LEARNING MODULE ON

EEAD0323 : EE APPARATUS & DEVICES

BSEE 4
SECOND SEMESTER AY 2021-2022

ENGR. NELSON S. ANDRES, M.ENGG., PEE, ACPE

INSTRUCTOR
Course Description:

An analytic computation on the principles,

operation and construction of AC machineries
and apparatus.
COURSE OUTLINE:
1. VMGO and orientation
2. Introduction to Power System
3. Transformer action
4. Type of Transformer
5. Electromotive Force Equation and Vector Diagram
6. Transformer Equivalent Circuit
7. Parallel operation of Transformer
8. Characteristics from Transformer test data
9. Auto -Transformers
10. Three-phase Transformers
REFERENCES:

1. A Textbook of Electrical Technology by Theraja

2. Elements of Power System by Stevenson
3. Principles of Power System by Metha
4. Reviewer of AC Machinery by Regacho
INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

- The system for the transformation of

other types of energy and the transmission
of this energy to the point of consumption.
ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM
6 Main Elements of Electric Power System

1. Power Station
2. Set of Transformer
3. Transmission Lines
4. Substation
5. Sub transmission Line
6. Transformer
Kinds of Power Plants
1. Hydro-electric
2. Geothermal
3. Thermal
a. Bunker Oil
b. Coal
c. Wood
4. Solar and Wind
5. Nuclear
6. Gas Turbine
7. Natural Gas
8. Combined Cycle
Substation – an assembly of
switchgears components used for:
1. Direct flow of energy into a power system
2. Ensure the safety of the system by providing a
point at which automatic protection is installed.
3. Divert the flow of energy along its existing
and/or alternation routes.
Substation
SWITCH YARD
- place where switch gears, breakers
etc. can be found.

SWITCH GEAR
- assembly of equipment and devices used
to control and meter the electric energy
CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION
1. Those directly controlling the flow of the power
to the system
2. Those converting the voltage level of the supply
from higher to a lower voltage or vice-versa
3. Those that direct or connect a number of supply
routes at the same voltage level
KINDS OF SUBSTATION

1. Station Substation - Those found beside or near

generation station
2. Transmission substation - one which receives bulk power
and voltage and steps down to sub-transmission voltage
level
3. Distribution Substation - those installed along sub
transmission circuit and are located at a point dictated by
load requirement.
4. Customer substation - Those that solely serve an industry
or commercial establishment.
MAJOR EQUIPMENT FOUND IN SUBSTATION
1. Power Transformer
2. Bus Bars
3. Regulators
4. Circuit Breaker
5. Air Breaks and Disconnects
6. Instrument Transformer
7. Relays
8. Power Station Capacitors
9. Lightning Arresters
10. Battery and Chargers
FAULTS
-line to line, line to ground, 3Phase, double line
to ground

CAPACITOR
-to maintain the power factor
TRANSFORMER
- A static device that converts electrical
energy from one circuit to another by the process of
electromagnetic induction with a change in voltage
and constant frequency.
MAIN PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER
1. Magnetic core- serves as path of the magnetic flux. it is
made of laminated sheets of high grade steel insulated from
each other by coating of iron oxide or varnish to minimize
eddy current and hysteresis loss.
2. Windings – Made of copper wire
3. Insulation
4. Bushing- Used to connect the leads of winding to external
circuit
a) porcelain type – small capacity
b) condenser type – medium capacity
c) oil-type – high capacity
MAIN PARTS OF A TRANSFORMER
1. Magnetic core- serves as path of the magnetic flux. it is
made of laminated sheets of high grade steel insulated from
each other by coating of iron oxide or varnish to minimize
eddy current and hysteresis loss.
2. Windings – Made of copper wire
3. Insulation
4. Bushing- Used to connect the leads of winding to external
circuit
a) porcelain type – small capacity
b) condenser type – medium capacity
c) oil-type – high capacity
 Lamination
types

Laminated steel cores

Toroidal steel cores

Efficiency of transformers with toroidal cores is usually higher.

