include (1) land use and distribution criteria; (2)
public policies against segregation; (3) decision-making procedures (with social
participation to help integrate the urban poor); (4) considering the socio-economic
dimensions of the city (disadvantaged urban populations more specifically) in a
holistic way and; (5) the impact of urban changes in terms of increasing property
and real estate value in rehabilitated neighborhoods.
Here we are faced with a dilemma. On one hand, private investors, who are often
supported by the local government, are primarily concerned with urban competition
and profitability, while most citizens are focused on their urban integration and
access to urban services. Urban planning is torn between these two lines of reason-
ing, one based on economic profitability, the other on integrating the city socially.
What is more, the changes are rarely transparent; instead, much of the process
remains opaque, inaccessible or simply unknown based on goals that vary accord-
ing to the actors involved, power struggles and attempts to monopolize “urban
capital.”
If the goal is indeed to move away from classic plans that are ill-suited to the
South context, planning must then focus on the different facets of urban poverty.
These include informality in key areas such as employment, land, habitat and access
to basic networks (e.g. water and electricity) as well as economic inaccessibility to
key areas of urban development (e.g. health, education and culture) to support the
poor in their quest to live in conditions that are worthy of urban life, rather than
favoring megaprojects that marginalize them further into the urban periphery
(Harrison 2006).
Any change (made or planned) must be understood within in a dynamic system
whose evolution depends not only on the planning as implemented but also on
endogenous and exogenous factors over which there is little control. This applies to
all developing countries and should encourage us to think of urban planning as a
creative, innovative approach that is has been designed to face the unexpected—and
not as a routine step doomed to failure (Grunau and Schönwandt 2010). In this
sense, innovation that favors efficient, contextually-appropriate planning in South
cities must be a coherent, multidimensional approach that focuses on the human
dimension of urban development before translating it into technical and construc-
tive programs and projects.
A multitude of variables must be taken into account in planning processes,
including interactions among social, environmental, economic, political and admin-
istrative actors. As planning is often applied in rapidly changing, poorly controlled
contexts, it can no longer be designed in a linear way as it was in the 1960s. Rather,
it must provide for a certain degree of uncertainty that, in order to be understood and
accepted, must be allowed for in the planning process itself based on communica-
tion and collaborative efforts between the many actors involved in planning the
city’s future (Woltjer 2000).
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Chapter 4
Convoluted Urban Planning
Koudougou, a Poor African City
Abstract The efforts made to plan cities in emerging and developing countries are
confronted to multiple issues, especially in small and middle sized cities which can
be considered as poor through several criteria: socio-economic level of majority of
population; low levels of public investments, weak quality of local administration,
and large dependence of external donors. Following several authors, one of the main
reasons is that philosophy and methods of urban planning applied to these specific
contexts are directly reproduced from a Western tradition which doesn’t correspond
to the local and national context in terms of needs, priorities and organization of the
financial resources. The case of Koudougou, a medium sized city of about 100.000
inhabitants, third largest city in one of the poorest countries in the world, Burkina
Faso, will give the opportunity to understand concretely how these deficiencies are
translate in an urban context. And foresee, more globally, alternative models of
urban planning better adapted to poor cities, whose number of inhabitants is grow-
ing steadily.
In Koudougou, as in many African cities, the urban planning process is exoge-
nous, not really consistent with the requests of the people, nor with the human,
material and financial resources of the city, and therefore rarely applied. This is
easily explained when we know that urban planning in its design, is initiated as part
of a collaborative framework between the central government and foreign donors.
The initial diagnosis is made by quality professionals but who are disconnected
from local administrative and social realities. In fact it is a census of all needs to be
met. Without guidance on how to implement a program of urban improvement when
the facilities to be created whose costs are more than ten times that of the annual
municipal budget reserves? In fact, plans produced in this context do not serve to
guide local authorities in the current and future development of the urban territory.
Neither are they an instrument of dialogue between the said authorities and the
population. On the contrary, any consultation with the community that does not
result in expected and desired deliverables will strengthen the distrust, or even defi-
ance towards public, political, and administrative powers. At best, the plans, losing
their principal essence, become promotional tools, pure marketing products, a cata-
logue of intentions of penniless communities at the mercy of the donors’ desidera-
tum, whether they be State or foreign cooperation agencies.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28419-0_4
84 4 Convoluted Urban Planning
This distortion of urban planning destroys any coherence in the process, both in
establishing priorities in infrastructure and equipment to realize, in the economic
and social sectors to be favored, as in the implementation timeframes. Nothing more
can be programmed, since all work is done depending on external funders, without
continuity, without a guiding principle, and without any possible guarantee that
things will be done on time, potentially creating more long term disorganization
than anything else.
Based on this experience and in comparison with other researches on urban
development in African cities must be entirely reconsidered. The essential point −
too often overlooked − is to begin from a participatory diagnosis in which the actual
situation of the city is examined in its various dimensions, both demographic and
spatial, infrastructural, but also economic, social and environmental, permitting all
the stakeholders to position themselves.
Keywords African cities · Non-standard development · Koudougou · Burkina

Faso · Poor city · Regional pole · Financial and human resources · External
dependence
4.1 African Cities: Non-standard Urban Development
As Chenal (2013) says with humor, urban city planning in Africa is a bit like of the
video game SimCity; everything seems possible. The recipe for a “good city” is
simplistic: housing estates for the middle class, sanitation for the poor, fresh food
markets scattered here and there, a bit of land regularization to squeeze money out
of squatters to whom one promises a land title, a few basic technical networks and
paved road to boot, and presto, you’re done! So why do we continue to see slums?
Why do the poor continue to negotiate their way along potholed streets? What is the
actual status of these markets with their DIY stalls to which customers rush?
However, the urban reality is more complex than the many plans produced by pri-
vate offices in Africa and in North countries and elsewhere would suggest. And very
few result in actual projects in the field. Alas, there is no magic formula (i.e. “you
just have to…..!”). Demographic growth, territorial extension, increasing poverty,
environmental degradation, the informal nature of most urban activities - be they for
artisanal, commercial or construction purposes - are all challenges to urban plan-
ning in terms of the approaches to take and the goals to set. They are likewise so for
the actors who have the enormous responsibility of managing an ever-changing
present while trying to plan the African city of tomorrow.
According to UN-Habitat (2014), the African population was approaching a bil-
lion in 2010 and is expected to rise to 1.29 billion in early 2019.1 By 2040, it will
have reached two billion, and by 2070 will have exceeded three billion. This increase
http://population.city/world/af (Accessed 23 May 2019).

1
4.1 African Cities: Non-standard Urban Development 85
will be most marked in cities. Africa has been the world’s most urbanized region
since the 1990s. Although the urban annual growth rate has gradually decreased
over the decades to 3.29% in the 2000s (versus 4.16% in the 1980s), it remains very
high. In 2015, the 404 million city dwellers represented 46% of the African popula-
tion. This figure is expected to rise to 49% by 2035 (UNECA, 2017). By 2050, 1.2
billion urbanites will account for 58% of the continent’s population. As we recently
stated, this spatial and demographic extension and its effects in terms of poverty and
urban precariousness should serve as the foundations of urban planning in Africa
(Bolay 2011). In 2006, UN-Habitat said that poverty would be the main challenge
for African cities’ in the future (UN-Habitat 2005). This accelerated urbanization is
also characterized by a skyrocketing slum population (166 million poor urban
dwellers in Africa in 2001). This trend continues today, with nearly 200 million in
2010.2 The United Nations regretfully states that no real pro-poor policies exist in
Africa (Güneralp et al. 2017).
Forecasts suggest that the African urban population will represent 1.4 billion in
2050 and will account for 21% of the worldwide projection. All this in just 30 short
years, and with a mass of individuals who will represent 55% of the total African to
contend with. More than anywhere else in the world, the urbanization process on the
African continent is a real revolution in progress, with urban growth rates that,
though they will gradually decline, may still reach 8% depending on the country.
This urban transformation concerns not only major cities but all types of agglomera-
tions. According to figures analyzed by Kessides (2007), more than half of city
dwellers live in cities of less than 200,000 inhabitants (Fig. 4.1).
All of this occurs in national contexts that, in many cases, are still unstable due
to exacerbated political centralism, authoritarianism, nepotism and oligarchism.
They are also accompanied by a lack of democratic alternation, civil war and a fear
of terrorism, food crises and famine with repercussions on citizens’ trust with regard
to elites and investors. Although macroeconomic figures this past decade have been
encouraging in terms of job and wealth creation, the social effects of this accumula-
tion of capital are not clearly perceptible. According to Cohen (2006), sub-Saharan
Africa is home to a third of the world’s poor, an increasing number of whom live in
urban areas.
Economic growth in Africa was negative between the 1960s and the late 1990s,
as reflected by the increase in mass poverty. However, positive growth has been
observed since the beginning of the twenty-first century, according to the McKinsey
Global Institute3: “Overall, the continent achieved average real GDP growth of
5.4% between 2000 and 2010, adding $ 78 billion annually to GDP (in 2015 prices).
But growth slowed to 3.3%, $ 69 billion, a year between 2010 and 2015.” Although
private and public investments have increased, exports are down from 2013 (ADB
2018). The year 2016 marked a low point in the continent’s economic growth rate,
2
https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/april-2012/towards-african-cities-without-slums
(Accessed 23 May 2019).
3
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/05/what-s-the-future-of-economic-growth-in-africa/
Fig. 4.1 Africa’s urban population distribution by settlement size. (Reproduced from Kessides
2007)
which fell to 1.7% in contrast to 3.7% in 2015. This was partially due to instability
in a number of North African and Middle Eastern countries, lower oil and raw mate-
rials prices on international markets and adverse weather conditions. Some coun-
tries, however, such as Ivory Coast, Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia and Senegal, continue
to ride this wave with economic growth rates of more than 5%. A more general
recovery can be felt. According to the World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa’s growth
was expected to reach 3.1% in 2018 and 3.6% in 2019–2020,4 which is feasible so
long as oil and commodity prices remain stable. Curbing these fluctuations requires
diversifying the economic fabric, improving infrastructures, strengthening electrical
systems and tighter control of the public debt, with 18 African countries now con-
sidered “at risk” versus eight in 2013.
In an analysis of Africa’s urban economy based on a study of 90 developing
countries, UN-Habitat points out that only in sub-Saharan Africa were the positive
relationship between urbanization and poverty reduction and positive correlation
between urbanization and economic development not confirmed. This is likely due
to urban immigration largely resulting from rural poverty, versus a strong, diverse
4
http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/04/18/economic-growth-in-africa-
rebounds-but-not-fast-enough (Accessed 23 May 2019).
urban job supply (UN-Habitat 2013). In its report on the African economy and
urban development, UNECA insists that compared to other regions of the world,
African cities face low productivity that in turn generates little job creation (UNECA
2017). According to this commission, a significant amount of fundamental data
must be modified in order to enhance the economic potential of these cities. To
begin, there is a critical lack of infrastructure and services as well as crying need for
an institutional and regulatory framework that supports entrepreneurialism and
financial investment. Without these foundations, the urban economy as it exists
today will remain poorly connected to rural areas and continue to have negative
repercussions on the environment, social equality and efforts towards formalizing
the economy. The informal nature of the urban economy cannot be denied and,
according to Alter Chen (2017), represents 66% of non-agricultural jobs in sub-
Saharan Africa (ranging from 33% in South Africa to 82% in Mali). The problem of
urban employment is also gendered, with 74% of non-agricultural employment for
women versus 61% for men. According to an ILO (International Labour Office)
study cited by Africa Expansion, the informal sector represents 93% of new jobs
created, while the formal sector employs only 10% of the continent’s workers
(Afrique Expansion 2012).
This reality, which has been quantified and observed in all African cites, not only
is undeniable; it also cannot be eradicated or fought, as it is the economic driver of
the urban environment. Informal work must be analyzed in order to be better under-
stood, improved, galvanized and humanized. Chen specifies that two-thirds of urban
workers in Africa are freelancers, either individually or in family micro-units. These
freelance jobs help alleviate poverty but do not offer any security (ILO 2014).
Moreover, they are critical in strategic urban areas such as food supply (two-thirds
of urban households buy their food from undeclared street vendors) and construc-
tion. Such facts support the need for urban governments to acknowledge the infor-
mal sector’s existence and to take measures to integrate and protect small producers,
artisans and business owners by gradually formalizing African cities’ most dynamic
economic and socially inclusive sector in an acceptable way.
In many sectors, informality has become more the rule than the exception, be it
land appropriation, building construction, infrastructure, technical networks, health
care or social protection. Continuing to ignoring it impacts both the organization of
the city as a whole and the mobilization of its assets. “Ordinary” African cities today
are still poor, with little tax revenue that might be invested in medium and long-term
projects to improve land use planning and environmental protection.
Many African cities have in common fragmented territorial development in their
peripheries and low land use, whose influence extends further and further into the
suburbs. Arable land thus changes uses at the expense of the peasant populations
and cities’ food supply. Territorial expansion also has environmental impacts by
upsetting the natural balance through deforestation, water contamination and
groundwater depletion – phenomena that, when combined, can pose a real chal-
lenge in terms of coherent regional development between the city and countryside
(Nunes Silva 2015).
Fig. 4.2 Douala 2013 (Nylon area) 200,000 slum inhabitants. (Reproduced with permission from
Bolay)
The problems African cities face are not only economic. There are also imbal-
ances in the urban network that are marked by the influence of a few
multimillion-dollar cities that control much of the political and economic power, at
the expense of smaller cities. This is the case for many capital cities, as we can see
in the table below, be it Lagos, Kinshasa or Cairo, which are among the world’s
most populous megacities, or other large African cities of over a million inhabitants.
Below are some images of these sprawling capitals with their poor neighbor-
hoods, low land use and budding business centers – globalization of the urban image
and international positioning vying for the “Manhattanization” of the twenty-first-
century city (Figs. 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6).
But the question remains as to what is happening outside of these cities. How are
cities (and city life) organized in less attractive small and medium-sized agglomera-
tions? These secondary cities replicate another characteristic of African cities: that
of territorial sprawl. Few cities are, in fact, concentrated, vertical and dense. Rather,
their boundaries are fuzzy and their peripheries – comprised of dirt roads, public
lighting (in some cases) and cookie-cutter housing developments and parcels with
buildings under construction – unclear. And yet we know that any posteriori large-
scale development in the urbanization process is extremely expensive, particularly
with regard to technical networks, roads, drainage, schools, health centers and other
collective services. Other logics therefore govern the implementation of suburban
Fig. 4.3 Urban sprawl in Yaoundé 2013. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
housing and development of central business and commercial areas. The city of
Koudougou, which we will examine more closely later in this chapter, will help us
understand this logic of making the city and watching it grow.
We must keep in mind the wide variety of urban agglomerations (Fig. 4.7). Small
and medium-sized cities have the largest number of urban inhabitants in Africa and
Fig. 4.4 Kinshasa 2015, Democratic Republic of Congo, Africa’s third largest city. (Reproduced
are home to the largest number of migrants of rural origin. Though their populations
are smaller, these cities nonetheless have the highest population growth. 52% of the
urban population in Africa lives in cities of less than 200,000 inhabitants (Fig. 4.7),
versus 42% for developing countries (Kessides 2006). These small and medium-
sized cities, both in size and in number of inhabitants, are also intermediate cities
(Bolay and Rabinovich 2004), given their central position in the surrounding rural
area (i.e. the rural-urban continuum) (Montgomery et al. 2004) and distinction as
regional urban centers (Bolay et al. 2004). These centers have not only urban and
local services and infrastructure, but also regional ones (public administration, mar-
kets, businesses, banks, hospitals, etc.). But like small and medium-sized cities in
Europe and other industrialized regions (Knox and Mayer 2009), these African
agglomerations benefit less directly from globalized economic exchanges and can
sometimes even suffer the consequences (i.e. a local market undermined by highly
competitive Asian imports). Their dynamics are and will remain largely dependent
on their physical and economic integration into national urban networks, notably
through the quality and density of the road network, public transportation and as
centers for processing and distributing agricultural products).
Comparing different African cities, Myers (2011) attempts to move away from
the Western models that shape thinking about African cities by highlighting the
variety and distinctiveness of urban development patterns on the continent. Though
Fig. 4.5 Abidjan, business center, in 2013. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
aware of the strong colonial influence as regards the physical manifestations of

urbanism and the neo-colonialist thinking of “city makers,” he stresses that African
city dwellers develop their own forms and standards for building and managing the
city, and are often obliged to do so due to their living conditions and the local gov-
ernment’s inaction. Though poor, these inhabitants are active in that they create
their jobs (often informal), homes and neighborhoods. All this self-construction of
the city clashes with other forces, such as the land market, the real estate sector,
technical networks, local governments and their administrative departments.
Though seemingly conflictual, these logics are often subject to negotiations.
People know the rules, even if they then misappropriate them. Land ownership is
governed both by modern, official law and traditional authorities with power over
customary land. In the African context, such factors often lead to arrangements
between stakeholders that differ from those on other continents. The practices –
both formal and informal – that make up the African city are anchored in innovative
modes of urban governance based on the realities and actions of their residents. If
we take housing and economic activities as an example, unlike the local govern-
ment, most poor African urban dwellers consider that their informal, undeclared or
even illegal activities are not only legitimate but normal and functional (Tranberg
and Vaa 2004).
Fig. 4.6 The skyline of Abidjan 2013, the capital of Ivory Coast, and long considered the modern
metropolis of West Africa. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
Here we touch on an African specific feature that makes African cities not only a
dichotomy between historical colonial centers and recent informal extensions, or
between self-construction in poor neighborhoods and modern technical networks
(water, drainage, electricity, waste management, etc.). Of greater importance here
are the superposing references, such as the customary land rights that underlie the
“modern” laws passed down by European colonists. Stakeholders both utilize and
fight these underlying frameworks with the aim of developing strategies to maxi-
mize the financial value of land and real estate. Neighborhood residents, however,
remain in fearful expectation of the hypothetical application of master plan deci-
sions taken in high places and their obligation to pay land rights in order to legally
stay on their plots and in their homes.
Faced with this seeming “cacophony,” the situation is evolving and awareness is
growing everywhere in Africa in an attempt to better align urban theories, planning
methods and the resulting actions.
For Agboda and Watson (2013), African cities are changing rapidly, and consid-
erable investments (notably in real estate and amenities) are reshaping the land-
scape. According to their study, the problem is that these changes have no real
impact on what is needed to implement sustainable urban development. For the
authors, the majority of these large-scale projects are and remain climatically,
socially (as they target African and foreign elite) and infrastructurally inappropriate.
These forecasts, which are often designed at the federal level, either draw their
Fig. 4.7 Types of urban agglomeration in Africa (1990–2030) (Economic Report on Africa 2017:
Urbanization and Industrialization for Africa’s Transformation). (Reproduced from UNDESA
2017)
inspiration directly from colonial planning norms, or are original and extravagant
but turn a blind eye to the informal city, or worse, simply eradicate it. Hence, the
formal city is becoming increasing inaccessible to ordinary people each day, as
informal settlements spread to the outskirts.
In response to this trend, the Association of African Planning Schools, a network
of 43 institutions that are training urban planners in an effort to reform planning
education on the continent, was created in 2008. According to its coordinator,5 we
must first realize that urbanization in Africa “does not follow the “conventional”
patterns of industrialization and concomitant job creation in the North, where rapid
urban growth was first experienced. Rapid urbanization in Africa is simply not
matched by the job creation required to secure livelihoods, and public intervention
is not keeping pace with the demand for shelter and land.” Most urban master plans
5
http://www.citylab.com/design/2011/11/improving-urban-planning-africa/549/ (Accessed 23
May 2019).
do not take into account the informal nature of urban, social and economic life, real
estate and land. Yet, these dimensions – which greatly impact the lives of the poor –
must be reintegrated in planning and in training curricula for future professionals so
that they can develop new approaches. Thus planning should not serve to sanction
norms that are inappropriate to the context, but rather to reorganize and standardize
what already exists and to better plan cities in the future by considering their inhab-
itants first and foremost.
As Harrison et al. (2008:17) say in their introduction to Planning and
Transformation, taking stock of the post-apartheid experience in South Africa, “The
purpose of planning is to contribute to the realization of socially just and sustainable
cities and regions, although if we recognize that there are different interpretations of
what these concepts may mean. To this end we believe that both the process and
products of planning are important and that they cannot be considered separately
from each other.” We fully agree with this idea of how urban planning should be
done in Africa in the future.
4.2 Koudougou, a Regional Hub in Burkina Faso
To illustrate these considerations, the history of Koudougou in Burkina Faso will

serve as an excellent example.
With just over 100,000 inhabitants, Koudougou (Fig. 4.8) is located 100 km west
of Ouagadougou and connected to it via a wide asphalt road. It is the administrative
Fig. 4.8 Aerial view of Koudougou. (Reproduced from Google Earth, 2019)
4.2 Koudougou, a Regional Hub in Burkina Faso 95
Fig. 4.9 Koudougou, city entrance in 2014. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
center of the province of Boulkiemde, which is the departmental prefecture of the

same name and capital of the Centre-Ouest region. This major city is the country’s
third most populated after the capital and Bobo Diolasso. Koudougou’s role as an
urban center dates back to the end of the nineteenth century, with the arrival of
French settlers and the forced immigration of rural populations to increase its num-
ber of inhabitants (Hilgers 2005).
Our first impression of Koudougou is that of spatial sprawl and extremely low
building density. As one enters the county, one finds few parcels that are not yet
overdeveloped (Figs. 4.9 and 4.10). With hesitating constructions (houses made of
raw earth or bricks), everything is designed and made for in a short term vision.
The houses are inhabited, but often only partially as they are still under construc-
tion. At the same time, a new, luxury private housing development at the city limits,
whose construction was launched with pomp on the occasion of the Independence
Day celebration on December 11, 2012, accommodates the city’s most affluent
residents.
Beyond its suburbs, Koudougou resembles an open-air shopping mall (Fig. 4.11).
The city center is home to every business activity imaginable (fresh food, restau-
rants, cafes, workshops, taverns with music pouring out of open doors, shops that
sell everything from mechanical parts to clothing imported from abroad). People
everywhere on bikes, motorcycles and on foot (though rarely in cars) make
Koudougou a lively, vibrant city. Its mish-mash collection of modest-sized build-
Fig. 4.10 Koudougou suburbs under construction in 2014. (Reproduced with permission from
Bolay)
ings seems cramped in so vast a territory. The overall tone is that of raw earth, from
the beaten dirt tracks that branch off from the main roads to the houses: beige to
brown and sometimes ocher. Koudougou is a rural town where rural farmers who
come to sell their produce at the market can feel at home.
Crossing the center, one immediately observes this mixture of urbanity and rural-
ity, with empty plots, houses still under construction and billboards. A city more
that is more like a gigantic village, and that one would not suspect – compared to
other cities of the same size – is home to 100,000 people of all ages.
Our final impression is that the city is extraordinarily clean: the downtown with
its gleaming stalls, the orderly markets and little garbage along the roadsides at
intersections.
In Burkina Faso, 77.30% of the population lives in rural areas while 22.70% lives
in urban ones. Clearly, the Burkinabe population is predominantly rural. 46.4% of
the country’s urban population lives in Ouagadougou, the nation’s capital (Fig. 4.12).
76.8% of Burkina Faso’s urban population is concentrated in its ten most popu-
lous cities, with an average annual growth rate of 7.26% in the urban population
between 1975 and 2006.6 While the country’s urban population accounted for only
10.8% of the national total in 1975, this number rose to 18.5% in 1990, 24% in 2010
Urban development plan for Koudougou, p. 19.