TRANSFORMER OIL
- Serves as coolant to lower the
temperature of the transformer.
PROPERTIES OF GOOD TRANSFORMER OIL

1. High Di-Electric Strength

2. Low Viscosity
3. Free from Moisture and Particles
4. Absence of Alkalis, Acids & Sulfur
5. Slow Sludging Tendency
COOLING METHODS
1. Natural Radiation
2. Air Blasting
3. Oil Immersing
4. Water Immersing
OUTDOOR TYPE TRANSFORMER
- uses mineral oil (flammable)

INDOOR TYPE TRANSFORMER

- uses askarel or pyranol (non-flammable)

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMER
ACCORDING TO COOLING METHOD
1. AA - dry type, self cooled (using natural radiation)
2. AA/FA - dry type, forced air (air blasting)
3. OA - oil- immersed, self cooled (natural radiation)
4. OA/FA - oil- immersed, forced air (oil immersed & fan)
5. OA/FOA - oil- immersed, forced air, forced oil
6. OA/FOW - oil- immersed, forced oil, forced water
 TWO TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
1. According to Use
a.) Step down transformer, N1 > N2 (higher - lower)
b.) Step up transformer, N1 < N2 (lower- higher)
2. According to Core-Used
a.) Core Type b.) Shell Type

Primary Secondary
Circuit Circuit
ELEMENTARY THEORY OF AN
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
- Is one which has no losses such that its windings
have no ohmic resistance, there is no magnetic leakage
2
and hence has no I R and core loss.

Considering an ideal transformer whose secondary

is open and whose primary is connected to sinusoidal
alternating voltage V1. The potential difference causes
an alternating current to flow in the primary. Since the
primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output
(open circuit), the primary draws the magnetizing
current Iµ only.
 The function of this current is merely to magnetize
the core, it is small in magnitude and lags V1 by 90°. Iµ
produces an alternating flux ø which is proportional to
the current and hence in phase with it. The changing
flux is linked in both primary and secondary windings.
Therefore it produces self-induced emf in the primary
which is equal to and opposition to V1. it is also known
as counter emf or back emf of the primary.
 Similarly, in the secondary, an induced emf, E2 is
produced which is known as mutually induced emf is anti-
phase with V1 and its magnitude is proportional to the rate of
change of flux and the number of secondary turns.

Ø
Iµ

V1 -E1 E2
ø
øm
1/4f T

T = 1/f

Let: N1 = no. of turns in primary

N2 = no. of turns in secondary
Øm = max. flux in core = ßm·A
F = frequency of AC in Hz
Flux increase from it’s zero values to maximum value Øm in one
quarter of a cycle (1/4f sec)
Ave. rate of change in flux = Øm/1/4f
e1 & e2 = 4fØm wb/s or volt

Rate of change in flux means induced Emf in volts

Ave. rate per turn = 4fØm volt
Rms value of Emf per turn = 1.11 x 4fØm volt
Rms value of Emf in the whole primary winding

NOTE:
E1 = 4.44fN1Øm volt Emf per turn is the same in both
E1 = 4.44fN1 (ßm x A) primary and secondary windings.
In an ideal transformer on NO – load
E2 =4.44fN2Øm volt
𝑉1 = 𝐸1 and 𝑉2 = 𝐸2
FARADAY’S LAW
- The induced voltage in the conductor is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux and the no. of
turn of conductor.

d∅
E=N
dt
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
I1 R1 X1 R2 X2 I2

V1 P1 -E1 E2 P2 V2

RATIO OF TRANSFORMATION, a
P1 =P2
V1 I1 = V2 I2
V1 E1 I2 N1
a= = = =
V2 E2 I1 N2
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
 An iron core reactor is to be connected across the 110V, 60HZ
supply. Neglecting the resistance drop, determine the number of
flux lines which must be set-up in the core if the turn are 400.
Determine the cross-sectional area of the core necessary for this
reactor in the flux density should not exceed 60,000 lines per
square inches.
E=4.44F∅N×10−8
SOLUTION:
110V= 4.44(60)∅(400) × 10−8
∅ = 103, 228.22 lines
R=0
110V=4.44(60)(60,000 lines/in2 ) A x (400)×10−8
V1 = 110V A = 1.72 in2
E 400 TURNS
60Hz

A=1.72 in2
 The current taken by the reactor w/ 400 turns connected across
110V, 60Hz line is 1.5A. The power input is 65 watts. If the hot
resistance of the coil is 0.5, determine the iron loss. What is the
maximum flux build-up in the core?
1.5A Pcore =Pin −Pcu
=65W− 1.5 2 0.5
P in = 65 W
400 Turns Pcore = 63.88 Watts
110 V
E
∅=
4.44fN
E= 110V∟0 −(1.5∟0) 0.5
= 109.25 ∟0 V
109.25
∅=
(4.44)(60)(400)
∅=1.03mWb
 A transformer has a 800 turns on it’s primary winding & 160
turns on the secondary. The output is 150 KVA @2300V.
Determine the: a.) ratio of transformation b.) rated primary
voltage c.) full-load secondary current d.) full-load primary
current.
N1 S
a.) a=
N2 c.) I2 = V2
800 2
= 160 150KVa
= 2300V
a=5 I2 = 65.22 A

V
b.) a= V1 I
d.) a = I2
2 1
V1 =aV2 I1 =
I2
=
65.22
= 5 x 2300 a 5

V1 = 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝑽 𝐈𝟏 = 13.04 A
 A transformer is rated at 2000V/230V, 7.5KVA, 60 cycles, rp=8Ω,
rs=0.07Ω. When 2300V are applied to the primary of 1000 turns,
the input when secondary loaded is 6000 watts & 3 amperes. Assume
zero leakage flux, determine the magnitude of the primary induced
voltage.
Rp Xp Rs Xs E1
a=
E2

6000 W
V1 -E1 E2 V2 p. f =
7.5 kVA
p.f = 0.8

E2 = V2 ∟0 +I2 (R s + jXs ) 𝐸1 = 10 (231.83∟-0.34)

6k𝑊
= 230 ∟0 + (230V(0.8)∟-cos −1 0.8) (8 + 0.07)
𝑬𝟏 = 3218.3 V
𝑬𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑𝟏. 𝟖𝟑 ∟ -0.34 V
 SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT
1.) REFERRED TO PRIMARY Vector Diagram (Lagging)
Re ‘ Xe ‘ I2
a
+
𝑉1

𝑉1 𝑎𝑉2 I2
𝑋𝐿 ′
𝑎𝑉2 a
-
I2
𝑅𝑇 ′
𝐼2 a
V1 = aV2 + I2 /a (R′e +j Xe′ ) 𝑎

R′e = R1 + a2 R 2
Xe′ = X1 + a2 X2
Percent Voltage Regulation

𝑉𝑁𝐿 −𝑉𝐹𝐿
% VR = x 100 %
𝑉𝐹𝐿

𝐕𝟏 − 𝐚𝐕𝟐
%𝐕𝐑 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐚𝐕𝟐
2.REFFERED TO SECONDARY VECTOR DIAGRAM: (LEADING)
I2

Re “ Xe “ I2 ø

I2Re’’
𝑉1
V2
𝑎

𝑅1
𝑅𝑒 " = 2 + 𝑅2
𝑎
V1
𝑎
= V2 + I2 (R′′e + j Xe′′ ) 𝑋1
𝑋𝑒 " = 2 + 𝑋2
𝑎
PERCENT VOLTAGE REGULATION

𝑉1
𝑎
−𝑉2
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉2
x 100%
EXAMPLE:
1. Given a 10KVA , 1Ø transformer operating at
240/120V , 60HZ with the following specification:
r1 =0.13Ω r2 = 0.03Ω
x1 = 0.20Ω x2 = 0.05Ω
WC = 85 Watts IN ≈ 0
Calculate the %VR at full-load , 0.8 p.f. lagging .
SOLUTION:
Primary Equivalent Circuit

Re ‘ Xe ‘ I2/a
R e ′ = R 1 + a2 R 2
= 0.13 + 2 2 0.03
𝐑′𝐞 = 0.25Ω
V1 aV2
X e ′ = X 1 + a2 X 2
= 0.2 + 2 2 0.05
𝑿′𝐞 = 0.4Ω
𝐕𝟏 − 𝐚𝐕𝟐
%𝐕𝐑 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝐚𝐕𝟐 I2 10kVA
=
𝐕𝟏 − 𝟐𝟒𝟎 a (120)(2)
%𝐕𝐑 =
𝟐𝟒𝟎
𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 41.67 ∟-cos −1 0.8
𝐈𝟐
= 41.67 ∟-36.87 A
𝐚

V1 = aV2 + I2 /a (R′e + j Xe′ )

 𝑉1−𝑎𝑉2
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑎𝑉 x 100%
2
I2
V1 = aV2 ∟0˚ + (R e ′ + jXe ′)
a
V1 = (240 ∟0˚) + [(41.67 ∟ -36.87)(0.25+j0.4)]
𝐕𝟏 =258.43 ∟1.57˚ V