6
Fig. 4.11 Downtown Koudougou market and its business activities in 2014. (Reproduced with
and 28.7% in 2018, according to the World Bank.7 If this trend continues, this figure
could reach 37% to 44% by 2030.8
For World Bank experts, contemporary urban development in Burkina Faso can
be divided into three periods. Between 1960 and 1983, urban development began
emerging from the colonial era with two types of zoning: one for poor indigenous
populations and the other equipped with houses, roads, drainage and electricity for
Western expatriates and African officials. In 1983, the Sankara revolution had an
urban impact, resulting in the nationalization of lands and the creation of national
public lands. A highly centralized national policy emerged to regulate land and
housing issues, marking the beginning of the development of many housing estates
and the allocation of parcels. After the fall of the regime in 1990, the new govern-
ment began negotiations with the World Bank to create and strengthen technical
departments responsible for urban issues within the local government in
Ouagadougou and Bobo-Diolasso, the country’s two largest cities (World
Bank 2002).
7
https://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicateur/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=BF (Accessed
23 May 2019).
8
Profile of Burkina Faso’s urban sector, IAGU (UN Habitat 2005:10).
Fig. 4.12 View over Ouagadougou, the capital of Burkina Faso in 2017. (Reproduced with per-
mission from Bolay)
4.2.1 A Central Pole in Its Region
The surface area of the commune is approximately 580 km2. In 2006, its urban
population totaled 88,184 inhabitants (plus the municipality’s 15 villages), with an
average density of 11.91 inhabitants/hectare for a surface area of 7407 ha. In 2030,
in other words the horizon of the City’s Urban Development Plan (SDAU), the com-
mune will be home to 235,085 inhabitants (rural and urban populations combined),
following an annual communal population growth rate of 4%. This constantly
increasing population generates enormous needs which must then be met. Moreover,
Koudougou is in an area where natural resources are scarce and the environment is
facing challenges in terms of balance.9
Koudougou has inspired numerous studies, planning documents and foresight.
The first was the Communal Development Plan (PCD), developed via a long partici-
patory process that started in 2002 and ended in 2006. This plan identified the prior-
ity needs for a budget of more than seven billion CFA francs10 and was
incommensurate with the municipality’s financial capacity. The term expired in
2006 without any third party financing, and the plan was never implemented. During
a 2014 field study, the plan was reviewed with more modest ambitions (to the tune
of one billion CFA francs this time), which was more in line with the municipality’s
limited means. The City Council’s approval was expected in March of that year.
There was also the first development and urban planning master plan (SDAU)
(Fig. 4.13), which covered the period from 2002 to 2017. Its creation was overseen
by the Directorate General of Urban Planning in 2002, but it could not be imple-
mented. A new version of the plan was adopted by the Council of Ministers in
December 2013. Among the key initiatives was a strategic sanitation plan financed
by France (FDA, French Development Agency) and adopted in 2005 for a 10-year
period. The plan provided for the construction of 7000 latrines, 5000 of which have
been installed to date. Additionally, a study on household waste management in
Koudougou resulted in a strategic plan in 2007 that is still pending. At the federal
level, two directives incorporate Koudougou’s urban planning: the national regional
development plan for 2025, whose final stage is currently underway, and a city con-
tract financed by the World Bank for six regional capitals, which was completed in
2011 as part of the “Regional Development Poles (RDP)” national program.
Multiplying along the way, plans are developed one after the other at the request
of the federal government or at the suggestion of international donors. In reality,
however, they are not used and have no real outputs; though they are based on the
needs identified, they do not take into account local resources or possible outside
support. This is a conundrum that many poor cities, which lack the means to realize
their goals or have little say in national decisions, must face.
9
Urban development plan (2012) Koudougou urban development plan Portrait (Word doc in AB
archive).
10
At a rate of 1 euro per 655 FCFA, this represents a total of 10.7 million euros.
Fig. 4.13 Typology of the urban of Koudougou, urban development plan 2012 – SDAU.
(Reproduced from Ministry of Housing and Urbanism 2012)
The issues, however, are elsewhere and remain unsolved. According to Léandre
Guigma (2010), Koudougou’s urbanization has gradually extended both linearly
(along the main Ouagadougou-Dédougou road and the railroad tracks) and concen-
trically (around a first housing development built in 1925). Today, the city spans
over 10 km from east to west and 9 km from north to south.
The city has an administrative area, a commercial area, an industrial area, a uni-
versity area, as well as residential areas. The latter represent both lawfully devel-
oped neighborhoods (mainly in the highly urbanized center), informal housing on
undeveloped land with unmarked roads and former villages that are now adminis-
tratively attached to the town. This is problematic as, with the exception of one area
in the southwest of the city, these informal settlements do not actually figure on the
Koudougou urban development master plan reference map created by the supervis-
ing Ministry in 2012. Yet, this issue is crucial to the city’s future development. It is
clear that the so-called cultivable lands (i.e. for agricultural production) closest to
the recently urbanized areas have become peripheries that are not covered by any
formal planning projects in the transition towards urbanization (Fig. 4.14). To date
more than 60,000 parcels totaling nearly 7000 ha of the city’s public lands have
been made available to third parties, which is considerable for a population of
almost 113,000 inhabitants and will pose major issues in terms of land regulariza-
tion and development of these parcels in the future. The reasons for this are both
political and nepotistic. Depending on the period, mayors sell plots of communal
land to fill the city’s coffers…and line their pockets along the way. However, this is
Fig. 4.14 Peri-urban land near Koudougou, first developments in 2014. (Reproduced with permis-
sion from Bolay)
done without any reference to the various urban development plans that have marked
the city’s recent history.
4.2.2 Of Texts, Resources and Projects
How does this all of this translate in concrete terms? How are these institutions and
texts turned into specific concrete actions, given that this is not merely an abstract
idea but an actual medium-sized city that, in Burkina Faso’s case, is one of the five
or ten cities that constitute the country’s urban fabric (Fig. 4.15).
Like Fada N’Gourma and Ouahigouya (other cities in Burkina Faso), Koudougou
has benefited from the development program for medium-sized cities financed by
the Swiss Cooperation that, in addition to the investments in collective utilities
(which, in Koudougou’s case, includes two fresh food markets (Fig. 4.16)11, a soon-
to-be operational bus station and a future slaughterhouse) also helped to create a
The Koudougou central market was renovated in 2005. The rehabilitation project was financed
11
by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and designed by the Swiss architect
Laurent Séchaud, whose project won the Aga Khan Architecture Award in 2007.
The jury noted that the project was the fruit of a genuine participatory process that involved the
whole community in the choice of the site, and the design and construction of the market.
Fig. 4.15 Burkina Faso and its main cities (Reproduced from http://www.ohada.com/etats-mem-
bres/burkina-faso.html. Accessed 23 May 2019)
specific organization to design, implement and monitor these projects under the
supervision of the local government in 1997. The EPCD,12 a municipal public devel-
opment institution, was initially the program’s oversight division but later estab-
lished itself as the City Council’s delegated contracting authority. As such, it
designed and created all of the infrastructures and activities that were jointly selected
to promote the city’s development on behalf of the municipality. In Koudougou, the
EPCD’s director is also the director of the City’s technical services, which has three
departments: buildings, roads and water/sanitation. Each sector is represented by a
single technician. To make up for the lack of competent staff, the City Council
appeals to the various departments, which provide it with a few specialized offi-
cials.13 Local and regional representatives also intercede in areas ranging from the
economy to agriculture, water resources, land, infrastructure, education, social
action, sports and leisure and health. Three public companies are responsible for
water and sanitation, electricity and telecommunications.
12
http://www.google.ch/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CDMQFjAB&u
rl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cooperation-suisse.admin.ch%2Fburkinafaso%2Fressources%2Fresou
rce_fr_92982.pdf&ei=K_wiU5eVCMGetAbklYCQCA&usg=AFQjCNGFnmplr-_Q_CpoNUCb5
BLaTgOOGg&bvm=bv.62922401,d.Yms (Accessed 23 May 2019).
13
Currently, the city administration has a treasury inspector, an educational advisor and a commu-
nications specialist. The City Council has likewise requested an urban planner, a real estate spe-
cialist, a quaestor and a human resources director.
Fig. 4.16 The central market in 2014 (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
Fig. 4.17 Water fountain in a Koudougou neighborhood, overseen by the municipality in 2014.
The fact remains that, in a context of decentralization, the municipality is respon-

sible for the maintenance of schools, health centers, cultural/sports facilities, mar-
kets, bus stations, parking areas, streets, rainwater pipelines, green spaces, boreholes
and wells (Fig. 4.17).
In 2014, Koudougou’s annual budget totaled 450 million CFA francs (686,350
euros14). Of this, the Mayor estimates that 85% was used for operating costs (sala-
ries and other recurrent charges). The city’s actual financial capacity is currently
70–80 million CFA francs15 per year. The EPCD’s outside delegation responsible
for managing the two fresh food markets succeeding in accessing an extra 35–40
million CFA francs per year depending on the year, which in turn is reinvested in
new markets or in the maintenance of existing ones16 (Fig. 4.18). Including the fed-
eral government’s funding for municipal infrastructure and facilities, the total pub-
lic budget for 2014 was one billion CFA francs (approximately €1.5 million). From
this, 75% of the expenditures were for the local administration’s operating costs,
while 25% was invested in the municipal territory (SDAU 2012).
This immediately sheds light on three dimensions of urban planning that we will
examine based on respondents’ answers and the documents we consulted: (1) the
public budget is very low given the needs identified by the authorities and the popu-
lation; (2) the municipality has few employees, and (3); many consider the compe-
14
One euro equals 655 CFA francs (March 2014).
15
106,750–122,000 euros.
16
Following social unrest in Koudougou in 2011, shopkeepers stopped paying rent on their shops
and stalls. Taxes fell to about five million CFA francs. The financial situation has improved with
calm restored.
Fig. 4.18 Shops at the Koudougou central market in 2014. Maintenance provided by the munici-
pality and taxes paid by the shopkeepers (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
tence level of the political, administrative and technical staff relatively low, thus
necessitating the involvement of third parties.
In short, one can say that at first glance, Koudougou has neither the financial nor
the human resources to deal with the problems its territory faces autonomously; it
must rely on outside partners in a relationship which, while not directly dependent,
nonetheless fuels a relationship of interdependence wherein the municipality’s posi-
tion is weak.
Taking this analysis one step further, one can say that from the outset, all of the
written and oral communication on planning in Koudougou is primarily technical
and functional. Without pretending to be objective, it rarely refers to concepts spe-
cific to the urban sciences or other key areas. General documentation that use inter-
national concepts undoubtedly exist. For example, in its National policy on housing
and urban development (2008), the Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning men-
tions the need to “find a comprehensive approach to urban issues in order to create
the conditions necessary for sustainable urban development.” In turn, it describes a
holistic understanding of the urban reality and takes a step towards “strategic plan-
ning.” In 2005, Bayili and Aweh (2005) developed a national profile report on
Burkina Faso’s urban sector at the request of UN-HABITAT. According to the
authors, the goal was “to help develop policies to reduce poverty at the local,
national and regional levels in African and Arab regions, through needs assessment
and response mechanisms to help implement Millennium Development Goals
Fig. 4.19 An active population in a Koudougou shopping street in 2014. (Reproduced with per-
mission from Bolay)
(MDGs).” In 2011, Alain Bagré reminded us that cities are not built by urban plan-
ners but by the people (Figs. 4.19 and 4.20). The new vision of urban management
must reflect the idea of cities “for and by the people” and strengthen its efforts to
support the dynamism, creativity, democracy and sustainability of the latter.
Professionals (city planners, administrators, engineers, etc.) must be convinced that
it is in their best interest to move away from the old urban management principles
that mainly benefit a powerful minority and move towards a new approach.
(Bagré 2011)
These references are highlighted to emphasize both their importance (actions in
the field do not come out of nowhere) and the fact that they are consistently absent
from most technical and administrative reports on and for the city. Rather, these
concepts are disappearing in favor of almost exclusively descriptive diagnoses. The
documents we saw – be it official municipal texts or requests to consultants working
for a national or local public officials (often financed by third-party organizations,
international organizations (such as the World Bank) or bilateral cooperation agen-
cies) – did not offer any real perspective or allow for broader, more critical thinking
on the immediate objectives.
Our second observation was that there is very little urban research on Burkina
Faso,17 and even less on Koudougou. Those that do exist either focus on Ouagadougou
This is not to say that none exist, but few are easily referenced and discernible using Internet
17
search tools.
Fig. 4.20 Community leaders and crafts in a suburb of Koudougou in 2014. (Reproduced with
(Hauer et al. 2018; Delaunay and Boyer 2017; Biehler 2006; Fourchard 2001; Van
Dijk 1986) or are done at the national or international level (as comparisons) (Baron
and Peyroux 2011; Potts 2009; Beauchemin and Schoumaker 2005). At the sectoral
level, the vast majority of articles about urban life in Burkina Faso available on the
Internet concern health and medical issues, not urban planning issues (Niakara
et al. 2007).
Nevertheless, a number (though not exhaustive) of these works can be cited as
emblematic of the centers of scientific interest with regard to the cities of Burkina
Faso. One is based on a comparative approach Obrist et al. (2013), but does not
focus exclusively on the intentions and actions of public institutions and the experts
they appoint. For Söderström, Dupuis and Leu (2013) who describe urbanity in
Ouagadougou, models of urbanization are simply replicated from one African city
to another: the same experts, the same funders for the same products, whose quality
is questionable at best. This is what Chenal (2013) also questions in his book on
planning urban space in West Africa: plans produced by national and/or foreign
experts do exist, but are rarely followed given that financial resources – even with
the support of international donors – do not allow for it. They do, however, some-
times serve as an argument for more specific actions. Hilgers (2009), the only author
to have worked on Koudougou, shows how in this rebellious city, a shared urban
identity founded on urbanity, collective belonging, mutual recognition among citi-
zens and identification with the rebel city has been created, giving rise to a sense of
belonging that in turn produces a global vision of the city. The author does not go
further into the daily life of this urbanity, which is at once the essence of its future
development, the current management of the territory and its inhabitants and its
future planning.
With a body of scientific literature that planners simply do not utilize, the official
texts are more concrete and operational. Thus, Koudougou’s urban development
master plan for the horizon of 2030 (which was adopted at by the government in
December 2013) recalls that with a demographic growth rate of 4% for the coming
years, the needs are great and the environmental balance fragile, which thus present
a major obstacle to stable development of the territory and its population.
At the same time, these bibliographical references should be compared to what
can be learned from the field itself. In total, 16 people18 were interviewed at length
about their vision of the city and its present and future development.
A key word used by many of the respondents was “vision.” For them, having a
vision and imagining the future of the city and its inhabitants were necessary to
regional planning development. Though rarely spoken of in detail, this vision was
rather optimistic. The mayor who served between 2012 and 2014 was driven by
such a vision that highlighted Koudougou’s potential as a young, economically
dynamic, geographically strategic city.
Another topic respondents mentioned that of “development,” for which the city
had great potential. However, they felt that this development should be more prag-
matic, i.e. be based on the needs and capacities of inhabitants and the local econ-
omy. Development cannot be exclusively endogenous, as the city’s resources do not
allow for it, neither financially nor humanly, and must involve cooperation with the
State, international donors and foreign cities as part of decentralized cooperation
projects.
In the case of Koudougou, and by extension Burkina Faso, the political dimen-
sion of urban development was a matter of major concern for all respondents.
Generally speaking, the people lacked trust in the political world (“the people feel
that we do not care about them”). The second criticism was of the unfinished decen-
tralization process in a country where power is highly concentrated. Currently, the
State gives itself a considerable amount of decision-making powers, at the expense
of the regions and municipalities. This makes the latter highly dependent, both
financially and ideologically. For the respondents, the State does not like Koudougou.
This politicized nature of the debate on the city’s future makes urban planning dif-
ficult and unpredictable, given that the city’s needs are significant, resources are
lacking and inhabitants are wary of politicians, who prefer “megaprojects” to a
more coherent, long-term organization of the municipal territory. According to
those interviewed, good governance should be the fruit of a genuine political desire
to foresee problems and develop strategies to deal with them.
Among them, nine were directly involved in studies on the management of Koudougou; six were
18
urban specialists with extensive field knowledge of Burkina Faso and one was an association
manager.
4.3 What Urban Planning Means for Koudougou 109
4.3 What Urban Planning Means for Koudougou
Many plans have been developed for Koudougou, especially in the past 15 years;
some (like local development plans and master plans) have a comprehensive vision
while others are more sectoral (like the strategic plans for sanitation and household
waste). Their advantage is that they provide an idea of the investments needed to
improve the situation in the municipality. Their disadvantage is that they are not
executed because they are not in line with the municipal government’s financial
resources or skills. Rather, they are used to reassure potential donors during finan-
cial negotiations. We will look at this fundamental contradiction in greater detail in
order to better grasp and go beyond the prevailing pessimism.
What do the actors say? What are the intentions of this urban planning that has
largely developed in Burkina Faso since the 2000s, in accordance with the strategies
of international organizations that support the government in its development
efforts?
The plans do not meet the classic goals of planning the urban future, but rather
are a tool that serves the government’s purposes when it comes to organizing the
territory. Given the multitude of issues, it is clear that setting priorities in terms of
areas and sectors is challenging both politically and technically. Everything imme-
diately becomes urgent, with no criteria explaining the choices made. While both
desired and considered useful, the consultative process between decision-makers,
service providers and the population are gradually being put aside due to lack of
time and resources. As such, there is a strong focus on the tool, which requires tech-
nical prowess (that of consulting firms appointed to do so), and on the results to
achieved. Little emphasis is put on the approach or the objectives targeted by apply-
ing this tool.
The second major difficulty concerns the production conditions of urban devel-
opment plans in Koudougou and in the other cities in Burkina Faso. Three pitfalls
can be highlighted here: the first is that these local plans are decided on by the
national government and “imposed” on municipalities; the second is that, like many
other cities in Burkina Faso, Koudougou’s municipal government lacks competent
staff and as such cannot participate in the design, supervision and monitoring of
local plans. The glaring lack of financial resources also does not allow the munici-
pality to implement this planning, which is more akin to wishful thinking and used
mainly to appeal to funders, rather than as an actual blueprint for local urban devel-
opment. Funding primarily comes from the donors with whom the federal govern-
ment negotiates. The municipal government and local inhabitants only play a
supporting role during this process, though they become key players during the
planning implementation phase. In sum, work is done “on behalf of the municipal-
ity” but not with the city as its starting point, or even in direct collaboration with its
authorities or citizens. Hence, regardless of the quality of this technical production,
a disconnection exists between the designers, operators, users and beneficiaries that
greatly weakens the foundations.
Two other points likewise trouble this process. The first is the public’s lack of
trust in both the local and national government, which makes them less likely to
participate. The second is the lengthiness of official procedures. In the early 2000s,
for example, Koudougou’s participative process planning took more than 5 years.
Approval by the national government delayed the process even further. In the end,
the whole process was relaunched in 2010 in order to finally obtain government
support…in early 2014. This leads to a dichotomy between centralized planning
and the municipal government’s action.
The experts consulted during the case study agreed. Planning tools do exist but
are not used as such and, to date, are unusable in the contexts for which they were
designed. In fact, the findings show that they are misappropriated and become tools
for urban marketing and communication with the donors. Indeed, donors believe
that it is essential that every city in their agency intervenes have a master plan. In the
amused words of one speaker, “The master plan is a catalog of everything that needs
to be done in the city; donors choose what they want to finance!”
Again, we would like to point out that none of the respondents contested the
usefulness of the planning, but that all were skeptical about its impact; “As it is not
really used, it is impossible for us to evaluate it.” Two logics prove to be completely
conflicting with the overall interests of coherent, sustainable urban planning. The
first is the wishes and desires of foreign donors (to which the national and local
government acquiesces) are priorities that guide investments. On the other hand,
national and local political leaders prefer to leave their “mark” with dazzling proj-
ects that attest to their presence in power rather than through wise, long-term
management. In 2014, the political authorities of Koudougou were proud to show-
case the new housing estate reserved for the construction of villas for the middle and
upper classes at the city’s entrance – the fruit of a partnership between the local
government, financial backers and private companies.
4.4 From Marketing to Local Urban Action
The remarks made by local respondents highlight areas that could point to ways
forward.
The field study shows that Koudougou has strong potential for regional and
national development. At the regional level, this is due to the fact that it is a regional
business hub that is centrally located in a major agricultural area; at the national
level, Koudougou’s geographical proximity and excellent road connection to
Ouagadougou (100 km away) increase its attractiveness as a secondary hub for the
sale of agricultural products from the entire region, business, tourism, conferences
and events (the atypical nights organized annually at end of the year are proof of
this19) (Fig. 4.21).
http://www.fasomoov.com/agenda/evenements-burkina-faso/nuits-atypiques-de-koudou-
19
gou-2013.html (Accessed 23 May 2019).

4.4 From Marketing to Local Urban Action 111
Fig. 4.21 Main road in downtown Koudougou, heading east towards Ouagadougou in 2014.
The most critical and complex issue that merits immediate attention is that of
land regularization. While numerous housing development projects exist on paper,
little of the land has actually been developed in recent decades. Property tax in
Koudougou is extremely low and yields return to the municipality. The current allo-
cation of building plots, which is highly politicized and often conflictual, requires a
complete overhaul so as to overcome the current impasse and allow for the con-
struction of low-income housing. The latter settle on agricultural land by obligation,
thus extending the city’s boundaries through informal settlements in new areas with
little infrastructure or basic networks.
This brings us to two other frequently cited sectors: water (through improved
drinking water and sewage systems) and sanitation (by improving all forms of waste
management, i.e. human excreta and household waste, which must be systemati-
cally collected and deposited in landfills created for this purpose). Other areas that
also came up frequently during the interviews include various aspects of road
improvement (asphalting, maintenance, extension) and road use (traffic congestion
and public transportation modes). They also mentioned the privatization of public
spaces by formal or informal businesses that have come to monopolize Koudougou’s
main streets, with little financial compensation for the municipality.
Some also mentioned housing in passing. Again, everything revolves around the
priorities and beneficiaries to support in order to move from informal, self-built hous-
ing to social housing that is better served by basic networks and public amenities. The
topic most likely lingers on the margins of discussions, as it is considered above all
as a private issue. The experts we spoke to recognized that the problem of informal
housing existed in all African cities and has rarely been solved in a satisfactory way.
Fig. 4.22 Urban public transportation in poor condition in 2014. (Reproduced with permission
from Bolay)
The organization of the political governance and public administration only

partly meets the repeated observation of the low numbers and weak/poor skills of
the administrative staff. To quote a senior government official, “there are 134
municipal employees, and only 10% of them have an acceptable level of training.”
Strengthening the municipal government’s technical and administrative skills is
considered a priority, with continuing education for staff as a way to improve the
current situation. As mentioned previously, technical services are already running
on empty, with three managers in all and for everything, with no permanent staff and
faulty equipment as no budget is available for their maintenance or other repairs.
Working conditions are hazardous: currently set up in temporary premises fol-
lowing a fire at the technical offices, there are few computers, the machines are
often broken down (Figs. 4.22 and 4.23) and there is no internet access in the techni-
cal services department. As such, personal equipment (motorcycles, mobile phones,
laptops) is often used. It is difficult to imagine doing more and doing better without
reorganizing these departments. But how, and with what means? For the mayor and
his deputies, nothing is possible without complete overhaul of communal taxation
regulations, i.e. by increasing business and property taxes, taxing real estate, etc.
Any measures that would allow the municipality to increase its financial base and
strengthen its project management capacity, including raising the salaries of com-
munal staff to attract more skilled workers, would undoubtedly displease the many
beneficiaries of this laxity that has prevailed for so long.
The social conditions that favor such changes are based on the dynamism of a
population that is very much attached to its city and its development. Many groups
exist and are active in creating economic activities, promoting their products,
4.5 Planning the African City, a Veritable Challenge for the Twenty-First Century 113
Fig. 4.23 Defectuous material belonging to the municipality 2014. (Reproduced with permission
from Bolay)
defending community interests, public interest works such as sanitation, keeping

public spaces clean and raising the population’s awareness about social, economic
and family issues.
The population’s mobilization, either autonomously or at the local government’s
instigation, is certainly the cornerstone of this “miracle” that allowed Koudougou –
with its derisory means, weak administration and grave social conflicts – to preserve
a quality of life (at least in downtown areas) of which the political authorities and
inhabitants are proud. That said, the majority of the issues concern the public’s mis-
trust of politicians. The local government must recognize the crucial need to estab-
lish a more direct link with residents, regardless of their socio-economic status. On
numerous occasions, respondents spoke of the need for consultative processes in
planning that more actively involve the population, both directly and through repre-
sentative groupings.
4.5 P
lanning the African City, a Veritable Challenge
for the Twenty-First Century
Today, urbanization in Africa is an irreversible series of changes that are shaping a

continent in major transformation, regardless of the country or city. Driven by both
the massive migration of rural populations to urban centers and strong natural
growth, the spatial, social, economic and environmental issues urban settlements
face are the same as those that all cities face. It is critical to structure this ongoing
demographic development and spatial expansion, particularly given the limited
financial and human resources. African cities, capitals and other economic/political
centers enjoy comparatively greater attention from the government as well as
donors, while small and medium-sized cities are still tend be off the radar. The latter
are largely neglected or, at best, are addressed in a sporadic, sectoral manner, and
often without any continuity. These cities have glaring needs but lack real means to
meet to social demands and invest in infrastructure and public facilities. Hence,
these issues go unanswered. When they are tackled, it is generally in a state of
urgency or when national governments or foreign funders decide to allocate spe-
cific funds.
This urban context of prevailing instability and uncertainty about the future
allows us to speak of “poor cities.” Their poverty stems not only from the fact that
the majority of their residents actually live on the edge of poverty, but is also linked
to insufficient resources. This can only be addressed through decentralization and
public funding. Yet, city governments do not have the financial resources to make
the types of investments that are essential for improving citizens’ daily lives. What
is more, their administrations lack competent staff at every level of the professional
hierarchy.
This situation has certain risks, namely planning African cities based on assump-
tions that will only serve the interests of a small minority of affluent citizens. Such
planning will result in economic and territorial development that marginalizes the
lower strata of the population, i.e. those living in informal housing in the most
underserved neighborhoods. Conversely, it is also an extraordinary opportunity to
rethink these cities’ futures based on their realities and what actually exists in terms
of resources (both financial and social), and to develop planning that targets the
fight against poverty and investment in amenities, thus making a lasting impact on
the living conditions of the poor.
In this respect, we learn a great deal from the analysis performed in Koudougou.
Located a hundred kilometers from Ouagadougou, the provincial capital is the com-
mercial and political center for a large rural area, but has long been considered a
rebel city that is unwilling to comply with the dictates of the central government.
As in many intermediate African cities, the urban planning process in Koudougou
is exogenous and out of step with the demands of the population, the priorities
defined by the local government and its own human, material and financial resources.
As a direct result, it is rarely applied and does not act as a management tool or com-
pass for the future.
This is easily explained because planning in its current state is simply an inven-
tory of the needs to be met, but without any real instructions. How then is it possible
to create developments that cost more than ten times the municipal budget for
annual expenditures, as is the case in Koudougou? In reality, the plans produced in
this context do not serve to guide the local government in planning the urban terri-
tory now and in the future. Nor are they a tool for dialogue between said govern-
ment and the population. On the contrary, any consultation with the community that
does not lead to the expected deliverables reinforces citizens’ mistrust or distrust of
4.5 Planning the African City, a Veritable Challenge for the Twenty-First Century 115
public authorities, political and administrative bodies. Once they no longer serve
their original purpose, plans become promotional tools at best, pure marketing
products to showcase the good intentions of destitute communities at the mercy of
donors, be it the State or foreign cooperation agencies.
This denaturing of urban planning is dangerous, as it destroys any coherence in
the process as well as the in priorities to be established in terms of the infrastructure
and facilities to be built, the priority economic and social sectors and scheduling
timelines. Nothing can be planned ahead of time, as any intervention depends
entirely on outside funders, with no continuity, guiding principle or guarantee that
things will be done in due course. The risk here is greater disorganization in the
long run.
Urban planning for African cities must be completely rethought. The key point –
and one that is all too often neglected – is starting with a participative diagnosis in
which the city’s actual situation is examined in its various dimensions – demo-
graphically, spatially and infrastructurally, economically, socially and environmen-
tally – thereby allowing all actors to take a position. This cartographic, documentary
and anthropological information will serve to create a computerized database that
can be added to in real time, thus facilitating the monitoring of “urban develop-
ment” and concerted, up-to-date decision-making.
At the same time emerges the question of priorities in terms of projects as well
as standards, rules and plans adapted to the context in view of the needs identified
by specialists, requests from various social actors and the resources available locally
and from outside sources. These are the three foundations of any diagnosis. Two
principles must guide this initial phase. The first is urban investments, which con-
tribute directly or indirectly to the fight against poverty. The second is overall coher-
ence, which must govern specific actions in the short, medium and long term.
These precepts can only be applied if framework conditions are respected: local
governments must have the human skills and financial resources that will allow
them to take action. This is not impossible if political ambitions are clear and target
gaining legitimacy among the population. This inevitably involves consultative pro-
cesses that will fuel the dialogue between representatives of the population, the
public administration, the political authorities, professionals and other special inter-
est groups (private sector, social/religious/political groups, NGOs, etc.). Training
plays a vital role, as does communication and dialogue. It is these same directives
that will guide planning’s implementation.
This reinvention of urban planning in Africa opens the field to innovation based
on completely informal social practices at the local level. While relying on the tech-
nical know-how of urban and corporate experts (who are all too absent) is crucial, it
is also important to recognize that inhabitants have not waited for them to build their
homes, community facilities and neighborhoods (Fig. 4.24). This vital, dynamic
force of the population must not be neglected or cast aside, for it comprises the core
of a participatory process that includes not only consultation but conception and
action as well. This force must be integrated into the planning process and, as such,
concretely participate in the implementation of collective decisions.
Fig. 4.24 An outlying neighborhood in Koudougou that faces economic and environmental issues
on a daily basis in 2014. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
Communication is also a key issue. How to learn from other cities in the age of
internet and increasingly frequent exchanges on urbanity at the planetary scale.
Think of the plethora of UN summits on such issues, or the intercontinental visits of
municipal delegations. If, as Campbell (2012) points out, we learn from both near
and far, and that learning no longer occurs unilaterally from North to South, but
from South to South and South to North (like the bus rapid transport experiment in
the 70s in Curitiba that has since been replicated on every continent). Nevertheless,
there are three reservations to be made in this regard. The first is that urban techno-
logical innovations, even those from emerging countries, are often the work of the
largest, wealthiest agglomerations; however, small and medium-sized cities con-
tinue to be marginalized by these innovative processes and rarely have the chance to
apply them due to a lack of resources. The issue of informal housing and urban
poverty is generally considered inevitable, thus ignoring the lessons to be learned
from similar contexts. To conclude, it is clear that African cities are rarely cited as
examples in their approach to and handling of urban issues.
Two recommendations emerged from these reflections: the first is to put interme-
diate cities back on the urban agenda in African countries and developing countries
by extension, given their demographic importance and expansion dynamics. The
second is to share information regarding the progress being made in terms of territo-
rial management and future planning in many African cities, to serve as examples
for other cities.
References 117
This is not to purport that all the problems will magically be solved, but rather
that we are emerging from a vicious circle in which urban planning does not play its
role and is totally disconnected from the complex, changing reality. Instead, we
must develop an innovative, realistic, pragmatic vision based on what exists for the
gradual improvement of the well-being of all, especially the urban poor. More inclu-
sive urban planning in line with anti-poverty policies would form a winning
combination.
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Chapter 5
An Intermediate City in Brazil: Between
Inequalities and Growth
The Case of Montes Claros
Abstract According to international statistics, nearly 50% of the world’s urban