258.43 − 240
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥 100%
240

%𝑽𝑹 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟖%
 V1
Using: −V2
a
%VR = x 100%
V2
Secondary Equivalent Circuit: V1
−120
a
%VR = x 100%
120
Re “ Xe “ I2 𝑉1
= 𝑉2 ∟0 + 𝐼2 (𝑅𝑒 "+jXe ")
𝑎

𝑉1
𝑎 𝑉2 𝑋1
𝑅1
𝑅𝑒 " = 2 + 𝑅2 𝑋𝑒 " = 2 + 𝑋2
𝑎 𝑎
0.13 0.2
= 2 + 0.03 = + 0.05
2 22
𝑹𝒆 " = 0.0625 Ω 𝑿𝒆 " = 0.1 Ω

S 10kVA
I2 = V2 = ∟ −cos −1 0.8
2 120V
𝐈𝟐 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑 ∟-36.87 A
V1
= 120∟0 + (83.33 ∟-36.87)(0.063 + j0.1)
a
𝑽𝟏
𝒂
= 𝟏𝟐𝟗. 𝟐𝟓 ∟1.56 V

129.25 − 120
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥 100%
120

%𝐕𝐑 =7.71 %
Percent Impedance
IR
%R = x 100%
V
IX
%X = V x 100%

Also per unit values

IR
Per unit R = V
IX
Per unit X = V

Where: I = Nominal Rated Current

V = Nominal Rated Voltage
For values of R and X to give the same values when
converting to it’s equivalent primary and secondary
circuits, the %R and %X or Rpu and Xpu of the
primary and secondary circuit must be equal.
I P R P IS R S
=
VP VS
IS VP
RP = RS
IP VS

RP = RS a 2
X P = (X S )(a)2
Example:
Given:
R1=1Ω, R2=0.3Ω, 6KVA, 440/120V

I1 R1
% R1 = x100%
V1
6kVA
(1)
= 440 X100% = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟗𝟗%
440

I2 R2
% R2 = x100%
V2
6kVA
(0.3)
= 120 X100% = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟐%
120
EXACT TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Referred to Primary
IP
rP xP 𝑎2 rs 𝑎2 x s Is /a

IN

VP Ixm
rm aVs
Irm xm
APPOXIMATE TRANSFORMER EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
(Referred to Primary)
IP
rP xP 𝑎2 rs 𝑎2 x s Is /a

VP aVs
1.) Given:15KVA 2300/230 60Hz
r1=2.5Ω r2=0.02 Ω
x1=10.1 Ω x2=0.09 Ω
Wc=110W IN ≈0
Calculate the %VR at Half Load, 0.866 p.f. leading.
𝑉1 − 𝑎𝑉2
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑋100%
Re ‘ Xe ‘ I2/a 𝑎𝑉2
𝐼
𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑉2 + 2 𝑎 𝑟𝑒′ + 𝑗𝑥𝑒 ′

V1 aV2 𝑟𝑒′ = 𝑟1 + 𝑎2 𝑟2
= 2.5 + 10 2 0.02
𝒓′𝒆 = 𝟒. 𝟓 𝜴

𝑥𝑒′ = 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2
= 10.1 + 10 2 0.09
𝒙′𝒆 = 𝟏𝟗. 𝟏 𝜴
 I2 15kVA 0.5
= ∟ cos −1 0.866
a 10 (230V)
𝐈𝟐
= 𝟑. 𝟐𝟔∟𝟑𝟎 𝐀
𝐚

V1 = 10 230∟0 + 3.26∟30 4.5 + j19.1

𝐕𝟏 = 𝟐𝟐𝟖𝟐. 𝟑𝟗∟𝟏. 𝟓𝟒 𝐕

2282.39 − 2300
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑋100%
2300
%𝑽𝑹 = −𝟎. 𝟕𝟔𝟔% , 𝐥𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠
 2.) Given:25KVA 2400/240V 60Hz
r1=2.65Ω r2=0.019Ω
x1=8.95Ω x2=0.085Ω
a.) Calculate the %VR at a load of 12KW, 0.8 p.f. leading.
b.) Calculate the %VR at 10% underload, 0.866 p.f. Lagging.
SEC Re “ Xe “ I2
r1
re " = 2 + r2
a
V1 2.65
a V2 re " =
102
+ 0.019
𝐫𝐞 " = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟓𝟓 𝛀

x1
𝑉1
−𝑉 xe " = 2
+ x2
a.) %𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝑎 2 𝑋100% a
2 8.95
𝑉1 xe " = + 0.085
= 𝑉2 ∟0 + 𝐼2 𝑅𝑒 " + 𝑗𝑋𝑒 " 102
𝑎 𝒙𝐞 " = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟒𝟓 𝛀
 12kW
I2 = ∟ cos −1 0.8
(240)(0.8)
𝐈𝟐 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟓∟𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟕 𝐀

V1
= 240∟0 + 62.5∟36.87 0.0455 + j0.1745
a
𝐕𝟏
= 𝟐𝟑𝟓. 𝟗𝟔∟𝟐. 𝟑𝟓 𝐕
𝐚

235.96 − 240
%VR = X100%
240
%𝐕𝐑 = −𝟏. 𝟔𝟖%
 25𝑘𝑉𝐴 (0.9)
b.) 𝐼2 = ∟− cos −1 0.866
240
𝑰𝟐 = 𝟗𝟑. 𝟕𝟓∟ − 𝟑𝟎𝑨

𝑉1
= 240∟0 + 93.75∟ − 30 0.0455 + 𝑗0.1745
𝑎
𝑽𝟏
= 𝟐𝟓𝟐. 𝟏𝟔∟𝟐. 𝟕𝟒 𝑽
𝒂

252.16 − 240
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑋100%
240
%𝑽𝑹 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟕%
3.) A 20KVA with a=16.67, 60Hz transformer is connected to
230KV Luzon grid. The expected load is 15KW, 0.707 p.f.
lagging. Determine the % VR if r1=0.1Ω, r2=0.006Ω,
x1=0.2Ω & x2=0.012Ω.

Luzon Load
Grid 230KV
V1 − aV2
re′ = 0.1 + 16.67 2 (0.006) %VR = X100%
𝐫𝐞′ = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 𝛀 aV2

𝐼2 ′
xe′ = 0.2 + 16.67 2 (0.012) V1 = aV2 ∟0 + re + 𝑗xe′
𝒙′𝐞 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟑 𝛀 𝑎

𝐼2 15𝑘𝑊
= ∟ − cos −1 0.707
𝑎 aV2 (0.707)
 15kW
230kV∟α = aV2 + ∟ − cos −1 0.707 1.77 + j3.53
aV2 (0.707)
1
230kV∟α = aV2 + 21216.41∟ − 45 1.77 + j3.53
aV2
1
230kV∟α = aV2 + 83781.45∟18.37 (aV2 )
aV2
230kV aV2 ∟α = aV2 2 + 79512.017 + j26403.99

S 2 = P 2 + Q2 ; S=P+jQ
S
Q S = 230kV aV2 ∟α
P = aV2 2 + 79512.017
𝜃
Q = 26403.99
P
2
230kV aV2 2
= aV2 2 + 79512.017 + 26403.99 2

aV2 = 229.99kV

230kV − 229.99kV
%VR = X100%
229.99kV

%VR = 0.004%
 4.) A 500KV, 1Ø, 13000/2400V transformer has %X=4% and
%R=1%, X2=0.025Ω and R2=0.055Ω. Find x1, r1 and the
full-load cu loss.
r1
Re “ Xe “ I2 a.) re " = + r2
SEC a2
x1
xe " = 2 + x2
a
V1
a V2
I2 re "
%R = V2
x100%
I2 xe "
1% 2400V
%X = V2
x100%
re " =
500kVA (208.33A)(100%)
I2 = 𝐫𝐞 " = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟑 𝛀
2400V 𝒓𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕 𝛀
𝐈𝟐 = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝐀 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟖 𝛀
4% 2400V
xe " =
(208.33A)(100%)
𝒙𝐞 " = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟖 𝛀
b.) Pcu loss = I1 2 r1 + I2 2 r2 = I1 2 re ′ = I2 2 re “
Pcu loss = 208.33A 2 0.1153 Ω
𝐏𝐜𝐮 𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐬 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬
 5.) Given: 100KVA 2300/230 60Hz
r1=2.14Ω r2=0.214Ω
x1=0.214Ω x2=0.0214Ω
Calculate the %VR at full-load, 0.9 p.f. lagging.
V1 − aV2
PEC 𝑅𝑒 ′ 𝑋𝑒 ′ 𝐼2 %VR = x 100%
𝑎 aV2
I
V1 = aV2 + 2 a re′ + jxe ′