population now lives in cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants. These small and
medium-sized cities act as intermediaries between rural regions, the local economy
and more extensive urban networks and have three spheres of influence: regional,
national and international. In many of these “intermediate cities”, the main problem
is a lack of financial and human resources for them in a comprehensive way in order
to tackle the demographic and spatial sprawl of these urban settlements and avoid
an increase in social segregation and territorial fragmentation.
The example of Montes Claros in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil, illustrates
how a city of nearly 400,000 inhabitants at the centre of an economically prosperous
region is tackling these issues through its current process of urban planning by striv-
ing to take into account its historical, social and spatial context.
Like most Brazilian and Latin American cities, Montes Claros – which serves as
a transit hub at the State and national levels – is a rapidly growing intermediary city
whose economic growth over the past two decades has been exponential. However,
this growth, which is mainly commercial and industrial, has not resulted in a more
inclusive distribution of the urban population. When one considers the growth that
has resulted from rural migration and new urban residents, the urban area of Montes
Claros remains territorially fragmented, with neighbourhoods that are more or less
equipped with various public facilities (hospitals, schools, etc.) and served by pub-
lic transport depending on the socio-economic status of their inhabitants.
The current planning process is raising many issues. Among them, three crucial
elements which must be rethought in order to develop an adapted planning approach
and appropriate planning tools that can guide decision makers in shaping the city
and region’s future. The first is a medium and long-term vision for Montes Claros,
its hinterland and northern Minas Gerais; the second is the current (biased) percep-
tion of Montes Claros wherein only the dense downtown areas are considered and
suburban areas remain disconnected from the rest of the city (and hence poorly
integrated); the last is a participatory urban planning process that involves all stake-
holders and the entire population, from the diagnostic phase up through the defini-
tion of priorities in terms of urban policies, strategies and investments.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28419-0_5
122 5 An Intermediate City in Brazil: Between Inequalities and Growth
Keywords Intermediate cities · Intermediation · Spatial fragmentation · Social

disparities · Montes Claros · Minas Gerais · Brasil
5.1 F
rom the Medium-Sized City to the Intermediate City,
or How to Rethink Urban Dynamics
The concept of “intermediary city” was, until recently, seldom used to talk about the
changes taking place in less known medium-sized cities all over the world. As they
are still largely unexplored, their advantages and disadvantages relative to big cities –
which are inherently connected with the global urban networks and dominant both
economically and politically at the national level – remain largely unknown (Sassen
2001; Taylor et al. 2007). Cities are mainly defined by spatial and demographic cri-
teria, with medium-sized cities being emblematic of the so-called “intermediary
city.” According to international statistics, nearly 50% of the world’s urban popula-
tion now live in cities of less than 500,000 inhabitants. Such cities are home to two-
thirds of the urban population in Europe, half of the urban population in Africa, and
a slightly smaller percentage in Latin America and Asia (United Nations 2014).
Taking the example of Europe, Adam (2006) highlights the fact that small and
medium-sized cities of 20,000 to 100,000 inhabitants are the pillars of polycentric
urban areas. Residentially speaking, their attractiveness seems obvious, notably due
to lower land and real estate prices compared to larger agglomerations. Depending
on the intercity communication networks, these small and medium-sized cities can
also be more advantageous for new businesses. Other features, such as the quality
of the natural environment, less traffic, a sense of safety and feeling of community
belonging, may also work in their favour. However, these suppositions must be
investigated on a case by case basis. In another European study of Baltic cities of
20,000–200,000 residents, Kunzmann (2010:5) rightly states that some small and
medium-sized cities benefit from belonging to regions, which, along with larger cit-
ies, form metropolitan regions: “Mediums -sized towns within metropolitan regions
are the most likely winners of ongoing territorial development trends. They offer a
combination of the advantages of living in the metropolitan core and in the country-
side. Usually, such towns have a long history, an own identity and a high degree of
liveability, which is reflected by deeply rooted local traditions, good schools and
public services, a high degree of security accessibility to nature and leisure grounds“
and, last but not least, affordable real estate.”
More generally, based on a comparative study on economic productivity in 114
countries between 1960 and 2010, Frick and Rodriguez-Pose (2016) show that the
larger a city becomes, the more poverty and instability increases. This is true both in
industrialized countries and in emerging ones. With this growth also come negative
externalities such as pollution, traffic congestion, higher rents and longer commutes.
Hence, there is a critical threshold at which big cities cease to be economically pro-
ductive. While this appears to be true for industrialized countries, it is less so in South
5.1 From the Medium-Sized City to the Intermediate City, or How to Rethink Urban… 123
countries. For the latter, economic productivity instead depends on the national con-
text and the available infrastructure in each type of city. There is no evidence that
larger cities in South countries are inherently more productive. As the authors state,
“A more nuanced view of how urban policies impinge on overall economic growth,
especially in the developing world, is required,” (Frick and Rodriguez-Pose 2016:315).
In developing countries, these small and medium-sized cities face specific issues,
namely less efficient public administrations, insufficient public funds to meet social
needs and a lack of skilled professionals to manage large projects. In more industri-
ally and technologically advanced countries, intermediary cities long suffered the
primacy of larger cities. The UCLG (the Global Network of Cities, Local and
Regional Governments 2013, 2016) made the same observation. The association of
local and regional decision-makers underlines the shortcoming these cities suffer.
“These cities will require greater attention in the coming years, given that local
governments must prepare for rapid urban growth and major challenges in the
future: namely, political and financial dependence, limited capacity and scarce
financial resources1”. Drawing on our previous studies on this question, (Bolay and
Rabinovich 2004; Bolay et al. 2004), intermediary cities are defined based on a
certain number of characteristics, with three spheres of influence: micro-regional,
national and international. More specifically, we can identify “affected” intermedi-
ary cities (with a strong territorial position), “satellite” intermediary cities (close to
larger cities), and “remote” intermediary cities (more closed vis-à-vis their sur-
roundings due to their remote location (Nadou 2010).
In South countries, national governments have largely allocated service provi-
sion and fundraising to the lower tiers of the government, but without the necessary
financial and human resources. As such, residents of smaller cities suffer a marked
disadvantage in terms of drinking water supply, waste disposal, electricity and
schools compared to those of larger cities (Cohen 2006). Notably, levels of infant
and child mortality are proportional to city size and higher in larger cities (National
Research Council 2003). Moreover, urban poverty is clearly lower than in larger
cities (Ferré et al. 2012). Small and medium-sized cities thus have time to address
basic infrastructure and service needs before the gap becomes too great. In other
words, being small has some advantages.
To analyse this further, it is important to move away from a two-dimensional
representation of “average cities” based on surface area and population size to a
multidimensional understanding that incorporates economic, environmental, urban-
istic, infrastructural, community, political-institutional, social and cultural aspects
as well; as the case of Montes Claros will demonstrate later (Fig. 5.1).
Three criteria seem decisive when it comes to defining intermediate cities:
The first is population size, with variations according to the country and/or region
and which helps to determine a “critical size” after which organizing the urban area
becomes more complex and, by necessity, more dependent on external relations.
Depending on the country, the national population and its geographical distribution,
1
http://www.uclg.org/en/media/news/intermediary-cities-new-urban-agenda (Accessed 20 May
2019).
Fig. 5.1 Centre and outskirts of Montes Claros, Brazil in 2014. (Reproduced with permission
from Bolay)
the demographic size of what we call a “city” (and hence a small or medium-sized
city) varies. At the international level, the United Nations considers medium-sized
cities as having up to 500,000 inhabitants. For smaller populations, it is political and
administrative norms that determine what a city is. Thus, in Switzerland for instance,
a small country of some eight million inhabitants in the centre of Europe, any
agglomeration of more than 10,000 inhabitants is considered as a city. In Bolivia, a
huge country in Latin America with a relatively small population (depending on the
region), any municipality with more than 2000 inhabitants is a “city.” Brazil (which
will serve as our example in this chapter), whose total population is 207 million
inhabitants, making it the most populous country in Latin America and fifth largest
in the world,2 has more than 10,000 agglomerations3 of over 1000 inhabitants,
which it considers as urban centres. The country’s urban population, which repre-
sents 86.17% of the national population, is defined based on this criterion.4
2
https://braises.hypotheses.org/1338 (Accessed 20 May 2019).
3
http://www.villes.co/bresil/ (Accessed 20 May 2019).
4
http://perspective.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/tend/BRA/fr/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS.html (Accessed 20
May 2019).
The second criterion is the supply of services and amenities to the community,
which must meet residents’ demands as well as provide inhabitants of the surround-
ing area with the necessary commodities for economic, social and cultural growth.
This urban-rural interaction and the resulting regional dynamics are essential for the
city’s functionality and, practically speaking, characterize it as intermediary based
on the links it generates between the city and its immediate and more distant envi-
ronment at various levels.
The geographical location of the city is the third identification criterion. This
dimension determines the latter’s functions in its region as well as its involvement
at different territorial scales in complementarity to other agglomerations in the
urban network. We will consider this point later in the text.
This first approach to urban intermediation involves three scales of intervention.
Indeed, the combinations of different identification criteria of the intermediate city
result in interactions with “variable spatial geometry,” touching the suburban and
rural periphery (the hinterland, which one thinks of immediately) in a very direct
way, and more spatially distant areas (which are in a virtual or physical proximity
via new information and communication technologies) in a less direct way. We
identify the three scales as:
The local and micro-regional scale. It is at this level that relationships between
cities and their direct environments are addressed, both in urban-rural relations (hin-
terland) and in micro-networks of cities of different sizes and with distinct functions
(Bolay and Rabinovich 2004):
• At the social level, by the complex links between rural and urban areas forged by
individuals and families
• At the economic level, as a sector of agricultural production and marketing,
small industry and services relating to the rural and urban economy
• At the environmental level, by the ebb and flow of natural resources (e.g. the
urban water supply and wastewater discharge outside of urban boundaries, or
industrial air contamination, the impact of which is also felt by nearby rural
populations)
• At the territorial and infrastructural levels, as extension of land use to increase
the social and economic activities of a growing population
• At the political and institutional levels, as an urban and regional sphere of
decision-making relative to all the direct aspects of life in society.
It is at the national level that all the questions linking the city and its actors to the
reference territory and its institutions play out. This occurs through:
• Its more or less harmonious integration with urban networks
• Relationships with other regions of the country
• Also by the links of mutual dependence between the local government and the
various administrative departments of the federal government.
At the international level, the relations between the city and its extra-national
environment at the global level are dealt with due to the specific role the city plays
in a given sector (import/export, tourism, transport, etc.):
• Organized independently and proactively by the city and its actors

• As part of a higher strategy developed at the level of national or supervisory
authorities
• Through an international role specified directly through the globalization of
exchanges, promoting or affecting the city’s present and the future.
Based on studies conducted in different Latin American countries, we distin-
guished different types of cities whose functions could be combined.
The ten main configurations are as follows in Table 5.1.
To interpret this urban typology, we will explore how cities interact with the
outside world based on the main features that characterize intermediation. They can
be described in these eight terms in Table 5.2.
Table 5.1 Main configurations of cities in different Latin American countries

1. Regional market The city is a driving force and plays a key role in the production
and exchange of goods and services for the benefit of local and
regional trade
2 Service center The city provides a range of public (health centres, schoolsetc.) and
private services (banks, shops, recreation centres, information
centres, etc.) for the urban community and neighbouring
populations
3 Regional capital The city is home to the various political and administrative
institutions at the provincial and/or national level for its territory of
which it is the centre
4 Economic hub The city develops a concerted strategy for industrial production and
large-scale commerce, investing in critical infrastructure and
facilitating economic agents
5. Tourist center The city benefits from its comparative advantages (location, natural
resources, historical heritage, culture, etc.) to promote activities
directly related to national and/or international tourism
6. Communication node Through its strategic geographical location and through the
development of infrastructures created to this effect, the city acts as
a platform for exchanges between people and of goods and of
information
7. Metropolitan The city’s growth and development are part of a dynamic that
periphery depends directly on its integration in the metropolitan area and the
national/international dynamics that underpin it
8. Nationale/ The city’s geographical location (border, coastal, city-state, etc.)
internationale and development strategy (free zone, assembly plants, international
interface tourism) give it a role that is driven largely by the rationale of
internationalization of its trade
9. City member of a The development of the city depends on its integration in a
conurbation multi-unitary agglomeration comprised of urban communes that are
linked to the other levels of the urban framework
10. Association Creation of a group of small cities spread out in a region with little
consisting of a group urbanization and that develop joint projects
of cities
Table 5.2 Terms of intermediation

1. Demographic A city’s population dynamics include both internal development due to the
natural growth of the population and migration from rural areas or other
cities to other domestic and foreign cities
2. Economic The urban economy is relative to production and the exchange of goods
and services available to the local/regional populations as well as national/
international markets, by private and/or public economic agents acting
within a formalized regulatory framework or outside this framework
through informal relationships of production and marketing
3. Environmental The environmental dimension concerns the supply, use and safeguarding
of natural and energy resources i.e. policies, management and impact
(environmental, social and economic) both in the areas of supply and in
the urban territory, as well as through their impact at the supra-urban level
4. Social This refers to the human dynamics that underpin and explain individual
behaviour, giving meaning to the many relationships residents have with
the outside and justifying the specific forms of these exchanges
5. Politico- This encompasses the political, administrative and technical structures
institutional required by various public authorities at local, regional and/or national
levels; the production of the norms, rules and laws promulgated by these
bodies and the consequences of this legal framework in terms of
relationships between political and institutional bodies, individuals and
organized groups from civil society
6. Territorial On the formal level, it is the application of norms and rules for the use of
space by the various social and institutional actors in a predefined
framework in a reference territory (the city, metropolitan area, urban and
peri-urban region, etc.). This territorial appropriation also extends to the
“informal” social practice of occupying portions of the urban and
peri-urban territory and the conflicts that may arise between a technical
logic and community dynamics
7. Services and The infrastructures and facilities designed, built and managed by the
infrastructure competent authorities or by delegation to private/community urban actors
and made available to a community in the form of services whose
conditions are to be determined are identified (from public and free to
commercial conditions of use)
8. Cultural The cultural dimension identifies the forms of expression that characterize
a city and its population in the past and current history of settlement and
exchanges based on endogenous and exogenous influences
This nomenclature, whose choices are debatable in terms of the multiplicity of

its variables and different geographical scales of identification, is advantageous in
that it provides precise, measurable criteria (which very few authors have done to
date, and rather simply using the term “intermediate city” to describe medium-sized
towns or secondary cities, without attempting to distinguish them from each other
or define them in a functional typology). And yet, it is this work that is lacking,
particularly given that cities of less than half a million inhabitants are those with the
highest population growth rates (Birkmann et al. 2016; Keiner et al. 2004).
Given their demographic growth and economic potential, intermediate cities are
critical for their regions, governing the economic flows that innervate and
c ircumscribe migration from rural areas and serving as connection points within the
urban network at the regional, national and even international levels.
As urban centres of rural regions, intermediary cities like Montes Claros play a
key role in the rural-urban relationship balance, both as service providers for the
entire population, from producers to consumers (Satterthwaite and Tacoli 2003).
This trend is not unique to Brazil, but rather can be observed in all emerging and
developing countries, as Klaufus (2010) shows taking the examples of Guatemala
and El Salvador. Thus, if public policies are well adapted to the context, these cities
can play a critical role in the fight against poverty (Fig. 5.2). Moreover, these cities
are often overlooked for the potential host role they play for rural migrants, who
rarely migrate directly from their birthplace to major cities, which explains their
statistically higher demographic growth (Aguayo-Te’llez et al. 2010; Romanos and
Auffrey 2002).
Planning and governance of small and medium-sized cities must tailor regula-
tions, planning and decisions to fit the specificity of the context (advantages, poten-
tial, weaknesses, risks, etc.). In many of these cities, the main problem is lack of
financial and human resources for managing the city in a comprehensive way, not as
a fragmented entity comprised of specific social, economic and political interests,
which result in social and spatial inequalities. Through decentralization and increas-
ing autonomy, global cities can now play a more decisive role at three different
levels of territory: as regional decision-making centres, as a friendlier, safer alterna-
tive to larger cities and as affordable areas of economic development at national and
international levels offering new opportunities for people and businesses (Bolay and
Kern 2019).
The emblematic example of Montes Claros in the State of Minas Gerais in Brazil
helps us understand how a city of nearly 400,000 inhabitants at the centre of an
economically prosperous region, tackles problems of demographic growth through
public policy, in order to resolve growing social, economic and planning disparities
through an urban planning process adapted to historical, social and spatial context.
Fig. 5.2 New urban settlements in Montes Claros in 2014, a public policy alleviating poverty.
5.2 Montes Claros: A Growing Hub 129
5.2 Montes Claros: A Growing Hub
Brazil is now one of the most urbanized countries in the world. According to Soares
(2006), this urbanization is relatively recent, starting in the early 1940s. In 1950, it
was estimated that the rural population represented 64% of the national population.
Starting in the 1970s, this trend reversed, with the majority of the population becom-
ing urban. In 2010, 84.4% of the country’s population (160.0 million people) lived
in cities.5 The country has 106 cities with more than 200,000 inhabitants (not includ-
ing state capitals), representing 20.4% of the national population and accounting for
27.7% of Brazil’s GDP (Veja 2011).
Originally founded in 1831 (ACI 2012), Montes Claros is located between the
16° 04′ 57″ southern latitude and 43° 41′ 56″ and 44° 13′ 01″ longitude west of
Greenwich in the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais, which has 89 munici-
palities (IBGE 2010) (Figs. 5.3, 5.4 and 5.5). According to the IBGE, it has a sur-
face area of 3569 km2, including 97 km2 of urban territory corresponding to the
urban perimeter (Wikipedia 2019) and an average altitude of 638 m. The average
annual temperature is 24.2 °C, with two seasons: a hot, rainy season and a long, dry
season (Gomez and Lamberts 2009). The average high temperature is 29.3° and
average low is 16.7°. The maximum temperature exceeds 40° at times. The munici-
Fig. 5.3 Geo-spatial location of Montes Claros. (Reproduced from Google Maps 2017)
5
IBGE: (Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística). 2010 census. Available at: www.ibge.gov.
br/. Accessed 26 May 2019.
Fig. 5.4 Map of Brazil and State of Minas Gerais. (Reproduced from http://www.minas-gerais.
info/mapas/mapas.htm. Accessed 26 May 2019)
pality of Montes Claros has existed since 1831, obtaining city status in 1857. The
IBGE estimated the city’s population at 361,915 in 2010 and 390,212 in 2014, with
a population of 20.7 million in the State of Minas Gerais and 202.8 million in Brazil.
Today, it is an urban hub for a region of roughly two million people (Prefeitura de
Montes Claros 2015).
Demographic growth for the municipal population is strong, with the overall
population becoming increasingly urban in the past 50 years. In 1970, the municipal
population totalled 116,486; 73% was urban (Figs. 5.6 and 5.7). In 1990, it n umbered
250,002, 90.8% of which was urban. In 2000, of the 306,947 inhabitants, 94.2%
were urban (Soares de França et al. no date). With 10 districts and 134 neighbour-
Fig. 5.5 The spatial organisation of Montes Claros. (Reproduced from Gonçalves Silva 2015)
hoods, 94% of Montes Claros’s population now lives in urban areas.6 This attraction
to urban areas, linked in recent decades to the city’s industrialization, has resulted in
the arrival of masses of rural immigrants who settle – often informally – on the
urban fringes.
For Soares de França and Ribeiro Soares (2007a), Montes Claros meets the cri-
teria of an intermediate city. The authors emphasize, however, that “this consider-
ation should not only be based on demographic criteria or the role the city plays at
the regional level but should also take into account its economic infrastructure and
services”. Sixty three percent are working age (15–59), and 7% are aged over 60. In
1963, Montes Claros became the first northern municipality in the State to found an
institution of higher education. Today, it has two public universities and 17 private
higher education institutions, as well as several technical training schools (ACI
2012), that serve a total of 30,000 students. Montes Claros also has a top-rate offer-
ing when it comes to the health and medical field, with eight hospitals, three poly-
clinics, 15 urban health centres and 20 rural centres. Most of these are public
institutions, though several are managed privately.7
It is likewise useful to consider the complexity of the division of labour relative,
among other things, to Montes Claros’s geographical location and transportation/
6
IBGE CITIES (2015). http://cidades.ibge.gov.br/painel/historico.php?lang=&codmun=314330&
search=minas-gerais|montes-claros|infograficos:-historico (Accessed 26 May 2019).
7
http://www.montesclaros.mg.gov.br/cidade/aspectosgerais/saude.htm (Accessed 26 May 2019).
Fig. 5.6 Montes Claros in its region. (Google Maps 2017)
Fig. 5.7 Montes Claros from the hills in 2015. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
communication networks. Citing Sposito (2001), the authors add that this division
of labour is not a strictly intra-urban dynamic but rather is interurban. To this we
would add the importance of taking into account the urban-rural relationship (which,
in Montes Claros’s case, is an agricultural and residential hinterland that abuts
Montes Claros), shopping centres and other services that are used by the entire
urban and rural region, thus offering a privileged destination for rural migrant popu-
lations. However, as Esdras Leita (2010) points out, medium-sized cities with strong
economic and demographic growth are increasingly facing housing supply issues.
Montes Claros’s economy has, since the city’s founding in the nineteenth cen-
tury, been based on export of basic commodities, agriculture and breeding. However,
industry has gradually succeeded in replacing these cornerstones (Soares Costa da
Silveira 2005). The service sector has also boomed, representing 66% of the city’s
GDP in 1999 and 72% in 2008, followed by the industry sector (25%) and the pri-
mary sector (3%) (Soares de França 2012). The city’s location – far from major
cities like Belo Horizonte and Sao Paolo – and infrastructure have helped make it an
important hub for the northern part of the State of Minas Gerais. This, in turn, has
attracted numerous investments (undoubtedly facilitated by tax incentives) and
funding for urban programs from both the state and federal governments (Soares de
França 2015). In 2015, the Prefect of Montes Claros cited the city as among the 20
medium-sized Brazilian cities whose economic growth surpassed 30% in the past
decade. This would explain why the current economic crisis Brazil is facing, with a
decrease of 3% in the national economy in 2015,8 has affected Montes Claros less
than other intermediary cities.9 The GDP was R$ 7,844,307,000 in 2014, with an
annual per capital GDP of 20,102.10 This same year, Belo Horizonte, the State capi-
tal, had a GDP of R$ 87,656,760,000 and an annual per capita GDP of R$ 35,187.11
As such, Montes Claros has become Minas Gerais’s 10th wealthiest city,12 with
strong growth in recent years Municipal government revenues and annual growth of
nearly 15%.13
Montes Claros’s consumption is equivalent to 25% of the State’s entire northern
region. The monthly per capita income is R$ 647.92, 48.23% higher than the aver-
age income in the northern part of the State. Montes Claros is home to 10,862 com-
panies, which, in 2010,14 provided jobs for 69,045 people.
Until the late 1980s, Montes Claros was considered above all an industrial city.
In the 1990s, however, investments in the industry sector declined, causing many
companies to close or relocate to other cities. Investments were largely redirected
toward the service sector (trade, real estate, health and education, to name the key
8
http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/mercado/2015/10/1690728-brasil-sofre-pior-corte-em-pro-
jecao-de-crescimento-do-fmi.shtml (Accessed 26 May 2019).
9
http://www.montesclaros.mg.gov.br/agencia_noticias/2015/ago-15/not_04_08_15_4106.php
10
https://minasgeraismg.net/cidades/montes-claros#economia-de-montes-claros-mg 1 US = 3.72
reales. February 2019 (Accessed 26 May 2019).
11
IBGE – Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística 2015. https://minasgeraismg.net/cidades/
montes-claros (Accessed 26 May 2019).
12
http://www.deepask.com/goes?page=Confira-o-PIB%2D%2D-Produto-Interno-
Bruto%2D%2D-no-seu-municipio (Accessed 26 May 2019).
13
Roughly 142 million dollars.
14
For 2012, the Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistica statistics give slightly different fig-
ures: 10,859 companies and 95,593 employees, with an average monthly salary of 2.1 times the
minimum wage (set at 788 R$ a month (537/256 US$).
ones), changing Montes Claros’s face forever (Silva Gomes 2007). A new dynamic
was born, reinforcing its status as a medium-sized city in a dynamic of strong
regional/interurban interplay, and strengthening its position as an intermediary city
and the centre of a key region in the State of Minas Gerais. Following to Soares de
França’s analysis (2012), this could explain why Montes Claros’s GDP rose signifi-
cantly in recent years, with growth of 177% between 1999 and 2008, falling just
short of the national rate (185% for the same period, and 225% for Minas Gerais).
This trend has continued, with a gain of 40% between 2009 and 2012.15 Nevertheless,
the GDP per inhabitant is still below the national average, with 14,410 R$ per
inhabitant in Montes Claros versus 22,64216 for nationally in 2015.
5.3 V
erticalization of the Central Business District
and Spatial Changes
As the fruit of a national strategy, the economic boom of the 1970s resulted in major
territorial and social changes and a restructuring of urban functions and the role of
secondary cities in Brazil’s urban network, creating new poles of attraction for
national and foreign investment (Oliveira and Ribeiro Soarez 2014; Oliveira 2009).
From the second economic and social national development plan was born the
national support program for capitals and medium-sized cities, designed to finan-
cially support urban infrastructure, transport and economic revitalization projects.
According to Amorim and Serras’s definition (2001), medium-sized cities are
urbanized areas with an urban population of between 100,000 and 500,000 inhabit-
ants. França et al. (article cited) add to this strictly demographic definition other
criteria relative to infrastructure, economic diversity, cities’ relationship with their
rural hinterland and their role in Brazil’s urban network.
This dynamic comes with an urban reform that dates back to the enactment of the
new federal constitution in 1988, which includes a chapter on urban policy in Brazil
and recognizes the autonomy of local governments legally, politically and finan-
cially. It also sets out guidelines for popular participation in decision-making pro-
cesses.17 This was followed by the creation of the “city” status at the national level,
which explicitly recognizes the (social) right to the city, in 2001. This status requires
all cities of more than 20,000 inhabitants to develop a 5-year master plan, and to
follow certain mechanisms to guarantee the effective participation of citizens and
associations in urban planning and management procedures.
15
http://www.deepask.com/goes?page=montes-claros/MG-Confira-o-PIB%2D%2D-Produto-
Interno-Bruto%2D%2D-no-seu-municipio (Accessed 26 May 2019).
16
The equivalent of $4683 and $7358 for 2016.
17
This constitutional reform encourages a number of cities (in Porto Allegre, Recife and, closer to
Montes Claros, Belo Horizonte for instance) to set up “urban conferences” and participatory bud-
getary processes via municipal laws (Fernandes 2007).
5.3 Verticalization of the Central Business District and Spatial Changes 135
The new legislation likewise imposes also aims to regularize consolidated infor-
mal settlements in private and public areas. The Ministry of Cities, created in 2003
under President Lula’s mandate, founded two important initiatives which were still
effective until the recent federal government change in 2019: a program to support
sustainable urban land regularization and a national campaign for participatory
municipal master plans.
In the early 1970s and 1980s, Montes Claros experienced spectacular spatial and
demographic growth, notably through the development of new housing estates,
often outside the framework of formal planning and more as a result of private
investments than government planning. During this period, downtown Montes
Claros grew vertically (Fig. 5.8), with new service infrastructure appearing in addi-
tion to the renovation of public spaces, while other sectors fell into decline. With
this came mobility issues, as the public transport supply did not provide service to
all neighbourhoods. This process intensified during the 1990–2000 period, espe-
cially in the city centre along avenues with strong commercial and economic
“potential” linked to a sharp rise in land prices and the restructuring of city streets
into major traffic thoroughfares.
Today one easily distinguishes those housing estates inhabited by populations
with high buying power in poor neighbourhoods (mainly in the east and north of the
city). The same period saw the construction of many ten-story-plus buildings. In
Fig. 5.8 Central Business District of Montes Claros in 2015. (Reproduced with permission from
Bolay)
2011, changes to the law on socially vulnerable areas relaxed regulations for build-
ings with more than five floors. The same year, the municipality ratified a law allow-
ing for the expansion of Montes Claros’s urban perimeter, further facilitating the
verticalization of the built fabric. This extension carried over into the city centre and
northern part of the city with commercial buildings and rental units in co-owned
condominiums (Soares de França et al. 2014).
This trend continues today and has become hard-wired in legal terms. Starting in
2002, the municipal authorities of Montes Claros produced several laws on land use
in the municipality (Municipio Montes Claros, 2009, 2011, 2015). As one sees on
the map produced by Soares de França et al. (2014), the verticalization of the city –
initially for residential purposes – gradually expanded to include commercial real
estate in the more central areas of Montes Claros. Today, this trend continues in all
those areas with high land value, to the benefit of families with strong buying power
and businesses with high added value (Soares de França 2015) (Fig. 5.9). For the
authors, this trend negative could have an impact on the environment and quality of
urban life. It also clearly marks the links between the public and private sectors
(between the city government, on one hand, and large regional and national con-
struction companies and investors, on the other).
Analysing the same process in other Brazilian cities, Cohn (2012) concludes that
the verticalization of the real-estate supply also affects access, socially speaking. As
purchase and rental prices climb, only the rich can afford to buy or rent apartments;
small business owners cannot afford to rent commercial space, which, according to
him, negatively affects job creation among small businesses and industries with
large, low-wage workforces. Many other Brazilian cities, intermediary and large
ones alike, are also witnessing the verticalization of their housing supply. This phe-
nomenon goes hand in hand with their territorial expansion and social and cultural
segregation that economically benefits the wealthier social classes18 and the com-
modification of city centres and residential areas with high land values, resulting in
pronounced territorial segregation.
The verticalization debate, however, also has its roots in a planning model come
down from the modernist movement that highlights such “constructive” solutions as
a way of addressing issues of housing, infrastructure efficiency and economic vital-
ity (Soares Gonçalves 2004). For the author, promoters of this planning solution
have, since World War II, highlighted synergies with business by a proximity effect,
a more rational use of urban infrastructure (thanks to higher population densities)
and the image of modernity and attractiveness these buildings represent (Fig. 5.10).
Meanwhile, its critics highlight energy overconsumption in a small portion of the
territory, overexploitation of urban infrastructure and services due to a highly
concentrated population at particular points in the city and a negative environmental
impact in terms of shade and wind turbulence.
Technical solutions exist for making high buildings efficient in terms of energy
and use of natural resources such as water, solar heat, etc. However, this requires
significant investments in their design – which impacts production costs and com-
18
This is the case cited by Polidoro et al. (2012) for the city of Londrina, in Parana.
Fig. 5.9 Urban verticalization in Montes Claros. (Reproduced from Soares de França et al. 2014)
Fig. 5.10 New residential buildings in the suburbs of Montes Claros in 2014. (Reproduced with
mercial value – and flawless integration of these buildings in masterplans environ-

mentally, demographically and infrastructurally. Such cases, however, are
exceptional. Taking the example of London (UK), Appert (2008) points out that the
high-rise buildings popping up in countries all around the world (old, new, industri-
alized or emerging ones such as Brazil) are a sign of potential conflict between
preservation and promotion of historic urban heritage and the shaking up of the
urban form symbolically (what image of city do we want in a global and compara-
tive perspective?). At the same time, such a context promotes economic growth, job
creation and social well-being. These tensions need to be managed carefully, given
that the image of the city is, today, a real concern and tool of power, politics and
collectiveness.
In light of these characteristics, Montes Claros may be considered the regional
capital of northern Minas Gerais. And like many other medium-sized cities in
Brazil, Montes Claros’s development was reflected in a shift in rural migration – to
its benefit, but to the detriment of larger Brazilian cities – and increased regional
commuter traffic.
Parallel to these changes, however, a growing number of recent arrivals to the
city are finding themselves in precarious housing conditions characterized by an
impoverished population, insecure land tenure and a lack of urban facilities and
services (Figs. 5.11 and 5.12). Montes Claros reproduces the process of territorial
and social division found in other similar cities in Brazil. Favelas can be found in
80% of medium-sized Brazilian cities, versus 40% in smaller cities of 20,000–100,000
inhabitants (Esdras Leita 2010). Ce même auteur et son collègue Santos Martins
précisent que pour Montes Claros, selon une analyse cartographique GIS, le nombre
de favelas a augmenté de 9,6% entre 2005 et 2011. Et que cet habitat précaire cor-
respond désormais à 52,5% des nouveaux édifices de la ville. Ce qui est impression-
Fig. 5.11 New self-built home in the close suburbs of Montes Claros in 2014. (Reproduced with
nant et dénote à la fois de la pression migratoire, du manque de logements pour les

familles à faibles revenus et du manque d’application des règles d’urbanisme
existant à Montes Claros (Santos Martins and Esdras Leite 2015).
The two graphs (Figs. 5.13 and 5.14) produced by the municipality of Montes
Claros and analysed by geographers from UNIMONTES University show how
urban land is used, with an ever-increasing extension of residential areas into the
natural areas bordering the city, with low-income populations in the industrial north,
east and south-eastern fringes of commune.
More generally, following the analysis of Esdras Leita and Pereira (2005), the
poverty level – 74.7% in 1970 and 55.45% in 1991 – has dropped considerably in
recent decades in Montes Claros (versus 33.17% in 2001). The wealthiest 20% of
the population controlled 66% of the wealth. A good indicator of the spatial distri-
bution of poverty is reflected in the price of land that, in 2004, ranged from 1251 R$
downtown to 28–89 R$ in the suburbs. In wealthy neighbourhoods, monthly
incomes ranged from 400 to 1200 R$ on average, while those in poor neighbour-
hoods ranged from 30 to 80 R$. Urban infrastructure and services also point to
socioeconomic disparities. While water supply and sewage drainage systems exist
across the entire territory (though not all homes are necessarily connected to them),
public transport, street lighting and tree planting are grossly lacking in poor
neighbourhoods.
Echoing the analyses of different authors, Feitosa et al. (2011) point out that
several factors contribute to urban spatial segregation, including the job market and
its socio-economic impact (salary level, job insecurity, etc.) and increasing poverty
among poor workers and sub-standard living conditions. Conversely, the expansion
Fig. 5.12 Self-built house in a suburb of Montes Claros in 2018. (Reproduced with permission
from Bolay)
of the private property market may result in a concentrating of investment in neigh-

bourhoods of high standing, thus benefitting areas reserved for the privileged, at the
expense of the poor. Finally, the lack of government action and failure to implement
inclusive social urban policies hider the creation of social housing subdivisions. In
summary, Gonçalves Silva (2015) defines Montes Claros based on its main social
and urban management issues, which include: the lack of housing, segregation in
Fig. 5.13 Urban land use in Montes Claros in 2015. (Reproduced from Gonçalves Silva et al.
2015)
Fig. 5.14 Subdivision of Montes Claros by income per household. (Reproduced from Gonçalves
Silva 2015)
terms of access to housing, which leads to precarious housing, real estate specula-
tion, traffic congestion, violence and crime, making the city an urban hub character-
ized by accelerated economic growth and stunted structural development. However,
such segregation is unique neither to Montes Claros nor to Brazil.
Some authors, such as Smets and Salman (2008), show that spatial segregation is
a multi-faceted phenomenon that is not only the matter of a divide between rich and
poor neighbourhoods (between “gated communities” and “slums”, in its extremes),
but also concerns migration, ethnic divisions, social exclusion and economic precar-
ity. In the Global South, as in the Global North, the prevailing economic globaliza-
tion and neo-liberalism tend to minimize the role of the State and urban communities.
Tensions arise from both the pressure of budgetary allocations between public
authorities (national, regional and municipal) and the fierce competition among cit-
ies worldwide. Cities – both large and intermediary – are increasingly influenced by
the impact of global networks (financial, physical, demographic and intellectual)
which, in turn, determine the speed and extent of political, social, economic and
cultural changes at the local, urban and regional levels (Castañeda et al. 2011;
McCann 2008; Rossi et al. 2007; Roberts 2005; Robinson 2002).
Like most Brazilian and Latin American cities, Montes Claros – which acts as a
transit hub at the State and national levels – is a rapidly growing intermediary city
that has seen continued economic growth over the past two decades and, according
Fig. 5.15 New social housing in the outskirts of Montes Claros in 2018. (Reproduced with per-
mission from Bolay)
to statistics, a gradual decrease in poverty. However, this development has not

resulted in a more balanced or homogeneous distribution of the urban population in
spatial and planning terms. Considering the resulting growth from rural migration
and new urban residents, the urban area of Montes Claros remains fragmented ter-
ritorially, with neighbourhoods more or less well equipped and served by public
transport depending on the socio-economic status of their inhabitants (Fig. 5.15).
Soares de França and Soares (2007b) cite Montes Claros as emblematic of a
medium-size city acting as a regional capital for the northern part of the state of
Minas Gerais.
We would add that it is an intermediary city, as this centrality operates at several
spatial scales (i.e. at local and micro-regional levels (flows of agricultural products
and the marketing/processing of these products, health and educational facilities for
the urban population as well as urban and rural populations from the rest of the
state). This centrality also has national and international dimensions, primarily
through economic dynamics that promote the creation of production companies of
Brazilian and foreign firms (Alpargatas, Clairmont, Cotenor and Coteminas, to
name a few Brazilian companies active in Montes Claros. Nestlé, RPC, Fiat,
Novonordisk, Ciments Lafargue and many other foreign firms also operate in the
industrial zone, with production for the domestic market and for continental and
global export, as in the case of Nestlé’s Dolce Gusto capsules19).
5.4 U
rban Planning in Montes Claros: A Participatory
Process?
Since the 2000s, Montes Claros has adopted a new, two-part masterplan: an urban
development masterplan and a municipal housing plan, as part of the Habitar Brasil
program (since 2002), with funding from the Inter-American Development Bank.
The program aims to improve poor housing conditions in metropolitan and urban
areas in Brazil, with the goal of supporting those who earn less than three times the
minimum wage living in poor neighbourhoods. Major investments in Montes Claros
have attempted to mitigate infrastructural deficiencies in these new residential areas,
aiming to reorganize land, social and urban planning issues in a coordinated man-
ner, notably through involvement in sanitation, energy, transport and school facili-
ties (Soares de Souza and Soares de França 2011).
A fieldwork was organized in May 2015 and May 2016, in cooperation with
Professor Iara Soares de França20 from the Universidade Estadual of Montes Claros
(UNIMONTES21) and her colleagues and co-workers. We met with 30 individuals
representing different local sectors in order to get their views on current key urban
issues, the different players involved, the urban planning process and its objectives
and implementation.
This work gave us an updated portrait of Montes Claros environmentally, spa-
tially, economically and socially, which we will now explore in light of the current
planning process being implemented by the urban authorities.
A second study was conducted at Montes Claros in 2016, along with the same
academic partners from Montes Claros and professors and students from
UNIMONTES, among residents of four neighbourhoods that were considered rep-
resentative of various socio-spatial categories. The goal was to gather their opinions
on the city’s urban development and gauge their knowledge of the authorities’
actions to develop new urban planning in the medium and long terms.
19
http://g1.globo.com/mg/grande-minas/noticia/2013/10/fabrica-da-alpargatas-e-inaugurada-em-
montes-claros.html (Accessed 26 May 2016), http://www.istoedinheiro.com.br/noticias/econo-
mia/20041006/coteminas-melhor-empresa-brasil/16658 (Accessed 26 May 2016), http://www.
em.com.br/app/noticia/economia/2015/12/17/internas_economia,718415/nestle-inaugura-fabrica-
de-capsulas-de-cafe-em-montes-claros.shtml (Accessed 26 May 2016), http://areaguas.com/rpc-
vai-construir-fabrica-em-minas-gerais/ (Accessed 26 May 2016), http://exame.abril.com.br/
negocios/noticias/fiat-industrial-construra-de-fabrica-em-montes-claros (Accessed 26 May 2016),
http://www.novonordisk.com.br/fale-conosco.html (Accessed 26 May 2016).
20
http://www.ppgeo.unimontes.br/laeur.php (Accessed 26 May 2019), http://buscatextual.cnpq.br/
buscatextual/visualizacv.do?id=K4756289U7 (Accessed 26 May 2019).
21
http://unimontes.br/ (Accessed 26 May 2019).
5.4 Urban Planning in Montes Claros: A Participatory Process? 145
5.4.1 Heterogeneity and Priority Issues to Resolve
Urban planning and development issues are inevitably dealt with by representatives
of various administrative and organizational institutions. Their heterogeneity high-
lights the multidimensional nature of regional organization and urban planning,
which decision-makers and operators tend to reduce to their material aspects. While
the latter are imminently important, the fact that they are the result of ad hoc politi-
cal decisions, and that changes made are not sustainable unless they are developed
as part of a long-term vision via an inter-actor process, is too often overlooked. We
will start by looking at the spatial aspects of urban planning, facilities and services,
in order to then address the opinions of our respondents, irrespective of their
identities.
Montes Claros is an intermediary Brazilian city according to demographic and
spatial criteria, and based on its connection with its hinterland and the national
economy. The municipal authorities consider it an urban agglomeration, but do not
truly consider all facets of its regional influence. Within municipal limits, what mat-
ters to the authorities is not the rural areas – which are considered primarily as a
source of labour supply for urban businesses and not part of a rural-urban entity –
but rather the urban space. As the population of this heavily urbanized area grows,
neighbouring rural areas depopulate due to urban immigration. Policy makers and
professionals do not veritably address this issue often raised by scientists. Rather,
only social service agents and NGO representatives point out this dichotomy by
showing how people in rural areas lack services of all kinds.
At the urban level several shortcomings were observed, notably the regulation of
the water issues (Fig. 5.16). Given the climate, Montes Claros requires not only a
drinking water supply – which can today be found in almost all urbanized areas –
but also technical measures for controlling floods during the high rainy season. Rain
and flooding obviously have a negative environmental impact. However, periodic
water shortages in certain areas stem not only from problems in the existing net-
works, but are also the result of accelerated deforestation due to “more or less” legal
construction of new habitats in the surrounding hills.
The sprawling homes of the landed class and luxury housing developments
(Fig. 5.17) are gradually threatening the region’s ecological balance (Fig. 5.18), as
water struggles to find its way to the water table and instead runs off into the lower
parts of the city.
Other technical questions relate mainly to: the electric power supply (inadequate
in certain suburbs), harvesting, recycling and solid waste treatment22 (while landfills
exist, they do not comply with environmental protection standards and have a nega-
tive impact), land use (which is poorly regulated), seismic monitoring and protec-
tion measures (in the event of earthquakes), and transport systems (Fig. 5.19).
22
According to SERENCO (2015), there is no garbage collection in neighbourhoods outside the
city centre. Families dispose of their trash themselves, either by burning it or throwing it in vacant
lots. Recycling and organic composting do not exist.
Fig. 5.16 Contaminated urban river in 2015. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
All of this is the indirect result of the rapid growth of new social housing devel-
opments funded by national and state programs (Fig. 5.20) and luxury housing for
the city’s elite. An urban mobility master plan exists, but has not been fully imple-
mented. Moreover, Montes Claros, as a regional hub, faces transport issues that
challenge both regional mobility and the infrastructure and services that link the city
and surrounding countryside. Montes Claros is a hub for the storing and redistribu-
tion of agricultural products, which generates considerable lorry traffic. It is also a
commercial and industrial centre, where many individuals live in rural areas and
commute to the city to work.
During our social housing development visits, we observed that public transport
service was scarce and sporadic at best. To our knowledge, there is no recent and
comprehensive study on the topic. Homeowners with modest incomes must simply
accept the reality of this sub-standard transport service and “make do” with costly
solutions such as shared taxis, motorbikes, etc., as they often work at some distance.
Public amenities are also rare in these new developments. Schools, playgrounds,
social and health centres are not systematically planned or built in these new sub-
urbs. The small, identical houses are all lined in rows, sometimes with a small yard,
but no shared or common space. Simply put, the poor benefit from programs that
marginalize them spatially. While affordable housing is still of paramount impor-
tance, it should not in itself be the objective of urban planning.
Fig. 5.17 New gated

private luxury estate under
construction in the suburbs
in 2015. (Reproduced with
Fig. 5.18 Luxury home in the hills of Montes Claros in 2015. (Reproduced with permission from
Bolay)
At a higher level of urban development, several respondents pointed out the fact
that the land registry, if it exists, is not made public, thus enabling the political
authorities and certain power elites to interpret it without consulting the public and
the fact that, in many neighbourhoods, the urban master plan is simply not applied.
However, in the words of another respondent, the problem is more general, and
therefore more serious when one considers that more than 140 of Montes Claros’s
neighbourhoods are still unzoned, rendering coherent and appropriate organization
of public and private initiatives in these areas impossible. These essentially
parcelling-type projects all have but without any strategic place in the medium or
long-term development of the city. Most of the issues addressed by Montes Claros’s
master plan in the medium and long terms have regional impact. Hence, a city plan
Fig. 5.19 Recent constructions in the hills near Montes Claros in 2015. (Reproduced with permis-
sion from Bolay)
should likewise (and always) be a regional plan that takes into account both migra-
tion flows, in some cases definitive, as the population of the urbanized area increases,
and in other cases in the form of daily commuting between downtown Montes
Claros and the surrounding rural areas.
A number of societal issues also help shed light on Montes Claros’s functioning.
Notably, what emerged from the interviews is that Montes Claros no longer has any
civic culture to create social cohesion and identity. For some interviewees, Montes
Claros and its region are no longer a collective reference, both in terms of its historic
and built heritage (which is largely neglected and enthusiastically destroyed to make
room for an avatar of “modernity”) and in terms of its natural environment (which
is little developed and threatened by continued deterioration of its forest-covered
hills and its rivers). What prevails are personal and political interests that couple
political action and financial advantages to benefit the local elite.
Such first fruits generate biases in the very creation of participatory processes
because the political authorities, in creating a new urban development plan, limit
participation to a select elite that includes economic operators, academics and pro-
fessional associations. In other words, the many collective interest groups, NGOs
and other associations are left out.
Fig. 5.20 Social housing

in construction in Montes
Claros in 2015.
(Reproduced with
5.4.2 W
ho Are the Actors of Urban Development at the
Neighbourhood Level?
In addition to our interviews with experts and specialists, we felt it was pertinent to
question inhabitants regarding their feelings about life in Montes Claros, their
expectations of public and private decision-makers and their opinion of what local
authorities were doing to improve urban living conditions.
For this, we interviewed approximately 20 families in each of the four neigh-
bourhoods (Fig. 5.21), which represent the different waves of migration to Montes
Claros in the past decades. The main idea was to compare the professionals’ analy-
ses with the perception of users in a non-exhaustive manner.
These four neighbourhoods can be described in the following way: Major Prates
and Santos Reis are old, densely – populated, working-class neighbourhoods located
in a central area of Montes Carlos; Todos os Santos is a more affluent residential
area with high land and real estate values, and; Residencial Sul is a recently built
social housing complex that borders the Montes Claros agglomeration. These socio-
spatial distinctions can be confirmed at the educational level; Major Prates and
Santos Reis are the areas with the lowest educational levels (40% on average had
not completed elementary schooling. It is likewise in these two neighbourhoods that
we find the highest rate of unemployment (roughly 20%) whereas all of the resi-
dents of the other two neighbourhoods are employed. Santos Reies and Major Prates
also have more poor families, 20–30% of which have a monthly income of less than
1200 reales. This is not the case for the Todos os Santos and Residencial Sul neigh-
bourhoods, whose residents all live in single-family homes on 100–200 m2 parcels
(for Residencial Sul), which is larger than in the three older neighbourhoods. There
was, on the other hand, unanimity in terms of the type of occupancy: 82% of inhab-
itants on average owned their home.
Given these varied characteristics, it is interesting to consider the perception of
city’s residents. When asked who was responsible for improving things in their
respective neighbourhoods, the City Council was cited by an average of 50% of
respondents. Equally interesting is the fact that, for 30% of respondents, it was the
community that was primarily responsible for managing the neighbourhood
(Fig. 5.22). This could provide a potential basis for effective collaboration between
the local administration and inhabitants, particularly as this perspective was much
more marginal with regard to the urban management of the communal entity
(2.6–19.4% depending on the neighbourhood). More formally, urban management
capacities were attributed to the City Council first and foremost, and to the State of
Minas Gerais and the Federal government to a lesser extent.
In addition, while – officially speaking – a “participatory” planning process had
been ongoing for over a year at the time of the survey, none of the 70 interviewees
had been consulted personally or invited to a public meeting on urban planning.
This leads us to deduce that the process was not systematically based on involving
inhabitants from every neighbourhood. According to other informants consulted
during the study, informational meetings were indeed organized but were, at best,
Fig. 5.21 Household survey of four neighbourhoods of Montes Claros organized by UNIMONTES
and CODEV/EPFL in 2017. (Reproduced with permission from UNIMONTES)
Fig. 5.22 Inhabitants in one of the neighborhoods where the survey was done in 2016. (Reproduced
advisory campaigns and, at worst, pure partisan propaganda. Here we find an exam-
ple of top-down management, a far cry from participatory, bottom-up governance
based on social involvement and the identification of shared priorities between the
population and political representatives.
All those interviewed, specialists as dwellers, felt that urban planning should
target the welfare of people from all walks of life, with an emphasis on alleviating
the challenges faced by the poor and destitute, whose numbers are increasing and
whose living conditions are gradually deteriorating (Fig. 5.23). A symptomatic
Fig. 5.23 Field visit on the occasion of the international seminar on intermediate cities organized
by UNIMONTES and CODEV-EPFL in 2018. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
example of this is “street people.” We counted nearly 300 homeless people “living”
in public areas in downtown Montes Claros. No municipal policy has been put in
place for this highly vulnerable population (i.e. shelters, food banks, health services
or care for mothers and children). The only initiatives designed on their behalf exist
thanks to volunteers (religious groups in most cases). The same holds true for the
750–800 junk “recyclers,” who are among Montes Claros’s poorest and who man-
age to find enough to survive on in the 600 tons of waste the city produces each week.
Social issues are also part of the dichotomy between Montes Claros and its rural
hinterland. For a total population of nearly 400,000 inhabitants, Montes Claros has
11 Centros de Referencia de Assistência Social (CRAS), which assist roughly 5000
individuals per year. The respondents felt this was insufficient, especially in the
municipality’s rural areas where there is only one CRAS for a population of some
20,000 inhabitants across 176 rural communities and over an area of nearly 3370 km2
(versus the 97 km2 of urban area). This flagrant proportion questions the organiza-
tion of public services across the municipality.
Other societal aspects have mainly to do with the existing political system and
modes of governance.
As in any democratic country, the alternation of power has repercussions both at
the policy level and in the organization of administrative and technical services. The
fact that the entire administrative framework changes with each change of Prefect
negatively impacts Montes Claros’s ability to function; instead of taking into
account previous projections, the overwhelming tendency is to start from scratch in
order for the new leadership to leave its mark. Moreover, in a short-sighted vision of
profitability, collusion between political authorities, local elites and big industry
offers no prospect for social, urban or environmental sustainability.
These comments and critiques reveal an urban society in crisis, faced with the
changes taking place at the demographic, infrastructural, environmental and cul-
tural levels. Respondents expressed some disappointment with regard to the incon-
sistencies in the regional planning process and their negative impact on the urban
structure and social organization of the population, highlighting among other things
the problem of mismanagement.
5.4.3 Long Live Planning: Players in Motion
Montes Claros’s urban planning process offers an excellent opportunity to identify