𝑉1 a𝑉2 re′ = r1 + a2 r2
= 2.14 + 102 0.214
𝐫𝐞′ = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟓𝟒 𝛀

xe′ = x1 + a2 x2
= 0.214 + 102 0.0214
𝐱 𝐞′ = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟓𝟒 𝛀
 I2 100kVA
= ∟ − cos−1 0.9
a (10)(230)
𝐈𝟐
= 𝟒𝟑. 𝟒𝟕𝟖𝟑∟ − 𝟐𝟓. 𝟖𝟒𝟏𝟗 𝐀
𝐚

V1 = 2300∟0 + 43.4783∟ − 25.8419 23.54 + j2.354

𝐕𝟏 = 𝟑𝟐𝟖𝟒. 𝟖𝟕𝟓𝟒∟ − 𝟔. 𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟖𝐕

3284.8754 − 2300
%VR = x100%
2300
%𝐕𝐑 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟖𝟐%
6. Given: 10KVA 240/120V 60Hz
r1 = 0.3 Ω r 2= 0.03 Ω
x1 = 0.2 Ω x2 = 0.05 Ω
Wc = 85 W IN =1 A
Calculate the %VR at Full-Load, 0.866 p.f. lagging

Solution: Long Method, since IN = 1A

R1 X1 R2 X2

𝑉1 -E1 E2 V2
V1 = −E1 +I1 (R1 + jX1 )
E2 = V2 ∟0 +I2 (R 2 + jX2 )

VNL − VFL
%VR = X100%
VFL
V1COMP − V1Rated
%VR =
V1Rated

10kVA
I2 = ∟ − cos −1 0.8
(120)
𝐈𝟐 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟑𝟑∟ − 𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟗 𝐀

E2 = 120 ∟0 + (83.33∟−36.8699) 0.03 + j 0.05

𝐄𝟐 = 124.5135 ∟0.8436 V
 E1 = aE2
E1 = 2 (124.5135 ∟0.8436)
𝐄𝟏 = 249.027 ∟0.8436 V

−𝐄𝟏 = 249.027 ∟180.8436 V

θ
I1
In Iμ

I1

-I2/a E1 ∟ 0
V1 θ2
IH+E O
I2
 I2
I1 = IN + (− )
a
Pcore 85 𝑊
Iℎ+𝑒 = −E = 249.027 𝑉 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟑 𝐀
1
sin ꝺ = (Iℎ+𝑒 /IN )
ꝺ = sin-1 (0.3413/1) = 19.95o

IN = 1∟(0.8436 +90+19.95)

IN = 1∟110.7997 A

I 𝟖𝟑.𝟑𝟑
− a2 = ∟ − 𝟑𝟔. 𝟖𝟔𝟗𝟗 + 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝐀
𝟐
I
− a2 = 41.667∟143.1301 A
I
I1 = IN + (− a2 )
I1 = (1 ∟110.7997) + (41.667∟143.1301) A
𝐈𝟏 = 42.667 ∟142.4093 A

V1 = −E1 +I1 (R1 + jX1 )

V1 = (249.027 ∟180.8436) + (42.667∟142.4093) (0.3 + j 0.2)
𝐕𝟏 = 264.3042∟−179.4313 V

VNL − VFL
%VR = X100%
VFL
V1COMP − V1Rated
%VR =
V1Rated
 264.3042 − 240
%VR = x 100%
240

%𝐕𝐑 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟏 %

Transformer Efficiency & Losses
Po
η= x100%
Pin
Po
η= x100%
P0 + Pcu + Pcore

Condition for Maximum Efficiency

Po
𝜂= x100% V1 I1 cos θ1 − Pcu − Pcore
Pin η= x 100%
Pin − Plosses V1 I1 cos θ1
𝜂= x100%
Pin
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 I1 2 R e ′ Pcore
𝜂 = 1− 𝑥100% η=1− −
𝑃𝑖𝑛 V1 I1 cos θ1 V1 I1 cos θ1
Note:
Pin = V1 I1 pf1 = V1 I1 cosØ1 Pin =V1 I1 pf1 =V1 I1 cos θ1
Po = V2 I2 pf2 = V2 I2 cosØ2 PO =V2 I2 pf2 =V2 I2 cos θ1
Plosses = Pcu + Pcore Plosses =Pcu +Pcore
Considering Primary Side
Primary Input = 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝐼12 𝑅𝑒′ + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝜂= =
𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
𝐼1 𝑅𝑒 ′ 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝜂 =1− −
𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1

Differentiate WRT 𝐈𝟏
𝑑𝑛 𝑅𝑒 ′ 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
= 0− + 2
𝑑𝐼1 𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑉
1 𝐼1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1
For n to be maximum,
𝑑𝑛
= 0. Hence the above equation becomes
𝑑𝐼1
𝑅𝑒 ′ 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝐏𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐞 = 𝑰𝟏 𝟐 𝑹′𝒆
=
𝑉1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑉1 𝐼1 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 𝑪𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝑰𝒓𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔
 Pcore
I1 =
Re′

Pcore
I1 @max = V1
Re′

Pcore
V1 I1 @max = V1
Re′

Pcore
kVAmax = V1
Re′
kVAFL = V1 I1
kVAFL
V1 =
I1
kVAFL Pcore 𝐏𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐞
kVAmax = 𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝐅𝐋
I1 Re′ 𝐈𝟏 𝟐 𝐑 𝐞 ′
1.) A transformer rated 100KVA has a core loss of 1KW and a
copper loss of 1.5KW. a.) Calculate the KVA loading of which
the efficiency is maximum. b.) Determine the maximum
efficiency at 0.8 pf. C.) Efficiency at full-load
kVAFL (pf)
a.) kVAmax = kVAFL Pcore c.) ηFL = kVA x100%
Pcu FL pf +Pc𝑢𝐹𝐿 +P core

1kW 100kVA (0.8)

= 100kVA = x100%
1.5kW 100kVA 0.8 + 1.5 kW + 1kW

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙=𝟗𝟔.𝟗𝟕%

kVAmax (pf)
b.) ηmax = x100%
kVAmax pf +2Pcore

81.65kVA (0.8)
= x100%
81.65kVA 0.8 + 2(1kW)

𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙=𝟗𝟕.𝟎𝟓%
2.) A 20KVA, 440/220V transformer has a core loss of 324W. The
cu loss is 100W at half load.
Determine: Pcu xFL = (x)2 PcuFL

a. The efficiency when delivering full-load current at 0.8 pf.

b. The percent full load when the efficiency is maximum.
kVAFL (pf)
a.) ηFL = kVA kVAmax
FL pf +PCUFL +Pcore b.) %FL = kVAFL
x100%
P 1 Pcore
cu(2) 100W kVAFL ∙
PcuFL = = = 400W %FL =
Pcu
x100%
1 1 2 kVAFL
( 2) 2 ( 2)
(20𝑘𝑉𝐴)(0.8) 324W
ηFL = 20𝑘𝑉𝐴 0.8 +400𝑊+324𝑊
%FL = x100%
400W

𝜼𝑭𝑳 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔𝟕% %𝐅𝐋 = 𝟗𝟎%

3.) A 400/100V transformer has an effective primary resistance of
0.3Ω and a secondary resistance of 0.02Ω. It’s core loss is 150W.
Calculate secondary current at which maximum efficiency will
occur at it’s value of 1pf.
𝑃ℎ+𝑒
𝐼2@𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑟𝑒 "
𝑟1
𝑟𝑒 " = 2 + 𝑟2
𝑎
0.3
𝑟𝑒 " = 2 + 0.02
4
𝑟𝑒 " = 0.039 Ω