the key players in this dynamic and explore how governance is organized in the city
and surrounding region.
Before reviewing our respondents’ comments, we will briefly summarize how
Montes Claros’s government is organized as, according to the law, the entity respon-
sible for urban planning but nonetheless answerable to official bodies, both at the
state and at federal levels.
As mentioned earlier, the official birth of the city dates back to 1831, with its
2000 inhabitants. The name “Montes Claros” was that of one of the haciendas in the
region. Until 1760, the land belonged to indigenous groups, but was later conquered
by gemstone searchers and subsequently cleared by farm owners.
A municipal government divided between a legislative power (a chamber of 23
councillors elected for a period of 4 years23) and an executive power (led by a pre-
fect). In 2010, Montes Claros had 238,405 voters, a figure that has sharply increased
23
No details on the political division in the House
in recent years.24 According to respondents, the city council consists of a planning

council, an environmental council and a land issues council, to which outside
experts are invited to voice their opinions in an advisory capacity.
The critiques lean in two directions:
First, the implementing of decisions made by the council falls on technical teams
and administration members who have neither a guaranteed job in the long term, as
in many cities (and thus are more dependent on the political leaders in power), nor
attractive salaries. This can lead to conflicts between individuals and departments,
which does little to foster continuity in the implementing of decisions.
Secondly, political changes in the city’s administration have direct political
repercussions on the continuity of urban alternatives, with each new mayoral team
seeking to set itself apart from its predecessors and to “leave its mark”.
As in all democracies, elected city council members are chosen largely on a par-
tisan basis, without necessarily having any proven policy experience or technical
skills in the area in question. As such, council members often find themselves in
situations of dependence, both in terms of their party and with respect to execu-
tive power.
The result is a lack of autonomy for the local legislation relative to the city gov-
ernment and a lack of transparency in the choices made by the latter. To remedy this
situation it is imperative to clarify the rules, state the prerogatives of the council
versus those of the city government more clearly, and make decisions involving the
city’s future more explicit and public.
Montes Claros’s current master plan dates from 2001 but is, in fact, a copy of that
of Belo Horizonte, the capital of Minas Gerais. As such, no real consideration made
for the specificities of Montes Claros. In reality, what still determines urban plan-
ning in Montes Claros is the master plan implemented in 1970, which itself was
preceded by a plan developed in 1954. Brazilian law requires that every city have a
master plan and sector plans for roads, accessibility, drainage and sanitation. For
respondents, the main issue here is that these plans should not serve as simple mod-
els simply to be replicated without discernment. Rather, they should address the
specific challenges of each city by reflecting the views and needs of their users. This
explains why the process is extremely important. It was developed by the Prefecture
(the local government) since 2014, in cooperation with three regional academic
institutions (FIP, UNIMONTES and FUNORTE25). The collaboration took the form
of weekly meetings on the topics addressed by the plans, in conjunction with all the
municipal secretariats. These meetings have led to proposals on future land tenure
law and an updating of the city’s zoning. Based on these documents, an online
debate26 was launched and open meetings held with the public to gather critiques
and suggestions. From these exchanges should emerge a set of guidelines that will
24
According to the Tribunal Eleitoral Regional (http://www.tre-mg.jus.br/eleicoes/eleicoes-anteri-
ores/eleicoes-2010/informacoes-para-a-imprensa/eleitorado, accessed 28 May 2019).
25
Faculdades Integradas Pitágoras – FIPMoc, Universidade Estadual de Montes Claros, e
Faculdades Unidas do Norte de Minas.
26
There is no clear evidence of this online debate on the City of Montes Claros’s official website.
be revisited by the municipality and its academic partners. A conference attended by

numerous professionals and academics based on this collaboration was held in May
2015. The main theme: “Urban planning, renewable energy and shared implementa-
tion: sustainable cities.”
In September 2015, the municipal council of Montes Claros studied the updated
master plan, which included 13 guidelines: health, social protection, social develop-
ment, land use, environment, solid waste management and cleanliness, economic
development, education, culture, sports and leisure, urban mobility, infrastructure
and sanitation, roads and public lighting27 – an impressive list indeed. Once the
document is finalized, potential crossover and complementarity among the topics
will be identified and overall coherence ascertained. Certain issues raised during the
discussions, such as taxes and taxation, public security, energy and historical heri-
tage, were eliminated from the list.
According to information from UNIMONTES, this preliminary plan, designed
by Montes Claros technicians, was to be submitted for public review during the
course of three public hearings, which took place in October 2015, in the central
districts covered by the plan. The first hearing, opened by the prefect, provided a
very descriptive overview of the plan, without topical hierarchy. The second focused
on social and health issues, and the third on land and urban land uses. However,
there is no indication of the number of people who attended these sessions. The
documents posted online by the Municipality still lack a reference text that intro-
duces the 13 sector chapters and lays out the authorities’ vision for the coming years
in terms of outlook, objectives, priorities, implementation schedule and expected
results. Article 1 of the 2921 Act of August 27, 200128 (currently in effect) offers
several key elements in its design and objectives: the plan is considered the basic
tool for the physical, social, economic and administrative aspects of urban develop-
ment policy that targets sustainable development and the community’s aspirations
through government action and private initiatives.
It is therefore not a participatory process with regard to the master plan, but
rather served to validate the decisions already made by the authorities as reflected in
the provisional plan. However, the process raises many issues. To begin, it is impos-
sible to discern the authorities’ medium- and long-term vision, which would be
helpful in streamlining the urban planning. Furthermore, the authorities’ perception
of Montes Claros is biased as it only takes into account the dense areas in the city
centre. The rapidly growing outskirts and suburban areas are still disconnected from
the rest of the city and are poorly integrated in this prospective exercise. In the
future, Montes Claros must be seen as an urban hub for northern Minas Gerais, in a
kind of urban/rural/interurban interplay that involves environmental, social, educa-
tional and housing issues. All neighbourhoods and people cannot be dealt with in
the same way; specific needs and priorities must be taken into account.
27
http://www.montesclaros.mg.gov.br/planodiretor/planodiretor2015.htm (Accessed 26 May
2019).
28
Also on the municipality’s web page.
While there is undeniably cooperation with national and regional authorities in

the implementation of the new plan, many respondents felt planning does not really
consider residents’ opinions or seek ways to understand their wishes and view-
points. Instead of a top-down process involving outside experts – in itself is not a
reprimandable approach – the new plan would start from the needs and concerns of
neighbourhoods and their inhabitants, which urban priorities would then reflect. It
would also be beneficial for academic partners to be seen as producers of scientific
works whose results may contribute to the debate and influence planners and pol-
icy makers.
The lack of integration and democratic participation are indirectly reflected in
the “assistance-oriented” political culture: many programs assist vulnerable popula-
tions (bolsa familiar, FIES – Fomento ao programa de governo do ensino superior)
but are inherently designed as emergency safeguards and therefore do not resolve
long term funding problems.
A final, yet critical, considering in the current process is that, once completed,
the master plan should be supported by enabling legislation. Without it, the plan
cannot be fully functional.
5.5 Regional Integration. Towards True Urban Planning
With a population of nearly 400,000 inhabitants and a municipal budget of 368 mil-
lion dollars in 2016 Montes Claros is a perfect example of an intermediary Brazilian
city. While it would be incorrect to describe it as a poor city, the urban population is
highly segregated; one third of the city’s population is poor, and the wealthy – who
represent 20% of the population – control 66% of the local wealth. This fragmenta-
tion of the social fabric is also reflected in the more than 140 unregulated neighbour-
hoods and 50,000 people living in makeshift housing conditions, again resulting in
extreme differences in income (400–1200 R$ per month in the city centre to
30–80 in poor neighbourhoods).
As Estrad Leita and Soares Silva de Melo (2017:130) point out, “We understand
that urban growth is heterogeneous. It has occurred in a disorderly, uneven way with
socio-economic segregation in which privileged social groups enjoy urban areas
with functioning infrastructures while another segment of the population has settled
in the parts of the city with great shortages and social problems.” In this respect, it
should be added that Montes Claros continues to grow demographically, with 1.43%
annual growth between 1991 and 2000, and 1.66% between 2001 and 2010, with a
municipal urban population level of 95.17%.29 And according to respondents, this
trend continues, as reflected – as previously stated – by an explosion of new housing
developments for all categories, from federally-funded social housing to exclusive
“gated communities” and luxury villas on the slopes of neighbouring hills. This
urban growth also goes hand in hand with the fragmentation of the territory. In the
29
http://atlasbrasil.org.br/2013/pt/perfil_m/montes-claros_mg (Accessed 26 May 2019).
5.5 Regional Integration. Towards True Urban Planning 159
north of the city near the industrial zone one finds peripheral urban areas that are
home to low-income families (Batista and Pereira 2017; Soares Santos Brandão and
Toneli da Silva 2016). More recently – since the 2000s – poor families have been
settling in social housing developments built by the federal government, and not
merely social segregation as the aforementioned authors propose.
In addition to these socio-economic and territorial disparities, two other major
problems exist. The first is the depletion of natural resources due to advanced defor-
estation and periodic flooding of central neighbourhoods, a problem that largely
results from the construction of new housing developments (social and luxury),
wherein the environmental impact of these forms of urbanization, which have
become increasingly popular in the past 20 years, are not fully considered. The
second is the lack of regional integration of the municipality’s rural hinterlands.
These areas, where services and telecommunications are still rudimentary, are grad-
ually being abandoned in favour of the urban centre and new suburbs.
To address this situation, the local authorities are in the process of developing a
new master plan. The Brazilian Constitution, updated in 2015, specifies in Articles
182 and 18330 that “urban development policy led by the municipal government,
according to the general guidelines established by the law, is designed to order the
full development and social functions of the city, and to ensure the welfare of its
people.” A master plan approved by the City Council is mandatory for all cities with
more than 20,000 inhabitants should serve as an instrument for enforcing federal
law adapted to the local context in the form of municipal laws (following the pre-
cepts of the federal law) to resolve issues relative to taxes on land, real estate value,
parcelling and expropriation.
In addition, there is also a constitutional instrument in the form of a law regulat-
ing the status of the city in Brazil (Senado Federal 2008). The first Article of this
federal document states that public standards for social welfare will regulate the use
of urban land for the good, security and well-being of citizens and environmental
balance. As such, the plan aims to create a sustainable city, including a right to
urban land, housing, infrastructure, services, transport and employment for every-
one. This requires democratic management and the involvement of the people and
associations in the formulating, implementing and supporting of plans, urban devel-
opment programs and other projects.
The project of urban planning, launched in 2014, is extremely important consid-
ering the transformation Montes Claros has undergone in recent decades and the
need rethink the municipal territory and surrounding region vis-à-vis population
growth and economic change. Rural areas are depopulating as the urban population
gradually increases. Furthermore, economically speaking, Montes Claros has argu-
ably experienced its third revolution. Until mid-1900s it was primarily a centre for
the agro-processing industry and agricultural trade before slowly becoming a centre
for industry – which it is still today – and home to many companies. In the past
20 years, Montes Claros has come to be seen as a service hub for the surrounding
Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil Atualizada até a Emenda Constitucional, No. 88,
30
May 72,015 (http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/constituicao/constituicao.htm).

area, particularly as regards higher education institutions and pre-eminence in the

health sector. Its many commercial enterprises also offer a wide range of services.
However, as incomes rise, social segregation increases. Today, the municipality is
facing the issue of social exclusion, with an increasing proportion of the urban pop-
ulation living in economic insecurity and relative marginalization, both geographi-
cally and socially. These are key issues for a comprehensive urban plan whose aim
is to not only act spatially.
This ongoing process – which is nearing its completion – may be can be seen as
an associative process, but not a veritably participatory one. City Hall has indeed
teamed up with private agencies and representatives from different sectors (univer-
sities, representatives from the economic community, etc. and the ad hoc commit-
tees of the City Council), but without including the public in the initial phase of
democratic debate. It is only now in the final phase that the provisional results,
which will determine the guidelines for future planning, will be presented and dis-
cussed in the more urbanized areas of the city. This exclusive approach has received
considerable criticism from “outsiders”, particularly volunteer organizations and
social groups, who were not invited to participate in the process from the beginning.
For them, this denotes a certain authoritarianism on the part of the public authorities
(especially the Mayor, who has close ties with business and industry circles), who
have not seized the opportunity the new plan affords to engage in an open dialogue
with the public to better understands its needs and desires. While some scepticism
was noted among those interviewed, it is still too early to judge the impact. Rather,
what counts is the impact these debates will have on the final product, which must
be approved not only by the local authorities but by the State as well. It remains for
the government to prove its willingness to change its course of action by acknowl-
edging the reactions that arise from these neighbourhood forums, and develop pro-
posals include outlying areas and their populations in economic growth and social
redistribution dynamics.
In conclusion, though Montes Claros cannot be described as a “poor city”, it can
be described as a medium-sized city that, like many other cities in Brazil, is experi-
encing the kind of unbalanced growth that is typical of what one can see in many
intermediate cities around the world. Brazil has become one of the most segregated
countries in the world, an emblem of economic globalization in a growing struggle
between global regions and cities (nationally and internationally) and strategies to
improve social cohesion and cultural/economic integration politically and in terms
of urban planning. Urban planning is not merely a technical or spatial endeavour; it
must aim to help cities and regions adapt to larger context in order to respond to the
needs of all of their people through projections over time.
Returning to our definition of the “intermediary city” (Bolay and Kern 2019;
Bolay and Rabinovich 2004) and the objectives of urban and regional planning that
is tailored to the context both spatially and socially, we concluded that the first goal
must be eliminating poverty and insecurity among vulnerable segments of the soci-
ety, through comprehensive planning that promotes the integration and inclusion of
new urban residents and all social groups.
References 161
Urban planning of intermediary cities is particularly complex for the reasons

outlined in our paper. As in the case of Montes Claros, these cities face issues that
must resolve if they are to succeed in promoting the type of sustainable develop-
ment targeted by Brazilian legislation.
The first key challenge is the extremely rapid population growth these cities are
facing. In the case of Montes Claros, which serves as a multi-dimensional activities
hub for the northern part of the state, the intense and continuous flow of rural
migrants has led to the creation of new subdivisions on the city fringes. These sub-
divisions are poorly equipped and poorly integrated in the urban community. It is
therefore imperative that local authorities endeavour to integrate this dimension in
the current urban planning. Otherwise, spatial fragmentation and social segregation
are likely to continue to grow.
The second issue Montes Claros must address – like most intermediary cities that
act as employment/service centres for the surrounding rural area – is that of spatial
organization, which must be designed in coherence with this rural-urban interface
by understanding the various dimensions that impact both rural and urban popula-
tions, as well as the natural and built environments. The public authorities in Montes
Claros must quickly address the environmental problems the city faces, be it water
(supply and flooding), deforestation or contamination (particularly through a more
streamlined management of household/industrial waste).
The third key element is that of citizen participation in decision-making pro-
cesses, especially in defining and implementing new urban planning. We noted that
the current process has tended to favour certain stakeholders in the designing of this
new urban planning phase (economic representatives, professional associations,
universities, etc.). This stems from the fact that the process was not designed using
a bottom-up approach designed to promote the participation of all residents in all
neighbourhoods, to identify problems and their desires in order to integrate them in
the planning process. Analysis by experts would also help in determining priorities
by considering the municipality’s perspective from all areas: downtown, peri-urban
and rural. Failing to do so is likely to both alienate people from political life and
result in a spatial plan that is incoherent and non-inclusive.
Rapidly growing, intermediary cities in emerging countries like Brazil, or in
developing countries, are once again on the agendas of national governments and
internationals agencies. However, the challenge – beyond rhetoric and sweeping
principles – is to better define what intermediation means exactly, in order to trans-
late it into analytical tools for public action.
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Chapter 6
Urban Dynamics and Regional
Development in Argentina
Nueve de Julio, A Modern Small City in the
Pampa
Abstract With 92% of its population living in urban areas, Argentina is one of the
most urbanized countries on the planet. The province of Buenos Aires, which is
located on the outskirts of the national capital, is home to 16.65 million people, or
39% of the national population. Like in many South countries, the populations of
the small and medium-sized cities, which serve as intermediate centers between the
countryside and the urban network, are growing steadily. Such cities offer services
and infrastructures to both urban and rural populations, as well as a residential alter-
native to the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area. However, these cities face
specific problems that require appropriate responses.
In this respect, Nueve de Julio is emblematic of the challenges that confront
these intermediate cities. One of the hundred cities created in the nineteenth century
by the Argentinian government to colonize the country and turn it into a major agro-
producer and exporter of cereals and meat, it is purely a product of top-down territo-
rial planning. Today, with its 50,000 inhabitants, Nueve de Julio is a city whose
population is increasing and whose territory is expanding. Yet, it that lacks any
foresight to anticipate the next 20 or 30 years.
Following J. Robinson’s concept, Nueve de Julio is an “ordinary” city founded
on modernity and tradition, and which must be analyzed for what it really is: a mere
reproduction of a European city model that is facing serious development problems,
whose territory is disparate in terms of facilities and 20% of whose population is
living in poverty.
The government seems helpless when it comes to dealing with these issues.
Though aware of the issues – social inclusion, improving public services and more
efficient land use – it seems unable to act. At a participatory planning training semi-
nar in 1994, participants were already pointing to the many shortcomings in urban
management. Twenty five years later, these same problems have only intensified.
Unfortunately, political activism prevails over planning and varies from one election
to the next depending on the party in power. Means are lacking, both financially and
in terms of technical skills. For several decades now, it is the electricity and services
Cooperative that has been meeting many of the population’s needs (paving the
streets, supplying electricity, developing the mobile phone network, etc.), but with-
out any real dialogue with the local administration.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28419-0_6
168 6 Urban Dynamics and Regional Development in Argentina
Establishing an open system of urban planning is imperative. This begins with

the collection of technical and social data, which is currently scattered between the
local government services and the Cooperative, which must then be processed digi-
tally and geospatially. Based on this, and with the collaboration of these two institu-
tions (as well as citizen participation), a rational diagnosis can be established and
priorities set. These goals should include social, economic and spatial integration,
efforts to include the city’s poor and more rational, less costly development of the
suburban periphery. This will enable Nueve de Julio to better play its role as an
intermediate city for the entire urban and regional population with regard to busi-
ness, administration, education and health services.
Keywords Intermediate city · Ordinary city · Medium sized city · Urban growth ·
Urban planning · Urban poverty · Cooperative of services · Nueve de Julio ·
Province of Buenos Aires · Argentina
6.1 An Argentinian City Under Pressure
Nueve de Julio is undoubtedly a rather “ordinary” intermediate city, like hundreds

of others throughout Argentina and Latin America. Located outside of the oppres-
sive Buenos Aires conurbation, it is one of the hundred new towns built during the
nineteenth century by the Government of Argentina to reinforce the country’s colo-
nization and encourage agriculture and export breeding. A medium-sized city in
terms of its population size and surface area, it is also an intermediate city in that it
creates a direct link between the rural economy and the public services required by
the regional population. Nueve de Julio thus appears as a quiet city of 50,000 with
no major issues, with its shopping area, health facilities and educational institutions.
Yet, in the past 30 years, its population has grown rapidly and its inhabited terri-
tory expanded exponentially, like other similar cities of the pampas region. This
dynamic is specific to an emigration of inhabitants from the Buenos Aires metro-
politan area to cites that, though more remote, are considered more hospitable.
However, it is not without links to national and international strategies of a global-
ized economy that dictates the price of raw materials and consumers products.
During a scientific assessment of the urban management headed by the local gov-
ernment of Nueve de Julio, we had the opportunity to reflect on the shortcomings in
the city’s urban planning and on possible solutions.
In what ways is Nueve de Julio an “ordinary” city whose characteristics are
reproducible in other cities in South America? What can we learn from how it is
actually governed and the fact that changing its management and planning organiza-
tion appears impossible? The studies, analyses, exchanges, improvements as well as
the shortcomings and failures all served as lessons and were extremely useful in
terms defining an urban development strategy that targets both sustainability and
6.2 Argentina: One of the Most Urbanized Countries in the World 169
inclusiveness – like those promoted by international organizations. The concepts of

“ordinary city” and “intermediate city” will help to shed light on an initial diagnosis
of the urban planning and governance implemented in Nueve de Julio.
6.2 A
rgentina: One of the Most Urbanized Countries
in the World
According to figures from the World Bank,1 in 2017, the urban population of
Argentina represented 92% of the country’s 40.1 million people, or 6.8% of the
population of Latin America, making it the fourth most populous country on the
sub-continent after Brazil, Mexico and Colombia. In Argentina, any locality with
more than 2000 inhabitants is considered an urban settlement (Pellegrini and Raposo
2014). According to Velásquez (2015) and the Ministry of Planning’s population
censuses (MPF 2011a), urban growth has continued uninterrupted since the late
nineteenth century (1895: 37%, 1914: 53%; 1947: 62%, 1960: 72%, 1980: 83%,
1990: 86% and 2000: 90%). Hence, Argentina is one of the most urbanized coun-
tries in the world (Fig. 6.1), surpassing both European and United States averages.
At the national level, it is interesting to consider experts’ analysis of the progress
of urbanization in Argentina.
Buenos Aires’s urban primacy can be traced back to the eighteenth century and
can largely be explained by Argentina’s position as a major agro-exporter, and as an
industrial investment area starting in 1937, with Europe on the brink of armed con-
flict. Starting in the 1970s, this import-substitution model, which led to the spread
of Buenos Aires’s metropolitan area and the development of large agglomerations
like Rosario and Cordoba, was challenged by the political changes imposed by the
military dictatorship. “Greater Buenos Aires”, the majority of whose population
lives in the State of Buenos Aires that surrounds the national capital, still was home
to 50% of the Argentine urban population at that time. As Ainstein (2012) explains,
Argentina’s urban expansion has been marked by the waning primacy of Buenos
Aires and several other large Argentine cities. The Greater Buenos Aires’s popula-
tion thus totaled 37.2% in 2002. However, the unemployment rate has also increased,
as has the rate of informal employment. The poor population increased from 5% in
1980 to 51.7% in 2002 (Portes and Roberts 2005).
In 1947, the urban configuration likewise reflected Buenos Aires and the pampas
region’s dominance, thus reflecting a concentration that is specific to the agro-
export system chosen by the country. Moreover, most of the country’s medium-
sized cities were located there. According to the 2010 census, while this urban
concentration continues and includes more than 50% of medium-sized cities, it is
now more diffuse. Hence, cities are now scattered throughout the country’s prov-
inces (Manzano and Velazquez 2015).
http://datos.bancomundial.org/indicador/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS (Accessed 23 November 2015).

1
Fig. 6.1 Argentina – Population density (Reproduced from https://www.educ.ar/sitios/educar/

recursos/ver?id=89787. Accessed 21 May 2019)
According to the 1970 census and those that followed (the most recent dating
from 2010), demographically speaking, the traditional migratory process that grad-
ually brought scattered rural inhabitants towards villages, and from villages towards
small and medium towns, and finally to Argentina’s largest metropolitan areas, is
now being challenged. As Ainstein (2012) states, national urban expansion has been
marked by a decrease in the primacy of Buenos Aires and several other large cities.
The result has been a marked proportional increase in the number of agglomerations
of more than 50,000 inhabitants at the expense of major Argentine cities
(Velásquez 2015).
Lindemboim and Kennedy (2003) confirm this trend towards small and medium
cities. They conclude that, from 1960 to 2000, Greater Buenos Aires and the Pampas
region – the country’s two most populated areas – were also those whose urban
growth was the most moderate compared to the country’s other regions. In addition,
like the federal capital, slower growth can be observed in Argentinian cities with
more than 500,000 inhabitants. According to these experts, it appears that, since the
1970s, the urban population of cities with 5000–500,000 inhabitants has grown
faster than the national average. For them, from 1960 to 2000, the dynamics of the
urban population saw a double decline: that of cities’ population size and that of
their geographical location. Regarding the first, municipalities on the outskirts of
large agglomerations started seeing their population increase the most as early as
2000. For the second, medium-sized towns outside the pampas region are those that
seem to be the most attractive and whose population are growing fastest.
Argentina’s urbanization is thus marked by low population densities and the
scattering of settlements relative to the pre-existing urban fabric. Thus, it is expected
that, between 2000 and 2030, the urban population of cities of more than 100,000
inhabitants will increase by 72%, while the inhabited area will grow by 175%. With
862 cities of more than 2000 inhabitants, urban areas in Argentina can be divided
into several categories: first, there is the international pole (to use the Federal
Planning Ministry’s expression) of Greater Buenos Aires and its 13 million inhabit-
ants (40.3% of the urban population). This is followed by four large urban agglom-
erations that represent national nodes – Cordoba, Rosario, Mendoza and San Miguel
de Tucuman (12.9% of the urban population). These are followed by regional nodes
(18 cities with an average population of 280,000, representing 15.7% of the urban
population), followed by sub-regional nodes (82 cities with a population of 52,000
inhabitants, representing 13.3% of the total urban population). Three additional cat-
egories of smaller-sized cities, which are active mainly at the regional level, can be
added to this list (MPF 2011a).
The country’s central region, of which the federal capital and the province of
Buenos Aires are integral parts, is therefore the only one whose cities are repre-
sented at all levels of urban hierarchy. This is characterized by a high-density urban
network and a clear distinction between the highest level (the Buenos Aires metro-
politan area) and lower levels of the urban hierarchy, like La Plata (the capital of the
Buenos Aires Province) as well as other agglomerations. These areas have a highly
dense road and rail networks, active medium-sized towns and numerous small, gen-
erally well-equipped regional urban centers and are closely connected to one another
(Fig. 6.2).
Fig. 6.2 Cities and transportation routes of the Buenos Aires province. (Reproduced from https://
www.sitiosargentina.com.ar/notas/2011/enero/mapa-rutas-provincia-buenos-aires.htm. Accessed
21 May 2019)
Fig. 6.3 Satellite photo of the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area (Reproduced from https://
www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_from_Space_Buenos_Aires. Accessed
27 May 2019)
This population dynamic of medium-sized cities in Argentina brings new chal-

lenges in terms of development and investment in infrastructure and amenities.
Since the 1990s, the infrastructure and public service supply no longer meet the
needs of urban growth due to of the neo-liberal economic policies of successive
governments. The state of the roads is deteriorating, as are the drinking water and
wastewater evacuation networks. This is particularly obvious in the outskirts of
large cities and the municipalities that comprise Greater Buenos Aires (Bolay et al.
2004a; Dubois Maury 1990). Corollary to this purely statistical analysis of urban
areas in Argentina, a more sociological perspective shows us that this urban densifi-
cation is also reflected in the increase in territorial fragmentation and social incon-
gruence. Medium-sized cities are growing in size and in surface area, but speculation
tends to “freeze” buildable areas in the urban periphery for future residential areas
for high-income families. Few social measures exist to provide relief to the urban
poor. Nueve de Julio’s approach is emblematic of assistencialisme, wherein the goal
is to “help the poor” rather than actually improve urban planning in the poorest
areas of the city.
As seen in Fig. 6.3, this urban expansion is specific to Argentina and is particu-
larly obvious in the Buenos Aires metropolitan area and province.
In terms of urban planning, Dubois Maury (1990) explain that, until the late
1990s, there was no national planning laws or building code. Everything depended
on the provinces, with a multitude of delegations at the municipal level.
In practice, the overlapping of local and provincial regulations gives rise to situ-
ations that are open to numerous derogations. And the often one-off nature of urban
development operations – regardless of the sector – carries with it the risk of a lack
of coherent, more global vision, thus deviating from more long-term planning.
In 2004, the national government created the Secretariat for Territorial Planning
within the Ministry of Federal Planning (MPF 2011a), which establishes the State’s
planning role and promotes territorial development as a capacity-building process to
ensure sustainable social and economic well-being for the communities living there.
This involves consultation with civil actors and the granting of federal funds. From
this was born the “Urban Argentina” Program in 2008, and later the concept for the
Territorial Strategic Plan (PET) in 2016. The supervisory ministry’s aim was to ori-
ent public policies so that they would not focus only on large metropolitan areas, but
on medium-sized cities as well. Effectively, we lack information regarding the risks
and opportunities of the latter, though it is the populations of these cities that are
growing the fastest.
Following this blueprint, each small or medium-sized city is now better placed in
a web of communications with other cities, while maintaining a functional relation-
ship with the surrounding rural environment. In reality, their future is increasingly
dependent on decisions made by a multitude of actors at different scales (local,
provincial and national). As such, their regional and national integration largely
depends on the link between existing and future infrastructures (roads, transporta-
tion systems, telecommunications/computer networks, etc.). This must also be con-
sidered in a context of urban-rural and interurban interplay characterized by
increasing geographical mobility and complex residential and professional situa-
tions (e.g. working in Buenos Aires and regularly commuting to cities outside the
metropolitan area, or working remotely via ICT for companies in the capital, but
making periodic face-to-face visits). Such compromises help make a “provincial
quality of life” and urban economic integration compatible.
Given the emergence and establishment of new business sectors such as tourism
and high-tech enterprises, these small and medium-sized Argentinian cities are
being pulled into dynamics that are sometimes quite integrative at the regional and
national levels, but that also must deal with processes of social and/or economic
exclusion. Lan, et al. (2018) remind us that intermediate cities’ dynamics are also
the result of the strategies of major industrial groups who tend set up their produc-
tion units in intermediate cities, where land and labor costs are cheaper and profits
higher. Thus, going forward, the focus must be not only on the city but on the entire
rural-urban territory more generally, in order to identify the economic changes, new
forms of production and the needs of the populations in question (MPF 2011b).
Coming back to the question of urban dynamics in Argentina and the changes
taking place in the small and medium-sized cities that serve as intermediaries
between rural hinterlands and urban networks, it appears that Argentina‘s recent
urbanization resembles that of Western industrialized countries. This is largely due
6.3 The Province of Buenos Aires: A Dense Territory Under Influence 175
to the fact that residential choices are no longer made based exclusively on job loca-
tion. Communication and transportation networks have also greatly facilitated com-
muting. It is in this way, and based on the example of Nueve de Julio and other Latin
American cities, that we can observe how regional urban centers – though some-
what modest at the national level – nonetheless serve as intermediate centers for
their hinterlands and provinces (Bolay et al. 2004b; Bolay and Rabinovich 2004a).
Such cities emphasize the quality of life, safety and lower cost of living lower they
offer. This also applies to the province of Buenos Aires, one of the most densely
populated regions of one of the most urbanized countries in the world, and a world
leader in terms of advanced agricultural techniques and exportation (Gorenstein
et al. 2007).
6.3 T
he Province of Buenos Aires: A Dense Territory
Under Influence
The Buenos Aires Province is an immense territory of some 300,000 km2, the equiv-
alent of 11% of the national territory – the surface area of Italy! This largely endless
plain, which encompasses most of the Argentinian pampas2 (Pesoa 2016), is the
country’s most populated region. Its estimated population of 16.65 million in 2015
was spread over 109 municipalities3 and represented 39% of the national popula-
tion. This, of course, includes much of Buenos Aires’s metropolitan area, and 7.2%
of the same national population within its administrative boundaries (INDEC 2012).
The metropolitan area of Buenos Aires, often called Greater Buenos Aires, is com-
prised of the capital (2.89 million residents) and 24 peripheral municipalities located
within the province of Buenos Aires. In 2010, this metropolitan area was home to an
estimated 12.8 million people.4 The Buenos Aires province was responsible for con-
tributing 36% of Argentina’s gross domestic product (GDP) (Ministerio de
Economía 2012). The main economic sectors are industry (26.9% of national pro-
duction), transportation (17.3%), real estate (13.3%), trade (12%), tourism (7.8%)
and construction (5.8%). Though the agricultural sector, which is essentially com-
prised of export crops that largely depend on the financial fluctuations of raw mate-
rials on the international market (notably soybean), accounts for only 4.3% of the
province’s output, it has been steadily strengthening since the early 2000s. Growing
areas grew by 34.8% between 2003 and 2011, from 22.5 million acres to 52.6 acres.
Soybeans are the main crop, with close to 14.8 million acres, followed by wheat,
maize and sunflower. The Buenos Aires Province’s economy accounted for 33% of
2
The Argentine pampas is a fertile, grass-covered, almost treeless plain and represents a fifth of the
national territory (Wikipedia 2019).
3
In Argentina, localities officially recognized as administrative are called partidos, and numbered
109 in the Buenos Aires Province.
4
http://www.buenosaires.gob.ar/laciudad/ciudad (Accessed 21 May 2019).
Argentina’s exports to the world in 2015; versus 49% in 1997.5 There are 67 rural
municipalities in the Buenos Aires Province with a population of approximately 1.3
million, representing 10% of the provincial population (27% excluding the metro-
politan belt). The 42 urban municipalities are home to 3.5 million residents outside
of the Buenos Aires metropolitan area. The fastest-growing municipalities in terms
of population are those that are part of the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area
and those along the coast.
According to the 2010 population census (INDEC 2012), the 109 municipalities
in the Buenos Aires Province were comprised of: the capital (La Plata) with 649,613
residents, followed by 10 municipalities of more than 100,000 inhabitants, 17
municipalities of 50,000–99,999 inhabitants, 37 communes of 20,000–49,999
inhabitants, 30 communes of 10,000–19,999 inhabitants and the remainder com-
prised of smaller communes (Fig. 6.4).
Historically, the province’s colonization has its roots in the quest to conquer the
national territory in the early nineteenth century, with the aim of making the whole
of Argentina developed and agriculturally cultivated. In keeping with Pesoa’s analy-
sis (2016), this strategy included numerous initiatives, ranging from the enactment
of land ownership laws to regional immigration regulation, wars and peace treaties
with indigenous populations, the founding of villages and cities, and even the cre-
ation of a national mapping institute (Fig. 6.5). For the leaders of the time, the
objective was to “civilize” the country. What remains as a result of this process of
territorial conquest are the more than 100 cities, most of which were founded
between 1850 and 1916 in the Buenos Aires Province, making it quite exceptional
at the global level for such a short historical period and over so vast a territory.
In keeping with an agrarian economy largely comprised of livestock and cereal
crops, each new agglomeration’s urban center was bordered by concentric growing
areas6 (Pesoa 2014). Each urban plan was geometrically and rationally organized
around a town square (local government buildings, church, school, bank, theater,
etc.) and its purlieu into “manzanas,” (Pesoa 2012). The specific organization of
these new cities concretely conveys the priorities of these new settlements, which
were gradually linked to one another and the national capital by rail and road. The
province’s proactive urbanization policy clearly reflects the will of a landowning
oligarchy that was not affected by regional conflicts in a country emerging as a
major exporter of raw materials of rural origin on the world market. Thus, the goal
was to be an actor in the construction of modern Argentina and its institutions in a
larger process of conquering exploitable lands (Segura 2009). The region’s first for-
eign residents at that time were immigrants of Italian, Spanish, Basque and French
origin, coinciding with the massive wave of immigration in the nineteenth century
linked to the agro-export model of meat, milk and grains to Europe (Aliandri 2015).
5
https://www.lanacion.com.ar/1936345-exportaciones-poco-federales-las-companias-de-
tres-provincias-explican-el-71-del-comercio-exterior. (Accessed 21 May 2019).
6
These production areas consisted of chacras and quintas (small suburban vegetable farms).
6.3 The Province of Buenos Aires: A Dense Territory Under Influence 177
Fig. 6.4 Population density for the Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. (Reproduced from
Provincia de Buenos Aires 2010. http://www.estadistica.ec.gba.gov.ar/dpe/index.php/territorio/
mapas-tematicos. Accessed 27 May 2019)
Fig. 6.5 Founding of cities in the Buenos Aires Province in the nineteenth century. (Reproduced
from Pesoa 2012)
Closer to home historically, it appears that since the 1960s, the suburban munici-
palities of Greater Buenos Aires now represent the majority of the Province’s popu-
lation and is increasing. It accounted for 55.8% of the provincial population in 1960,
and 63.5% in 2010, or two-thirds of the total population. Outside of this metropoli-
tan area, medium-sized cities of more than 10,000 inhabitants have the fastest
growing populations. Sixty nine such cities existed in 1991. In 2000, this figure
rose to 76, including 21 cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants (Ministerio de
Economía 2013).
According to the nomenclature developed by the Ministry of Federal Planning
(2011b), regional and provincial urban agglomerations can be divided into three
categories, which indicate the major economic trends of each city: a production
function, an intermediation function and a reproduction function.
Differences in terms of infrastructure and services also set the cities of the
Buenos Aires Province apart, as does local public transportation. According to the
2001 census (MPF 2011a), it appears that cities in the lower strata of the urban
hierarchy do not have local public transport services, whereas urban nodes and
agglomerations of more than 50,000 inhabitants all do.
The medium-sized cities of the Buenos Aires’s Pampean province undoubtedly
serve an intermediate function at the regional level as businesses and services cen-
ters directly related to the rural population and the province’s agro-industrial pro-
duction. They are also logistic hubs administratively and governmentally, as well as
investment places for certain agricultural incomes (real estate, land, commercial,
etc.), not to mention a labor market for the province. Linking the Buenos Aires
Province’s territorial organization to its economic development, Gorenstein et al.
(2007) put forward the concept of neo-rurality, which is useful in going beyond the
rural/urban dichotomy, especially through the multifunctional nature of jobs held by
rural dwellers and based on the increasingly intermediary role the province’s urban
centers play relative to the surrounding countryside, as in most South countries
(Bolay and Rabinovich 2004b).
6.4 Nueve de Julio: Modernity and Development Issues 179
6.4 Nueve de Julio: Modernity and Development Issues
Like many small and medium-sized cities in South America, Nueve de Julio faces a
double issue of size and resources. Nueve de Julio lacks both human and financial
resources, as well as institutional capacities that would enable it to anticipate the
urban impact of its rapidly-growing population and manage its impact on territorial
occupation and organization.
6.4.1 What Intermediate City for the Region?
Let us recall that, in our analysis, intermediate cities are characterized as much by
their functions as by their dimensions, be they territorial or demographic (Bolay and
Kern 2019). In order to refine our analysis of Nueve de Julio and its roughly 50,000
inhabitants, we will evaluate its development potential based on the interactions
between the city and its environment.
The creation of the city of Nueve de Julio on the shores of three lakes dates back
to 1863 and was part of politicians and military leaders’ strategy to conquer the
Argentinian territory. The city is located in the central northeastern part of the
Buenos Aires Province, at 76 m above sea level (35°27′S latitude and 60°53′W
longitude), 262 km from the federal capital. Its surface area is 1,045,256 acres,
963,711 of which are dedicated to agricultural production and livestock.7 According
to the most recent population census (2010), Nueve de Julio’s population (the par-
tido, meaning the municipality’s urban center and the rural territory) reached 47,733
inhabitants in 2010, 36,494 of who lived in urban areas (Fig. 6.6). According to the
municipal authorities (but with no official source of reference), the 2017 estimate
was roughly 52,000. This indicates that the population has grown faster over the
past decade, given that the city already had 45,998 residents in 2000 (with 34,350 in
urban areas) and 44,021 in 1990 (with 30,356 in urban areas).
With a span of 20 years, between 1990 and 2010, the communal population grew
by 8.43%. During this same period, Nuevo de Julio’s urban population increased by
20.22%. If one gives credence to the local councilors’ estimates regarding the cur-
rent population, this decade has been marked by a demographic upsurge that started
in 2010 and reached 52,000 in 2017 (8.9% population growth between 2010 and
2017!) (Fig. 6.7).
This remains to be confirmed in the coming years and will be verified (or not) in
the 2020 census. However, local informants’ comments lend credibility to the the-
ory of an increase in the municipality’s population.
Given this, municipal urban planning leaders have identified several priority
issues. The first is controlling the city’s territorial expansion as a result of its ever-
7
https://www.taringa.net/posts/info/1958302/Ciudad-de-9-de-julio%2D%2D-buenos-
aires%2D%2Dargentina.html (Accessed 23 May 2019).
Fig. 6.6 Aerial view of the city of Nueve de Julio. (Reproduced from Google Maps 2018)
Population of Nueve de Julio, 1990-2017

60000
52000
45988 47733
50000 44021
40000 34350 36494
30356
30000
20000
10000
0
1990 2000 2010 2017
Population communale Population urbaine
Fig. 6.7 Nueve de Julio (1990–2007), population censuses (INDEC) and estimations
growing population, with human settlements that are increasingly scattered and dis-
tant from the historical center. Doing so means reinforcing the urban network by
creating areas that serve specific functions (housing, industry, nature reserves, etc.).
The other is meeting the basic needs of the city’s most destitute population. In this
case, the focus should be on the “Ciudad Nueva”8 area, the city’s most precarious
neighborhood (12,000 inhabitants), and where infrastructures, housing, water supply
and drainage networks (to fight against floods) must all be improved to avoid flooding.
6.4.2 An Ordinary, Modern City in a Rural Landscape
It is therefore less the idea of urban modernity confronted by the promotion of urban
development – to use the words of Kern (2017) – that underpins our analysis of
Nueve de Julio, than that of constitutive elements of urban identity. In many parts of
the global South, urban economies are dominated by the informal sector. The exam-
ple of Nueve de Julio puts us face to face with a completely different Argentinian
reality, through planned cities built based on formal and legally-recognized systems
of economic production whose prosperity largely depends on international connec-
tions of supply and the distribution of goods and raw materials. In this respect,
urban sprawl in Argentina refers more specifically to the analysis of new cities cre-
ated in the nineteenth century based on a European model and implemented in Latin
American. Understood in terms of their similarities and differences, these “modern”
cities are symptomatic of one just one kind of urbanization taking place in the
Global South among others (Schuermans 2009; Robinson 2006). Understanding the
role of an intermediate city like Nueve de Julio brings us back to Fraser’s observa-
tions (2006). For him, the concept of ordinary city “…provides readers with an
invigorated call to develop a post-colonial urbanism that is cosmopolitan in the
sense of conceiving all cities as sites of modernity. This does not diminish the stark
differences between places that are differentially connected to networks across the
globe, and it does not ignore the differential challenges cities face as a result of
uneven development patterns and unequal resources.” (Fraser 2006:196). While it is
certain that Nueve de Julio is not a global city by S. Sassen’s definition (2001,
2002), with functions of monitoring and control over the internationalized econ-
omy, it is a mixture of modernity and tradition, and is likewise a part of this global-
ized market economy (Robinson 2002). Nueve de Julio is but one piece on an
international chessboard of flows of raw materials and services, in service of
Argentinian agro-export.
In light of this, and with the goal of better understanding Nueve de Julio’s current
situation, certain elements of “modernity” and “development” set this city apart
while, at the same time, harmonizing its trajectory with that of the Buenos Aires
Province’s pampas region.
Like many other cities in the Buenos Aires province, Nueve de Julio is the result
of the then-federal government’s policy of territorial expansion in an effort to incor-
porate fertile lands (then occupied by indigenous dwellers) and increase livestock
production (Ratto 2003). The strategy combined military incursions, peace treaties
with indigenous populations and the creation of new towns.
A city neighborhood recently renamed Barrios Unidos.

8
In its 150 years of existence, Nueve de Julio has been highly representative of the
modern urban organisation that underpinned planning in the nineteenth and twenti-
eth centuries, the fruit of the technological and social advances that have shaped
both Europe and Latin America: human migration from Europe to Argentina, accel-
erated industrialization of primary and secondary production, financial gain from an
export economy and human settlements that meet the most advanced standards of
the times Velásquez (2015) confirms that, in the nineteenth century and more n otably
the twentieth, the Pampas region’s medium-sized cities greatly benefited from this
agro-export model (Europeanized urban society, generalized wages and social inte-
gration). Things started changing in the 1970s, with more marked socio-economic
differences and social exclusion of large segments of the population. Nevertheless,
Greater Buenos Aires and the Pampas region (and the province of Buenos Aires in
particular) are still the areas where industry prevails, favoring urban growth.
“Argentina is typical of a manufacturing country with a center in the metropolitan
area of Buenos Aires, an inner belt formed by the most industrialized Pampas prov-
inces and an outer belt with the rest of the country.” (Platino and Pellegrini
2016:109).
6.4.3 Between Territorial Expansion and Social Inclusion
More recently, Nueve de Julio has faced problems similar to those found in most of
the province’s medium-sized cities. While its undeniable prosperity is reflected in
the city’s layout (e.g. the central square or General San Martin Park) (Fig. 6.8), its
economic growth and stability are not guaranteed over time as its success largely
depends on the vagaries of the agro-export sector and fluctuations in the global
market for cereals and meat products. Moreover, given its continual population
growth, many urban dwellers are becoming increasingly attracted to this type of
medium-sized city, which many feel offers a viable alternative to the urban conges-
tion of Greater Buenos Aires. These new residents have individual, family and
social needs, be it in terms of professional integration, education or health. Yet, the
government’s response to the needs of Nueve de Julio’s 50,000 or so inhabitants
seem to fall short of the mark, or at least raise questions as to the priorities in terms
of future urban projects.
Social and economic figures and data pertaining to Nueve de Julio are almost
impossible to find either directly (in documents relative to these aspects of the city)
or indirectly (via the Internet). It was for this reason that we chose to combine the
information gathered from interviews and, later, a field study, surveys and the moni-
toring of public works.
What is accessible on the Municipality of Nueve de Julio’s website is the munici-
pal budget for recent years, with receipts and expenses, which provides an initial
overview of local public action. The estimated budget for 2017 was 712.62 million
Fig. 6.8 General San Martin municipal park in 2018. (Reproduced with permission from Bolay)
pesos,9 the equivalent of roughly 35 million U.S. dollars.10 Over 323 million pesos
were allocated to municipal staff, and 21 million to debt service. The main areas of
expenditure were: core activities (supposedly related to municipal services) at 144
million; the maintenance of public roads at 127 million; the development of primary
health care policies at 52 million; collaborative works with the CEYS cooperative at
45 million; the maintenance of municipal and provincial roads at 44 million and;
urban and community hygiene services at 42 million. This was followed by budget
allocations (20–30 million) for items such as education and youth services, safety,
buildings and public spaces, reforestation, green spaces and insect control. In fact,
according to municipal information provided in 2018, the actual budget was some-
what lower; according to them, national, provincial and communal funding totaled
570 million pesos.
Browsing Nueve de Julio’s online press, several insights provide additional
information regarding the region’s economic situation, albeit in a piecemeal way.
According to the head of the Chamber of Commerce, the local economy is stable
but lacks real growth, and is entirely dependent the revenues from the 2016 to 2017
agricultural harvest. Inflation, which is still poorly controlled at the national level,
weighs heavily on local entrepreneurs. To his mind, the often evoked idea of an
industrial park would energize the city and region’s economy.11 According to
another private source quoted by the same newspaper, new jobs in Nueve de Julio in
2017 increased by 30% relative to 2016, mainly in the areas of services, business,
administration and sales, and mainly benefit higher education professionals.12 And
since 2018, the devaluation of the Argentinian peso can also felt (positively by large
landowners, who sell their crops and livestock abroad in dollars, and negatively by
employees and owners of small companies whose business charges are constantly
increasing.
The picture would not be complete were we not to highlighting one of Nueve de
Julio’s particularities which, like other cities in the Buenos Aires Province, orga-
nizes community services in joint-management with the “Cooperativa Eléctrica y
de Servicios Mariano Moreno Ltda.” The latter currently has 21,000 partners for the
distribution of electricity, 12,900 for natural gas and 8300 in mobile telephony and
internet access. According to its manager,13 all of Nueve de Julio’s households are
affiliated with the cooperative, thus giving him extremely detailed knowledge of the
local population and its needs. The origins of the cooperative date back to the 1920s,
when Nueve de Julio’s inhabitants, faced with the poor quality and exorbitant cost
of electricity, decided to produce their own energy. Hence, the first popular electric
9
http://www.9julio.mun.gba.gov.ar/sit_eco_fin.php. (Accessed 22 May 2019).
10
On April 23, 2018, when the webpage was consulted, $1 U.S. was equivalent to 20.18 Argentinian
pesos.
11
http://elregionaldigital.com.ar/desde-camara-de-comercio-sostienen-que-la-economia-9-de-
julio-esta-estable-pero-no-crece/ (Accessed 22 May 2019).
12
http://elregionaldigital.com.ar/en-9-de-julio-durante-el-2017-hubo-demanda-de-nuevos-pues-
tos-de-trabajo-en-un-30-por-ciento-mas-que-el-2016/ (Accessed 23 May 2019).
13
Two interviews were done with Federico Rainari, manager of the CEyS, in 2016 and 2018.
plant was built in 1949. With the years came other services to complete the offer:
street paving in 1972, natural gas in 1989, running water in suburban localities,
ambulance services, health insurance, funeral and burials, consumer loans (since
2007), and in 2010, Internet and mobile phone connections.
A collaborative agreement exists between the municipality of Nueve de Julio and
the Cooperative. However, it goes without saying that relations have fluctuated over
time and according to political affiliations. Over the past 3 years, the election of a
new political majority and a new mayor (from the presidential majority party, the
PRO, the Republican Proposal, and likewise the majority in the Buenos Aires
province) has put strain on relations with the Cooperative, which traditionally has
been radically obedient. In 2018, after 13 years of unopposed cooperative manage-
ment, elections were held to renew the CEyS’s board of directors. Victory went to
the “democratic transparency” list,14 making negotiations between the Cooperative
and the municipality inevitable. Though unable to prove it for lack of access to
information but based on the comments from the field, an unusual competition
exists between the two institutions; the CEyS is generally seen as an historically-
rooted organization that manages large swathes of urban development and works in
service of the municipality’s residents. It is recognized for its administrative and
financial rigor, as well as its efficiency in the production of goods and services, but
is criticized by some for its monopolistic tendency to manage all profitable utilities.
Municipal services, on the other hand, are mentioned first and foremost for their
poor management of civil servants, their material/logistical shortcomings as well as
relative to political changes and their impact on priorities. What characterizes
municipal action largely depends on the political affiliation of it leaders from one
election to another. With neither the means to fulfill their ambitions nor a long-term
vision for the city and region’s future, the mayor and his team are primarily con-
cerned with being re-elected, and thus focus on short-term investments that make
them more visible and popular. One must, however, see this collaboration between
the municipality and the Cooperative in its historical perspective, bearing in mind
that cooperatives have had a strong presence in Argentina since the nineteenth cen-
tury, and that the province of Buenos Aires is, by far, the region with the greatest
number of them: according to Montes and Ressel (2003), in 2003, 4498 of the coun-
try’s 16,000 existing cooperatives were active in the province. Of these, 624 were
provided services to the community. According to “Centro Cultural de la
Cooperación”, at the national level, the cooperative sector generates 10% of the
GDP and 500,000 jobs. In terms of services to the community, cooperatives supply
water and gas, produce energy (often renewable), and distribute it to consumers in
over 1500 municipalities of various sizes throughout the country.15 Thus are we fac-
ing a recurring phenomenon that is relatively little studied in terms of its social and
institutional impact. Through the case of Nueve de Julio, we discover that the asso-
ciation between the municipality and the Cooperative confers on the latter a crucial
14
http://www.diarioel9dejulio.com.ar/noticia/88693. (Accessed 25 April 2018).
15
http://www.centrocultural.coop/blogs/cooperativismo/2017/07/08/cooperativismo-argentino-
incidencia-economica-y-social (Accessed 26 April 2018).
role in regional planning that falls outside the usual channels of public action. The
CEyS is proving to be a dominant urban player, both technically and financially. It
is therefore not surprising that this economic and planning primacy, which escapes
the services of the local administration, generates power struggles and other con-
flicts of interest.
6.4.4 D
aily Disturbances: How to Manage Better
the Expansion?
During our interviews with the mayor and Nueve de Julio’s director of urban plan-
ning, the big question was that of urban planning, or more specifically the lack
thereof. What notably was missing was data that would allow for “status report,”
making it possible to trace the city’s evolution in its various territorial and societal
dimensions in order to develop a realistic, tangible masterplan. The question may
seem surprising coming from the authorities of a medium-sized town that, at first
glance, seems relatively well-organized and esteemed by its inhabitants. But facts
have confirmed these shortcomings of the planning, leading us to make an initial
diagnosis with regard to urban planning, and to define the various stages of a proce-
dure to collect, archive and process useful data in an organized way in order to
establish develop planning based on actual figures and the use of data in space via a
Geographic Information System (GIS).
The first observation was that existing data are not shared between the CEyS
Cooperative and the Municipality, even less so as the cooperative subcontracts the
harvesting and processing of data to a private company that archives the information
and produces summaries. Secondly, the Buenos Aires Province’s administration,
like the competent national departments, also manages statistical data relating to the
city of Nueve de Julio as it does for all of the province’s other municipalities.
However, they are not available in open access. Moreover, the many requests made
by the Municipality have remained unanswered! Here one can clearly appreciate the
importance and utility of collaborative efforts to be made by the Municipality and
the Cooperative. The Cooperative indeed has ample data on its customers. Moreover,
its customer base, whose electricity, natural gas and other utilities it supplies, is
close to that of the municipal population. If made available to the City, this informa-
tion could provide a solid base for sound and dependable planning. But the risk that
this alliance will never see the light of day is high, as the Cooperative does not really
want to share its “business” with soon to be re-elected public bodies.
This does not mean that communal departments have no data, but rather that
there is no coherent, organized way of sharing information internally among the
different departments, or between the State administration and its outside partners,
which are mainly cooperatives.
Fig. 6.9 An outlying neighborhood of Nueve de Julio (Reproduced from Vexina Wilkinson 2017)
What has been acquired and is managed by Nueve de Julio’s Secretariat of

Housing and Urbanism is the city code and the resulting zoning, which integrates
parcels of land. In this way, it determines city’s the lines of growth as well as prior-
ity actions depending on the neighbourhood, including the services and infrastruc-
tures the city wants to bring to the various districts. The top priority is the historical
center and nearby residential area (R1), followed by the more recently-built concen-
tric residential areas (R2). The second priority in terms of public intervention is the
residential growth areas located southeast and northeast of the city (R3 and R4). In
third position comes the rehabilitation of the “Barrios Unidos” neighborhood (for-
merly Ciudad Nueva) (R5), the poorest part of the city as mentioned earlier, and the
less densely populated outlying areas (R6). Concretely, this means that solving the
problems of the poorest 25% of the Municipality’s population is not a priority in the
city’s social and spatial layout (Figs. 6.9 and 6.10).
The cadastral and special works department, which is part of the Secretariat of
Urbanism, also has vital information regarding existing parcels of land, public prop-
erties, buildings and building permits. The problem is that this data still only exists
in paper version. Much more data exists and would be highly useful for establishing
a geo-referenced information system (clinics, hospitals, schools, public spaces,
green areas, industrial zones, etc.). This data is collected and managed by various
municipal administration departments that do not communicate with each other and
rarely update the information in their possession. Other data relative to water net-
works, drainage, wastewater, gas and electricity (all managed by the CeyS) are
inaccessible.
Fig. 6.10 Area map of Nueve de Julio. (Reproduced from Municipalidad de Nueve de Julio)
The information is scattered and completely disconnected from each other. Due
to a lack of time and human and financial resources, the Municipality, though aware
of its obligation at both the national and provincial levels to look more closely into
the plight of the poor (Fig. 6.9), manages urban problems on a day to day basis,
more in the reaction to events and to satisfy pressing social demands than to prevent
and plan.
6.4.5 T
he Example of Ciudad Nueva, a Low-Income
Housing Area
It is astonishing to think that, in 1996, in anticipation of the World Habitat Conference

in Istanbul, we published a comparative book to recap the traveling seminars we had
organized with our Latin American colleagues, with the support of the Leopold
Foundation Mayer for Human Progress (Bolay et al. 1996), and in which David
Kullock and his colleagues at the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Design of the
University of Buenos Aires reported on the training urban actors in Nueve de Julio
had participated in 2 years prior (Kullock et al. 1996) (Fig. 6.11). Of the three
Argentinian cities investigated at that time – Resistencia, San Juan and Nueve de
Julio – the latter had 30,000 inhabitants, and the study area, “Ciudad Nueva,” was
comprised of 371 acres in the southeastern part of the city, between the historic
Sarmiento railway line and the national road No. 5.
Railway workers had originally settled on the site. The population grew in num-
ber, building on plots of available land along the urban-rural boundaries. One char-
acteristic of the urban planning is that land use is disparate and sparse, combining
housing and artisanal production units and isolating it from the historic city center
due to the train tracks. Infrastructures and public facilities included water and elec-
tricity networks, natural gas in one of the zone’s four areas, and a public school. The
streets were unpaved and without sidewalks. The majority of the houses were small
and rudimentarily equipped. The recommendations that came out of the 10-day
seminar focused on six elements to improve the area’s urban integration. These
conclusions are still valid today, 25 years later. They included job creation, urban
integration of neighborhoods, improving school and health services, rehabilitating
existing housing, implementing building standards, and improving infrastructure
and communication networks.
A diagnosis of the same part of Ciudad Nueva done in 2017 allows us to compare
the nature of the problems and the solutions envisaged.
Now more commonly referred to as “Barrios Unidos,” this area still hangs on the
outskirts of the historic city, without the city having taken any real urban planning
or management measures to reduce the physical breach created the railroad, which
is still used for transporting goods (Figs. 6.12 and 6.13).
Fig. 6.11 Nueve de Julio 1994: workshop on participative planning and popular habitat.
Surveys done in two of the area’s neighborhoods in 2017 and interviews with
public officials reveal two crucial points: as in 1994, the people interviewed spoke
out against unemployment, underemployment and the difficulty of find a job. Many
work sporadically, and usually undeclared. In terms of health, Nueve de Julio’s
existing services no longer sufficiently respond to social demands. The area lacks a
health center as well as a 24-h, on-call pharmacy. In terms of education, the dropout
rate had increased; children could be seen wandering the streets, although the area’s
only school functions normally (one public school for 10,000 inhabitants!). With
regard to infrastructure and urban planning, respondents criticized the flooding and
lack of wastewater drainage, the source of the former. At the residential level,
respondents made mention of the makeshift nature of many houses in terms of their
construction. In addition to all of this, there was a feeling of insecurity, as the area
is notorious for the traffic and consumption of narcotics.
Fig. 6.12 Aerial view of the Barrios Unidos area. (Reproduced from Google Maps 2017)
This finding explains why the Community Development Secretariat has imple-
mented a distribution plan for building materials for at-risk families. However, the
demand is high, and the procedures long and complex.
More specifically, we conducted a building census in two blocks of houses, one
a social housing estate with 28 family houses built in the 1990s, and the other with
50 private, self-built homes (Vexina Wilkinson 2017).
The social housing development had changed very little in terms of number of
houses.16 All of the homes had access to water, electricity and natural gas networks,17
though only one street had a sewage system. The other houses were equipped with
septic tanks that were emptied twice a month by a private company. The perceptible
changes described by the owners depended on how the family’s economic resources
had changed, and mainly concerned extension of the living space, changes in the
internal layout of the living space and the acquisition of household electrical appli-
ances (Fig. 6.14). Given the poor quality of the construction and its age, the owners
complained above all of the lack of insulation and resulting humidity.
16
Each house has a kitchen that opens onto a living room, a bathroom and two bedrooms, all facing
an outdoor patio.
17
The natural gas connection is seldom used by the owners of the houses due to the out-of-pocket
installation costs, which amount to roughly $2000 US, and thus prefer to use bottles of gas.
Fig. 6.13 Map of the Barrios Unidos, Nueve de Julio, Argentina. (Reproduced from Vexina
Wilkinson 2017)
The changes in the other block were more substantial. In 20 years, the number of
houses had increased from 5 to 50. The constructions were more heterogeneous,
though several makeshift homes (made of low-quality materials and with minimal
implementation) were observed. The walls were made of bare brick, the roofs of
polystyrene and cardboard boxes, and unprotected electrical wires were seen in the
bathrooms. The differences from one dwelling to another reflect the financial capac-
ities of each family over the years, bearing in mind that, according to their state-
ments, none had received building materials from the municipality. In addition to
these self-built plots (Fig. 6.15), several vacant plots remained, along with a few
plots with houses of significantly higher quality that were in excellent condition and
supplied by the public gas network.
In most cases, the work done on the houses was done by the occupants them-
selves, without official authorization, which is formally granted by the public
authorities after verification and application of norms.
Fig. 6.14 Barrios Unidos: rehabilitation of a house in a social housing development Argentina.
(Reproduced from Vexina Wilkinson 2017)
Fig. 6.15 Barrios Unidos: informally-constructed, self-built home. (Reproduced from Vexina
Wilkinson 2017)
The “Ciudad Nueva/Barrios Unidos” area has evolved in a very heterogeneous

way over the years, according to the district and the occupants’ means. In terms of
housing, the changes that have taken place are the result of individual, private
means, as few are eligible for loans. It seems that the municipal authorities’ only
contribution to date has been a construction materials allocation program whose
scale, beneficiaries, selection criteria, funding and debt collection processes are
impossible to know.
At the infrastructural level, the situation has been better handled as basic needs
(water, electricity and gas) are covered by collective networks and in partially by
public facilities (school). “Ciudad Nueva” is still a stigmatized area whose stan-
dards as well as the reputation of the neighborhoods and its inhabitants are well
below those of Nueve de Julio. The changes in the past 25 years are imperceptible.
Generally speaking, it is those who are most in need that suffer most from Nueve de
Julio’s lack of public transportation system.
The issue remains understanding how a city, its population, authorities, pressure
groups and professionals can be aware of this grim reality of urban poverty, acknowl-
edge the fact that more than 20% of the city’s population live in conditions of mate-
rial instability and create measures to rectify this...without any change taking place.
There is no clear policy, strategy or master plan for the entire urban agglomeration.
Nor is there an inclusive vision of the city – from a socio-economical o planning
perspective – that focuses on the most disadvantaged populations and neighbor-
hoods. This brings us to a final thought which concerns the uniqueness of Nueve de
Julio as both exemplary of a contemporary intermediate Argentinian city and “ordi-
nary” in its reproduction of nineteenth-century model of urban modernism. The
challenge for it today is overcoming its inability to acquire the right urban manage-
ment tools for understanding the urban reality today and projecting itself in a
medium- and long-term future in order to decide on the priority actions to take, in
dialogue with urban actors.
6.5 What Direction for Nueve de Julio’s Urban Planning?
Beyond Nueve de Julio’s specific characteristics, an issue raised in other research

works reemerges (Bolay 2015, 2016): that of urban planning and the institutional
and social practices upon which they are based.
The study of Nueve de Julio raises a fundamental question: does urban planning
make sense for an “ordinary” nineteenth-century, intermediate city that is (1) more
or less representative of the settlements of the pampas region built during the nine-
teenth century (2) whose development was based on agro-industrial and beef export
production for exportation, and (3) that acts as a regional service and business cen-
ter for rural and urban populations?
Looking back at the city’s history, two things appear to be at odds:
To begin, Nueve de Julio, like the hundred other medium-sized towns in the
Buenos Aires Province, is a pure product of urban planning as conceived and exe-
cuted at the highest levels of Argentinian power in the nineteenth century, as part of
the strategy to conquer the national territory (or at least the pampas region) and turn
to it into agrarian growing areas. To do so, it was necessary to eliminate the indig-
enous populations and create cities able to accommodate an immigrant population,
mainly of European origin. These new cities were reproduced at a calculated dis-
tance to serve as local and regional hubs, to facilitate communication between the
national capital and major urban centers (like La Plata, the provincial capital) via
6.5 What Direction for Nueve de Julio’s Urban Planning? 195
modern transportation modes (road and rail). This opened up to the exportation of
agricultural products and importation of manufactured goods, making Argentina the
country so-called “the breadbasket of the world” (Pesoa and Sabaté 2016).
Secondly, and much more recently, this “top down” territorial development strat-
egy and its materialization in terms of urban planning seem to have disappeared.
Urban planning seems to have given way to local activism, partisan struggles and the
domination of economic forces. That is why the failure of urban planning in Nueve
de Julio was as easily recognized by successive municipal governments and profes-
sionals in 1994 as it is today. Lacking a future vision, the aimlessness of the medium-
and long-term programming of works has had an adverse effect on the authorities’
control over the urban and regional territory (environmental degradation, sprawl and
increased cost of infrastructure, among others). Attempts to organize urban and peri-
urban areas in a more coherent way are occasionally initiated but without bringing
about any real change in the way of things are perceived or undertaken.
That is why, as early as 1995, after an initial training seminar on participatory
habitat planning for professionals working in the urban sector in Nueve de Julio,18
the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Design of the University of Buenos Aires was
mandated by the city’s mayor to develop a master plan with the local authorities and
their partners that ultimately had no real impact. In 2015, during a field visit to
Nueve de Julio, the mayor proposed a collaborative agreement between the
Municipality of the City and the EPFL’s Center for Cooperation and Development.
Today, in 2019, with a new city government majority, the agreement is still in effect
and an exchange seminar between medium-sized cities of the Buenos Aires’
Province’s pampas region was organized. Although an initial diagnosis was made
and practical problems were detected, the procedure for establishing an ad hoc geo-
graphical information system for urban planning is still pending within the local
administration. And no one, it seems, can explain these delays. Some hypothetically
propose that it simply “is not a priority for the current mayor!”
How to explain this decline in action, this discrepancy between “good” inten-
tions and their actual implementation? To answer this in a systematical way and
draw all possible lessons, using the example of Nueve de Julio, we will attempt to
highlight that which is a consequence of its own historical trajectory and current
dynamics versus that which has resulted due to more global phenomena. At the very
least, this concerns such cities in Argentina, and even Latin America more widely,
and perhaps holds true for all medium-sized and intermediate cities in the
Global South.
The reference to Robinson’s (2006) concept of the ordinary city to discuss South
cities without comparing them to Western-type models, in this iteration between
modernity and tradition, allows us to question things in a context totally different
from that of southern Africa (Robinson’s privileged study field for explaining this
concept). Indeed, Argentina is emblematic of a “tradition of modernity” strongly
The training workshop included representatives of the local administration, private enterprises,
18
as banks and architectural studios, NGOs etc.

linked to the Western city as conceived in the nineteenth century, in the light of
changes in society, now resolutely industrial and increasingly urban. This school of
thought considers that the occupation of space is for the common good, and that it
is up to the State to organize and monitor “realistic applied urbanism” that considers
the constraints of a resolutely industrial, capitalist society (Chaline 1985). The idea
of cities in the countryside and a checkerboard layout (Menétrey 2013) were
undoubtedly sources of inspiration specific to Europe at that time that we see repro-
duced simultaneously across the “new continent.” However, what makes the orga-
nized settlement of Argentina’s pampas region so unique and exceptional is the
combination of an extremely orderly urban planning doctrine for the new city and
the desire to conquer new territory, to extend the boundaries of “(Western) civiliza-
tion” and to control them (Cacopardo 2007).
In the case of Argentina, it is not a question of opening up the urban concept to
“other” realities forged on economic informality and illegal land use, as we have
done on other occasions (Bolay 2012). Rather, we are simply retracing the process
of global Westernization (to not say Europeanization) that, in the 19th and early
twentieth century, made Argentina one of the world’s economic powers. A city like
Nueve de Julio, a modernist artifact of urbanity transposed to South America, is but
one cog in this vast machinery that served to create a country and an interna-
tional power.
The “harsh reality of the South city” is much more recent. According to the infor-
mation collected orally, the “Ciudad Nueva” neighborhoods date back to the late
1980s and early 1990s, and are symptomatic of this deviation from the historical
planning by unregulated, largely individualistic, unplanned social practices in the
municipality’s less valued areas. The urban model that has been in place for more
than a century no longer works for three reasons: the major economic recession of
a country competing in terms of agro-industrial exports, a sharp rise in poverty and
migration from Buenos Aires and other major cities to regional urban centers like
Nueve de Julio that are less affected by the crisis. The lack of a coherent response
from the local government to this deteriorating situation raises questions about the
city’s governance.
Can we speak of governance when looking critically at the city of Nueve de
Julio? We can begin by recognizing that it is a difficult time to judge the urban
policy led by the current authorities. Like Argentina itself, with the election of
President Mauricio Maccri (supported by the PRO, Propuesta Republicana, a new
partisan support group that is now part of a majority coalition in both houses of
Congress) in November 2015, Nueve de Julio is also keeping up with the changes
with its new political majority (also elected in 2015 and reelected by majority in
2017) and at the provincial level. In other words, at both the Municipality and the
municipal administration levels, the political and technical leaders are essentially
novices. So what can be said of these past 2.5 years?
Mariano Barroso, the current intendente,19 took the helm after his predecessor’s
10-year reign. His main goal is making this new political majority (which is in
power in the city for the first time) popular. Urban planning, as such, is not suffi-
19
In Argentina, intendente is the title held by the mayor.
6.5 What Direction for Nueve de Julio’s Urban Planning? 197
ciently convincing to enthuse the electorate, as it is a lengthy process, all the more
so as it is a question of creating it almost from scratch. Which brings us to the sec-
ond issue; the local government is still poorly equipped in terms of human resources,
both in terms of the number of personnel and their skills in urban fields). Only
recently did the Planning Secretariat’s staff increase and declare urban planning and
the development of a GIS its priorities (though nothing has been implemented to
date). Another obstacle to participatory urban governance (Devas et al. 2004) is the
fact that relations between the current municipality and its partner, the Cooperativa
de Electricidad y Servicios (CEyS), the community’s main service provider, remain
distant, and are built more on mistrust and competition than on complementarity
and collaboration. Even if things were to progress with the new political direction
of the cooperative’s leaders, the competition between two major forces in the local
urban dynamic is counterproductive. Their active collaboration in shared urban gov-
ernance would be the catalyst for spatial planning that takes into account the popu-
lation’s expectations, and hence a foundation for effective, rational planning (Brown
2015). The autumn 2019 elections will in one way or another sanction urban man-
agement as it is carried out in the city.
This lack of true urban governance in Nueve de Julio has repercussions on the
capacity to integrate the poor. As is obvious from the analysis in this chapter, the
“Ciudad Nueva/Barrios Unidos” area is emblematic of the government’s inability to
grasp the meaning of an inclusive city, the benefits of identifying the problems and
of making their resolution the priority of public action. In the conclusion of From
Unstainable to Inclusive Cities (2004), Westendorff rightly states that inclusion is
both economic (through work, sociability and participation in community life) and
urbanistic (through access to basic networks such as water and electricity). It is also
political, in a more subtle way, and thus links urban governance and the inclusive
city. It is true that the term “inclusive city” is a catch-all concept that was widely
used by international organizations in the late-twentieth century. However, it
remains intelligible as exclusion’s virtuous counterpart (Clément and Valegeas
2017). Aiming to address various but universally-recognized problems such as pov-
erty, unemployment, the segmenting of labor markets, gender inequalities, the
democratization of public life and social participation, the “inclusive city” should
translate into public policy, as well as values and ethics.
The inclusive city concept attempts to “incorporate inhabitants in the public
sphere, where collective decisions are made to ensure that all preferences and inter-
ests are taken into account, and that public services are accessible to all “(Van der
Wusten 2016). Accessibility (and thus the “right to the city”) and participation –
hence the need for methods and tools that foster this social and political integration.
And that’s the rub, because nothing substantial has really been done in Nueve de
Julio to improve the development of the famous “Ciudad Nueva” area, almost as
though any excuse were a good excuse to not do things seriously…for 25 years.
This is somewhat incredible given the needs expressed by inhabitants.
But the situation is even more serious and, in this regard, denotes a lack of deci-
sion on the part municipal authorities, both past and present, on this subject. Once
again, we come back to the foundations of participatory planning (Bolay et al. 2016).
Not diagnosing the reality that existed in the early 1990s, much like that which
prevails today, thus frees the political authorities from any liability, be it in Nueve
de Julio or any other medium-sized Argentinian city. More than 20% of Nueve de
Julio’s population lives below the norms adopted by the city itself. Sporadic popular
demonstrations remind us that improving development in these neighborhoods is a
necessity. Faced with this pressure, the rare initiatives that the city does undertake
do not take into account the full scope of the problems. The main excuse for this is
physical and material; this largely informal residential area has expanded in a com-
pletely illegal way, and is cut off from the historic center by the train tracks. As
though it were the only city in the world with train tracks running through it and
development were technically unfeasible!
More fundamentally, there is a denial of the reality in Nueve de Julio, as in many
cities around the globe facing similar issues of poverty and informality (Bolay et al.
2016). For many local governments, it is easier to neglect urban instability, or even
deny it, than to actually face it due to the complexity of its causes and multi-faceted
consequences, which require a long-term approach, substantial investments and
technical, social and economic skills. All this for short-term, random political gain.
It is likely that Nueve de Julio’s municipal authorities are of this mind. Yet, they
forget that the fight against poverty and slum upgrading have integrative effects on
neighborhoods and families, as well as a unifying effect on the entire community, as
the Cities Alliance recalls through its “Cities without slums” program.20 For peo-
ple – who, let us not forget, are citizens – living in unstable conditions, expecting to
live in decent conditions is first and foremost a question of dignity. The spread of
slums is conducive to environmental contamination, the spread of disease and
increased violence and insecurity. Slum upgrading is more affordable because it
costs less and is more effective than relocation to public housing. Developing land
with basic services costs even less.
At a more global level, it is also an advantage economically and fiscally.
Reintegration through jobs allows people to invest in their land and homes. It is also
recognized that the more secure the habitat is, the more families will become inte-
grated in their neighborhoods and cities. Studies show that the poor can and are
willing to pay for improved services and homes. This increases safety and security
for the community as well as tax revenues for the city.
Like many medium-sized cities in Argentina and Latin America faced with grow-
ing populations, expanding peripheries and ever-increasing social disparities, Nueve
de Julio is facing major challenges. Understanding such a city and other medium-
sized cities that act as intermediate hubs affords us the opportunity to rethink the
city and its dynamics at different scales, and to integrate urban and regional plan-
ning that takes into account its strengths and weaknesses in order to increase the
20
http://www.citiesalliance.org/About-slum-upgrading (Accessed 20 May 2019).
References 199
city’s attractiveness and combat social inequalities and territorial fragmentation.

Given its geographical location and population size, Nueve de Julio has a strong
influence on the territory, maintaining trade relations with comparable or smaller
urban hubs but in obvious connection with the upper echelons of the urban frame-
work, which we think of as being in La Plata, the province’s capital, and Buenos
Aires, the national capital (roughly 4 h away by public transport).
Though we know that most planning is done within municipal boundaries in
order to better control the communal space, strategic economic and financial inter-
ests extend beyond these borders and can affect other municipalities. Urban plan-
ning therefore cannot ignore these regional issues, which implies arrangements
between communes and the provincial government.
Nueve de Julio is an ordinary city. Historically speaking, it is part of a group of
cities that was created to ensure Argentina’s “productivity” in the global economy.
Like the others, it was built on simple and functional urban principles in one of the
country’s most dynamic provinces. Nueve de Julio plays an intermediate role as a
regional pole both residentially and commercially, is perfectly integrated politically
at the provincial and national levels as part of the governing national majority and
maintains links with the network near and far. Yet, in the past 20 years, it is its
marked territory fragmentation due to the scattering individual habitats and the
extension of a spatially marginalized and socially stigmatized low-income housing
area that has brought it notoriety. This is due to its inability (as yet) to develop a
system of territorial planning that can to solve these problems in partnership with
local stakeholders, and namely the cooperative. The lack of tools and/or their appli-
cation in spatial planning clearly shows that planning issues in Nueve de Julio are
not only of a technical nature, but are likewise a political and social challenge driven
by power struggles and local democracy.
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Chapter 7
Conclusion
Towards Real Urban Planning: Revisiting the
City, Citizens and Development
Abstract The book concludes with a synthesized analysis of urban planning in

Southern cities, with a particular focus on medium sized cities that play a role of
intermediation between their suburban and rural environments and the whole urban
network. Starting from the literature on the topic, as presented mainly in Chaps. 2
and 3, we will compare the conceptual advances, as well as the statistical and global
data, with the results of the fieldwork carried out in three cities chosen to tackle this
theme in specific local and regional contexts.
This brings us to highlight the similarities and differences between each urban
situation, in order to draw the main lessons that emerge from the analysis. We are
able to decrypt the constraints that cities – their authorities, their administrations
and their populations – face. And whether or not these restrictions hinder the imple-
mentation of a coherent urban planning system. It is on this basis that we will be
able to identify the key elements that represent the pillars of an alternative version
of urban planning to that which exists (when it exists!), in terms of foundations and
guiding principles, objectives and methods used to achieve them, content and
instructions. Planning can thus become a real instrument to guide and to manage the
city and its region. We recall that urban planning, as we envisage it, is not only a
technical exercise dealing with the territory, in the spatial and geographical sense of
the definition, but truly an approach aimed at integrating societal issues into a plan-
ning process. Planning thus clearly contributes to moving towards a city that is not
only socially and economically inclusive, but also sustainable, in which social and
economic factors are rooted in the preservation of natural resources, within the
framework of participatory and democratic public policies.
Keywords Urban planning · Sustainable urban development · Intermediate cities ·

Urban complexity · Interdisciplinarity and transdisciplinarity

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28419-0_7
204 7 Conclusion
7.1 Between Poverty and Urban Development
I started from the disarming observation (which I was able to verify both in the field
and in my research) that many innovative urban development experiments are being
conducted in many Asian, African and Latin American cities. These experiments are
often considered successful, and even as best practices to replicate. One hopes that
they presage new and improved forms urban management that takes into account
inhabitants’ concerns. And yet, United Nations statistics, televised reports and field
research all confirm the same thing: the number of slums, poor people and dispari-
ties between rich and poor are increasing. It is not impossible to imagine that some-
thing is actually wrong, and that a gap exists between this local effervescence and
the harsh reality at the global level.
While we mustn’t despair, strong arguments do favor a critical analysis of reality:
overall, the structure of cities is improving. Yet, more and more urban dwellers are
living precariously.
This seeming contradiction is, in fact, an illusion, and merely reflects the enor-
mous challenges that cities face, especially in South countries: the extremely rapid
increase in the number of city dwellers is leading to endless sprawl of the inhabited
territory. The main characteristic of South cities is that this growth - both demo-
graphic and spatial – is also taking place at record speed. It is therefore not surpris-
ing that spatial planning and the organization of human activities confront many
obstacles; social demands and needs far surpass both service and infrastructure sup-
ply, as well as urban actors’ capacity to meet them.
In such extreme conditions, solving the technical, material and human problems
these agglomerations face requires (1) identifying pressing needs and social
demands in order to define the priorities of public and private investments and (2)
that the authorities take important measures. All this while handling emergencies
and everyday life as best as possible. It is in this risky, sometimes hazardous context
that planning must reinvent itself, torn between rigor and flexibility, standards and
creativity. The specificities of each site (what makes each city and urban society
special), its history and geography combine with these overarching principles.
This urbanization can appear perfectly coherent and organized or, on the con-
trary, disordered and chaotic, as is often the case in South cities. This partial or total
disorganization is the result of varied and variable factors that were addressed in the
preceding chapters. One notable reason is both individuals’ and the public authori-
ties’ inability to handle and solve problems as they arise. The latter tend to follow
learned precepts and apply classic urban planning recipes. Be it procrastination or
political choice, the result is the same: a thousand and one other (individual, social
and institutional) ways of problem solving creep in, sometimes in a formalized way,
but often outside the law based on informal arrangements, social struggles, political
patronage and corruption. It’s anything goes. We have synthesized this situation in
the following formula: territorial fragmentation = social segregation. Thus do we
witness the reproduction of the great sociological patterns of urban organization
7.2 Planning for Sustainable Urban Development 205
comprised of power struggles, conflicts, negotiations, socio-economic inequalities

and political issues.
Urban precariousness in all its forms bears witness to this. Be it slums, the envi-
ronmental risks associated with deforestation, flooding in neighborhoods without
adequate drainage, or the insecurity of informal work, all are signs of the fundamen-
tal incompatibility between social demands and the needs of the population on one
hand, and public/private financial investment capacity (based on choice criteria that
are not always transparent) on the other. Poor populations react to this via do-it-
yourself survival solutions, resourcefulness and spontaneous or collective actions.
Because the poor must act fast (and act together) in order to not lose the game. And
this game is crucial for them because it is their urban integration that is at stake.
That, and the lives and futures of their children. It cannot wait. Conversely, for those
on the other team (i.e. speculators, capitalists and politicians with power), playing
for time, procrastinating and palavering may be a bit risky but can have big pay offs.
So for them, sometimes it is worth waiting, or even bending the rules a bit. This also
takes the form of speculation on future lots in informal neighborhoods (while pock-
eting value-added land, or, as politicians would say, “beautifying” them in return for
votes in the next election).
7.2 Planning for Sustainable Urban Development
Fundamentally speaking, urban planning is a decision-making instrument of major

importance, whose mastery and wise use could help us think about the future and
organize activities in a rational, functional way. But urban planning must be based
on a future vision and idea of the city of tomorrow, with goals that actually become
policies, strategies, programs and actions.
As the three case studies demonstrate, urban planning too often serves as a tech-
nical display, a technocratic, simplistic way to hide the lack of a solid urban project
behind procedures, with utopian expectations that rarely have true outcomes. To put
it another way, planning “instrumentalizes” poverty. Or worse, it merely serves as a
dramatization, a fool’s game designed to make ordinary city dwellers believe in a
“bright future” and dream of another life to obscure the harsh reality of their exis-
tence. The takes place through the exploitation of individuals and resources at the
expense of the majority and for the benefit of a rich minority.
But nothing means anything if the urban planning process is not part of a more
global vision founded on sustainable urban development. The words “sustainable
urban development” describe this integrative environment, which acts as a frame-
work wherein one can reflect on the complexity of the city and its urbanity in the
present and future. Taking “sustainable urban development” as a horizon promotes
the sharing of ideas and experiences in an open way based on explicit criteria to
provide alternatives to classic models that have not had the expected outcomes.
206 7 Conclusion
The chapters on urban data and criticism of urban planning brought us back to
this notion of sustainable development. In these final considerations, we can draw a
parallel with another concept used in this work: that of the inclusive city. What is
this sustainable, inclusive city, for which urban planning would serve as a decision-
making tool?
Starting from three dimensions – environmental, social and economic – sustain-
ability aims to balance the protection of natural resources, social equity and eco-
nomic prosperity, while safeguarding against the latter dimension’s negative impact
on the first two. This commendable perspective seems to be more wishful thinking
than an actual conceptual analysis. In fact, since the 1980s, the impact of globaliza-
tion of economic exchanges and the challenging of national protectionist mea-
sures – the very antithesis of the precepts of sustainable development – have been
felt worldwide. The main consequence of this economic “revolution” is the impos-
ing of the same economic model on all countries, economic producers and policy
makers. This has unquestionably boosted the productivity of more dynamic emerg-
ing countries like China and Vietnam, with whom we have collaborated scientifi-
cally, in international markets. But it has also put enormous pressure on workers and
working conditions, and relegated the poorest countries, which are unable to keep
up with this global transition, to the margins. This is clearly the case in Burkina
Faso, another country we have collaborated with, whose cotton exports have been
hard hit by international market laws. Such countries have no means to defend their
small rural producers against Asian and North American industrial giants.
The balance that sustainable development seeks is far from being achieved.
Tensions between economic growth – which has been positive the world over for
many years – and the social distribution of the wealth accumulated as such have
steadily worsened. Overall, and in the three countries where we conducted our stud-
ies, the rich have become richer and the poor more numerous and even poorer1 over
the last three decades.
Moving away from this economic and social confrontation for a moment, we can
nonetheless concede that progress has been made on the environmental front.
Environmental criteria have had a positive impact on production methods, adminis-
trative organization and spatial planning. Considering environmental criteria in the
organization of cities and the community activities that take place in them is in
keeping with the concerns of the sustainable development model. A territorial
dimension designed to spread human settlements out evenly over a given territory
can be added to the environmental, social and economic dimensions, in the effort to
avoid urban clustering and rural flight.
But (because there is a “but”), while these improvements are notable in many
European cities, they have only recently appeared on the agendas of major Latin
American cities (mainly in the form of pedestrian zones, green spaces and public
1
For instance, in January 2019 Oxfam declared that “0.8% of the world’s population have net
worth in excess of $1 million and controls 44.8% of the world’s wealth. The bottom half’s wealth
fell by 11%, whereas a few thousand billionaires saw their wealth increase by 12%” (See https://
www.vox.com/future-perfect/2019/1/22/18192774/oxfam-inequality-report-2019-davos-wealth).
7.3 Intermediate Cities: Between Urbanity and Regional Integration 207
transport lanes), and are virtually inexistent in African cities (except for the first Bus
Rapid Transit initiatives in cities like Dakar and Lagos). In the medium-sized cities
studied in this book and in the Global South more generally, crucial issues such as
wastewater and solid waste treatment are largely ignored due to a lack of resources
and the absence of political will, at the risk of individuals’ health.
7.3 I ntermediate Cities: Between Urbanity and Regional

Integration
The desire to question urban planning based on small and medium-sized intermedi-
ate cities illustrates the often poorly-understood issues of urban typology and the
role these intermediate cities can play in evenly distributing individuals over an
urban territory. As such, intermediate cities act as an interface between the rural and
urban worlds and serve as service and amenity hubs for their regions. The three case
studies demonstrate these cities’ potential for sustainable development throughout
the regional and national territory. They also show that these cities are not only little
known and rarely studied, but that, beyond their differences, they also face great
difficulties in establishing reliable, helpful urban planning tools.
Several authors quoted in this book question planning as it is practiced in South
cities. They consider it inappropriate, as it is based on Western models and is
unsuited to the characteristics of developing countries. These errors in urban plan-
ning notably affect small and medium-sized cities, which lack the human and finan-
cial resources to address important issues. In fact, it is now internationally recognized
that urban agglomerations of less than 500,000 inhabitants have the highest popula-
tion growth rates – in other words, higher than those of bigger cities. They are also
those that suffer the most from a lack of administrative services (computer and
internet communication, for example) and reliable, qualified staff. Moreover, they
often have budgets that are insufficient for their needs, thus making them highly
dependent on the central government and lenders.
Focusing on intermediate cities has shown their important in the fight for sustain-
able development, as a viable, attractive alternative to large urban areas. Easily
assimilated to “ordinary cities” as defined by J. Robinson (2006), many indeed
require appropriate management and better planning to organize their territories and
the human activities there more effectively. All of this within the cities limits of city,
but with an important impact on the regional environment as well.
Because they are smaller, one might think that the problems these intermediate
cities face are less serious and more easily resolvable. This is a fallacy. As they are
rarely known outside their provincial or national borders, they have difficulty
attracting talent and funding, and must manage their problems locally, without con-
sistent, structured outside support or recognition of their efforts.
At the crossroads of rural and urban, these small and medium-sized cities, which
act as intermediaries between a varied, abundant supply and social demands, are in
208 7 Conclusion
desperate need of effective urban planning. And as we have seen, in those cases
where urban planning does exist, it has not really served as a guide for reasoned,
reasonable urban management.
7.4 A
n Alternative Based on Interdisciplinarity and Social
Dialogue
In Chap. 3, we reversed the logic by proposing a framework indicating the different

dimensions and phases of alternative planning (Table 3.1) and have attempted to
explain it.
Rather than focusing on space and materials as too many urban planners and
engineers tend to do, we suggest a conceptual and methodological approach based
on listening to inhabitants and social dialogues in order to identify needs and priori-
ties. This must take place well before designing plans and reproducing patterns that
have no proven foundations. There is no contempt for technology or engineering
here. On the contrary, we know that engineers, urban planners and architects are the
backbone of urban planning. Data management and mapping tools, like open access
to geospatial data, are revolutionary in that they favors exchanges between urban
actors and facilitate the fundamental questioning of political and technical powers.
But my 30 years of career experience and the three studies discussed in this book
show that understanding urban complexity can only be accomplished through an
interdisciplinary approach involving the social and technical sciences, and transdisci-
plinarity between researchers, service providers and inhabitants. Opening ourselves
up to innovative ways of doing things is not scientific coquetry; it is an ethical, social
obligation that allows us to deal with the all too often catastrophic living conditions
of poor urban families. As urban researchers, it is also our job to not accept such
social inequalities and obstacles in terms of access to urban services and amenities.
Although we wrote this some time ago, this is unfortunately still the case: the
poor pay for their right to the city at a higher cost than other city dwellers. This is
true not only in terms of human energy but financially as well, as access to public
utility networks is rare when not altogether inexistent for the most destitute. Yet, as
we know, the city is a privileged space of sociability and individual and collective
creativity.
Some final recommendations could serve as a guideline for promoting planning
alternatives.
Again, taking up the four references in terms of sustainable urban development –
the environmental, social, economic and territorial dimensions – we must first ana-
lyze the factors that challenge the sustainability of the urban actions that have been
carried out so far, before envisaging any technical planning action.
This diagnostic work is based on sustainable urban development. Urban develop-
ment is an “ideal”, and sustainability is its “time horizon”. Urban sustainability crite-
ria are thus “the angle” from which urban complexity will be analyzed. Urban
planning should serve as “instrumentation” to organize action and measure its effects.
7.4 An Alternative Based on Interdisciplinarity and Social Dialogue 209
On this basis, taking into account the research conducted at the beginning of the
book on the evolution of the “urban world” and the shortcomings in the application
of exogenous urban planning models in South cities, we have concluded that two
paths can guide urban planning towards sustainable, shared development.
The first guides development through the “inclusive city” concept, a city whose
main concern is integrating people in a society that promotes well-being and per-
sonal, family and social growth. This ultimate goal, which is a long-term ambition,
is the counterpart of the individual and collective exclusion, marginalization and
segregation we see today. By its mere existence, inclusion denounces the one billion
poor urban dwellers living in precarious conditions and criticizes this disastrous
reality as not being a “fatality”, nor a “natural phenomenon”, nor an “inevitable
consequence” of growth. On the contrary, it is “a fact of society”, the result of a
social construction, a logic of social and economic exploitation that characterizes
contemporary society and leaves its mark on South cities.
The inclusive city includes the four dimensions of sustainable urban develop-
ment because it fashions a living environment that is conducive to individual eman-
cipation and social solidarity. It contributes greatly to the fight against poverty, as
the urban analysis and political action that emanate from its focus on margins, gaps,
shortcomings and risks, as well as on the conflicts born of these tensions. This shift
in our perspective highlights the many expressions of the segregation process. It
seeks ways to integrate the poor based on their real needs because those left behind
are symptomatic of an overall logic: that of the hard, brutal, violent, contemporary
South city and its unfair growth dynamic.
I remember what my Cameroonian director said when I was working as a young
head of the liaison service and land affairs for the Nylon zone management agency,
in Douala, Cameroon, in the 1980s: “It’s not the 90% success that matters. What
counts are the 10% who are left behind. The most complicated thing is finding the
right solutions for getting that marginalized 10% out of where they are.” I reinterpret
Pierre Elong Mbassi’s sayings as best I can remember them, knowing how much
they have guided me and still serve as a yardstick in assessing the work done. We
can be proud of what we do well for the vast majority of urban dwellers, but must
remain vigilant (and creative) about supporting the urban poor in their initiatives.
They know the city is their future. They are entitled to it, like all of us. And all the
more so as they represent the majority of urban dwellers in developing countries,
albeit one that does not interest the wealthy and of which the authorities are wary.
To my mind, urban development should first and foremost focus on urban pov-
erty in order to understand its origin – be it residential, land-wise or infrastructural.
This precariousness translates into a lack of access to urban services and networks.
This collaboration between researchers, professionals and poor citizens is not neu-
tral; it stems from scientists’ desire to enter the public arena and position them-
selves. The right to the city and social justice are not just moral values. They are also
goals of well-thought out sustainable urban development. This means that social
justice and the right to the city force us to understand this “state of facts”. For if we
do not understand urban dynamics in their very foundations and orientations, there
is no way to transform the city as a whole.
210 7 Conclusion
The second path concerns the methods to be followed.

Knowledge that is not shared is not true knowledge. Co-creation provides an
opportunity for debate, comparing ideas and visions, and brainstorming on the
design and application of acceptable, appropriate solutions. This implies political
will and an institutional framework that allows for it.
Urban settings are highly conducive to such prospects. The urban reality is com-
plex in terms of its ever-increasing technological components, but also in terms of
its social, economic and cultural interactions. The interactions between society, the
built environment and natural resources add to the complexity. Analyzing a complex
phenomenon like South cities requires the bringing together of a host of diverse
skills. An interdisciplinary approach is essential to establishing a thorough diagno-
sis of the urban reality. Urban planners, architects and engineers must pool their
knowledge with the know-how of social scientists, environmentalists, geographers,
financial specialists and public managers. But the approach goes beyond research
between scientific disciplines. Really making things happen on the ground means
working with representatives of urban society such as resident associations, neigh-
borhood groups, business associations, political parties, religious groups, etc.).
Consultancy must no longer be merely technical or scientific. A transdisciplinary
approach that allowing for a comparison of the “needs identified” and “social
demands” is imperative. Analyzing urbanity through a shared diagnosis with urban
actors at a precise moment in a given situation is essential for developing urban
planning founded on rigorous, realistic, solid bases.
7.5 A Few Simple Rules for Dealing with Urban Complexity
These conclusions and recommendations may seem obvious…on paper, at least.

But we know that applying such a methodology can be difficult, as it challenges the
established powers, hierarchies and power relationships between urban actors.
At different times during our urban research and consultancy to urban stakehold-
ers (local governments, etc.), we followed these steps:
1 . a reference framework based on sustainable urban development goals;
2. an inclusive city position;
3. a poverty alleviation focus;
4. an interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary urban diagnosis.
These are the necessary premises for an effective urban planning approach.
The city must be considered and transformed based on the existing reality and
the actions carried out by different actors at different scales. This “reality principle”
is the best way to safeguard against pharaonic megaprojects (new cities and other
top down absurdities). The iteration between inhabitants, professionals, researchers
and decision-makers is the most failsafe technique for incorporating the many inno-
vative processes, which can be tested in full scale.
Reference 211
That is why planning the city and its surrounding environment must respect cer-
tain fundamental criteria, among them:
• the development of an urban plan, which is a participatory process involving the
population in both the analysis and decision-making phases;
• the proposed investments are based on
–– (a) the available budget and
–– (b) outside grants;
• priority actions and investments help in the fight against poverty and promoting
the individual and collective integration of urban dwellers without
discrimination;
• a shared database with open, transparent access and easy-to-use technical tools;
• the government, local administration and decision-makers are accountable to
city-dwellers so as to make planning a tool of communication and exchange
between the local authorities, the population and stakeholders, and to ensure that
the impact of public action in general is measured, especially in urban projects.
An in-depth diagnosis and participatory planning are key elements for providing
sustainable urban development planning alternatives.
Given the number of urban dwellers on the planet, the extent of urban poverty
and the living conditions of the poor, the stakes are high and must be taken seri-
ously. For they are the basis of real and profound changes in South cities and the
best way both to promote sustainability and to fight against various forms of urban
exploitation and segregation.
Reference
Robinson J (2006) Ordinary cities: between modernity and development. Routledge, London.
ISBN 0-415-30487-3
Index
A G
African cities, 2, 33, 36, 69, 84–117, 204, 207 Globalization, 3, 4, 13, 20, 21, 23, 24, 36, 38,
Argentina, 4, 39, 72, 74, 79, 168–199 40, 41, 48, 61, 65, 68, 88, 90, 126, 142,
160, 168, 181, 206
B
Brazil, 23–25, 47, 72, 73, 75, 79, I
122–161, 169 Inclusive city, 46, 48, 194, 197, 206,
Burkina Faso, 3, 23, 26–30, 47, 73, 209, 210
94–109, 206 Interdisciplinarity, 20, 208–210
Intermediate cities, 4, 13–15, 23, 73, 90, 114,
116, 122–161, 168, 169, 174, 179–195,
C 207–208
Cities, 1–4, 11–24, 26–28, 30, 31, 33–36, Intermediation, 13, 125–127, 161, 178
38–40, 42–48, 58–66, 68, 69, 71–80,
84–117, 122–161, 168–199, 204–211
Conceptual framework, 59 K
Cooperative of services, 184, 185 Koudougou, 23, 26–30, 73, 74, 84–117
Cultural dimension, 127
M
E Medium-sized city, 1, 3, 11, 13–15, 24, 39,
Economic growth, 26, 39, 42, 46, 85, 123, 73, 76, 78, 89, 101, 114, 116,
125, 133, 138, 142, 160, 182, 206 122–128, 133, 134, 138, 143, 160,
External dependence, 123 168, 169, 171, 173, 174, 178, 179,
182, 195, 198, 207
Minas Gerais, 4, 23, 24, 128–130, 133, 134,
F 138, 143, 151, 156, 157
Financial and human resources, 1, 16, 48, 60, Montes Claros, 4, 13, 23–25, 73, 75, 79,
61, 105, 114, 115, 123, 128, 179, 122–161
189, 207

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28419-0
214 Index
N 116, 123, 139, 142, 168, 178, 179, 181,

Non-standard development, 84–94 195, 196, 204, 207, 209–211
Nueve de Julio, 4, 35, 74, 76, 168–199 Spatial fragmentation, 4, 24, 161
Spatial organization, 71, 131, 161, 204
Sustainability, 4, 26, 58–80, 106, 155, 168,
O 206, 208, 211
Ordinary city, 68, 87, 168, 169, 181–182, 195, Sustainable urban development, 2, 15, 25–48,
199, 205, 207 66, 92, 105, 205–211
P T
Poor city, 84–117, 158, 160, 173, 187 Technological innovations, 60, 116
Poverty, 3, 4, 14–24, 34, 42–48, 59, 78, 79, Transdisciplinarity, 20, 208, 210
84–87, 105, 114–116, 122, 123, 128,
139, 143, 160, 194, 196–198, 204–205,
209–211 U
Province of Buenos Aires, 171–173, 175–199 Urban complexity, 27, 208, 210–211
Urban growth, 2, 3, 8, 9, 16, 27, 44, 46, 47, 58,
68, 85, 93, 123, 158, 169, 171,
R 173, 182
Regional pole, 199 Urbanization, 2–4, 8–15, 24, 38, 39, 44, 46,
48, 58–65, 68, 73, 78, 85, 86, 88, 93,
100, 107, 113, 126, 129, 134, 145, 149,
S 159, 160, 169–176, 181, 204
Small and medium-sized cities, 1, 11, 13–15, Urban planning, 2–4, 15, 16, 20, 23, 27, 41,
24, 36, 39, 73, 76, 78, 89, 114, 116, 42, 48, 58–80, 84–117, 128, 134,
122–124, 128, 171, 174, 179, 207 144–161, 168, 169, 173, 174, 176,
Social disparities, 3, 4, 26, 42–48, 59, 179, 186, 189, 190, 194–199,
128, 198 204–211
Social inequalities, 46, 48, 78, 128, 199, 208 Urban poverty, 34, 42–48, 59, 79, 116, 123,
South, 1–4, 9, 14–24, 31, 34, 38–41, 44–48, 194, 209, 211
58, 59, 61, 66, 69, 72–80, 87, 94, 100, Urban theories, 61, 65–70, 73, 92

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Future City 14

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8178

Urban Planning Against

ISSN 1876-0899 ISSN 1876-0880 (electronic)

Cover (key designer): Deblik, Berlin

5 An Intermediate City in Brazil: Between Inequalities and Growth������ 121

Keywords Cities · South · Urban planning · Poverty · Inclusive city

As a human institution, cities are a reflection of the history of humankind whose

© The Author(s) 2020 1

Conversely, the case of Nueve de Julio, an intermediate city of 50,000 inhabit-

© The Author(s) 2020 7

Keywords Urbanization · Small and medium-sized cities · Globalization ·

2.1 Urbanization: A Global Trend

http://www.urbanet.info/world-urban-population/ (Accessed 21 May 2019).

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.GROW (Accessed 21 May 2019).

Scientific cooperation was established between disciplines that, at first glance,

Name of indigenous peasant women in Bolivia.

At the time, we were working on setting up an inter−/transdisciplinary research

https://lostiemposdigital.atavist.com/ley-coca-bolivia (Accessed 21 May 2019).

create a privatized housing development management system designed to empower

has put the critical questions of socio-economic equity and human-environment

https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/ (Accessed 21 May 2019).

development” – in other words, an economy that is respectful of the environment,

2.3.1 Urban Environmental Risks

signify an alternative form of economic development to the present pattern of eco-

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/Agenda21.pdf (Accessed 21 May

Hardoy and Satterthwaite (1991) distinguish the different geographical scales at

2.3.2 The Urban Economy and Sustainable Development

Following McKinsey, however, the economic importance of the largest agglom-

The statistics presented by WIEGO (Women in Informal Employment:

de Laiglesia 2009). More importantly, given the reality of rural-urban changes, it is

https://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/economy/ (Accessed 21 May 2019).

https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/sustainable-development-goals/ (Accessed 21 May

national level, where urbanisation has occurred alongside low or no economic

is steadily increasing and is mainly due to increasing socio-economic disparities

However, by way of an example, growth of 1% in the GDP per capita in these

© The Author(s) 2020 57

Keywords Sustainability · Urban theories · Urban planning · Conceptual

3.1 Urban Planning in Question

3.2 The City, Urbanization and Urban Planning

Urbanity is almost as old as humanity itself. However, its description, analysis,

Planning in itself is not considered a science but rather a methodology designed

and amenities over a territory defined by administrative and/or geographical borders

3.3 Urban Theories and Planning: Links and Practices

Table 3.1 The different dimensions and steps of an alternative planning

use, new infrastructures and the regional reconfiguration of rural-urban interfaces

https://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/ (Accessed 27 May 2019).

3.4 From Words to Deeds: Thinking About the City

According to Fainstein and De Filippis “…Planning theory is divided into those

(taxation of individuals/businesses, property and property taxes and other market

3.5 South Cities and North Planning

Roy A (2005) Urban informality. Toward an epistemology of planning. J Am Plan Assoc

© The Author(s) 2020 83

Keywords African cities · Non-standard development · Koudougou · Burkina

4.1 African Cities: Non-standard Urban Development

http://population.city/world/af (Accessed 23 May 2019).

aware of the strong colonial influence as regards the physical manifestations of

4.2 Koudougou, a Regional Hub in Burkina Faso

To illustrate these considerations, the history of Koudougou in Burkina Faso will

center of the province of Boulkiemde, which is the departmental prefecture of the

5 An Intermediate City in Brazil: Between Inequalities and Growth�� 121

2.1 Urbanization: A Global Trend

2.3.1 Urban Environmental Risks

2.3.2 The Urban Economy and Sustainable Development

3.1 Urban Planning in Question

3.2 The City, Urbanization and Urban Planning

3.3 Urban Theories and Planning: Links and Practices

3.4 From Words to Deeds: Thinking About the City

3.5 South Cities and North Planning

4.1 African Cities: Non-standard Urban Development

4.2 Koudougou, a Regional Hub in Burkina Faso

4.2.1 A Central Pole in Its Region

4.2.2 Of Texts, Resources and Projects

4.3 What Urban Planning Means for Koudougou

4.4 From Marketing to Local Urban Action

5.2 Montes Claros: A Growing Hub

5.4.1 Heterogeneity and Priority Issues to Resolve

5.4.3 Long Live Planning: Players in Motion

5.5 Regional Integration. Towards True Urban Planning

6.1 An Argentinian City Under Pressure

6.4 Nueve de Julio: Modernity and Development Issues

6.4.1 What Intermediate City for the Region?

6.4.2 An Ordinary, Modern City in a Rural Landscape

6.4.3 Between Territorial Expansion and Social Inclusion

6.5 What Direction for Nueve de Julio’s Urban Planning?

7.1 Between Poverty and Urban Development

7.2 Planning for Sustainable Urban Development

7.3 I ntermediate Cities: Between Urbanity and Regional