150𝑊
𝐼2@𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
0.039

𝑰𝟐@𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟔𝟐. 𝟎𝟐𝑨

4.) The efficiency of a 400KVA transformer is 98.77% when
delivering full load at 0.8 pf and 99.13% at half load, 1pf.
Calculate the full load cu loss and core loss.
𝑃𝑜
𝜂= 𝑥100%
𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃𝑐𝑢 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
400𝑘𝑉𝐴(0.8)
0.9877 =
400𝑘𝑉𝐴 0.8 + 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝐹𝐿 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑷𝒄𝒖𝑭𝑳 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟑𝟗𝟖𝟓. 𝟎𝟐 ⇒ 𝟏
400𝑘𝑉𝐴(1 2)(1)
0.9913 =
400𝑘𝑉𝐴 1 2 1 + (1 2)2 𝑃𝐶𝑈𝐹𝐿 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝟏 𝑷
𝟒 𝑪𝑼𝑭𝑳 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟓. 𝟐𝟕 ⇒ 𝟐
𝑷𝒄𝒖𝑭𝑳 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟑𝟗𝟖𝟓. 𝟎𝟐 ⇒ 𝟏
- 𝟏 𝟒 𝑷𝑪𝑼𝑭𝑳 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟓. 𝟐 ⇒ 𝟐 𝑷𝒄𝒖𝑭𝑳 = 𝟐𝟗𝟕𝟑. 𝟎𝟗 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
¾ 𝑷𝑪𝑼𝑭𝑳 = 2,229.82 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟑 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔
𝑷𝑪𝑼𝑭𝑳 = 2973.09 watts
𝟐𝟗𝟕𝟑. 𝟎𝟗 + 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟑𝟗𝟖𝟓. 𝟎𝟐
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 =1,011.93 watts
5.) A 11000/230V, 150KVA, 1Ø, 50Hz transformer has a
core loss of 1.4 KW & full-load copper loss of 1.6KW.
Determine:
a. The KVA load for maximum efficiency & the value of
maximum efficiency at unity pf.
b. The efficiency @half-load, 0.8 pf leading.

PCORE
a.) kVAmax = kVAFL PCU

1.4kW
kVAmax = 150kVA
1.6kW
𝐤𝐕𝐀𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 𝟏𝟒𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝐤𝐕𝐀
 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑝𝑓)
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥100%
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑝𝑓 + 2𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
(140.31𝑘𝑉𝐴)(1)
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥100%
140.31𝑘𝑉𝐴 1 + (2)(1.4𝑘𝑊)
𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟎𝟒%

1
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐹𝐿 (2)(𝑝𝑓)
b.) 𝜂1/2𝐹𝐿 = 1 1 𝑥100%
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐹𝐿 2 𝑝𝑓 +(2)2 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝐹𝐿 +𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
1
150𝑘𝑉𝐴 2 (0.8)
𝜂1/2𝐹𝐿 = 2 𝑋100%
1 1
150𝑘𝑉𝐴 2 0.8 + 2 1.6𝑘𝑊 + 1.4𝑘𝑊

𝜼𝟏/𝟐𝑭𝑳 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟎𝟗%

6.) A 200KVA transformer has an efficiency of 98% @full-load. If
the maximum efficiency occurs @3-quarters of full load,
calculate the efficiency @half-load. Assume negligible
magnetizing current & p.f. of 0.8 at all loads.

1
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐹𝐿 (2)(𝑝𝑓)
𝜂1/2𝐹𝐿 = 𝑥100%
1 1 2
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐹𝐿 2 𝑝𝑓 + (2) 𝑃𝑐𝑢𝐹𝐿 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑐𝑢 3
𝐹𝐿
@𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
4

200𝑘𝑉𝐴 (0.8)
0.98 =
3
200𝑘𝑉𝐴 0.8 + 𝑃𝐶𝑈𝐹𝐿 + (4)2 𝑃𝐶𝑈𝐹𝐿
𝑷𝑪𝑼𝑭𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟖𝟗𝒌𝑾
 200kVA(0.5)(0.8)
η 1 = x100%
FL 1
2 200kVA 0.5 0.8 + (2)2 PCUFL + Pcore
200kVA(0.5)(0.8)
η 1 = 2 x100%
FL 1
2
200kVA 0.5 0.8 + (2.089kW) + 1.175kW
2
𝛈 𝟏 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟐%
𝟐 𝐅𝐋

2
3
Pcore = 2.089kW
4

𝐏𝐜𝐨𝐫𝐞 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝐤𝐖
SHORT CIRCUIT TEST & OPEN CIRCUIT TEST

I. Open Circuit with Test / No Load Test

W reading = core loss = Ph+e

 HERE!!!!!!!!!!!
II. Short Circuit Test
W A

V2 = 0

W reading = copper loss = Pcu = I12 r1 + I22 r2

= I12re’
= I22 re”
1.) Given: 500KVA 14000/4000V 60Hz
SCT OCT
V = 1260V V = 4000V
I = 358A I =59A
W = 39,200W W = 31,000W
a. Calculate the F.L. %VR & %n @¾F.L. 0.866 lagging pf.
b. Find the F.L. & maximum efficiency @pf 0.8 lagging.
c. Calculate the all day efficiency for the following loadings.
F.L. 0.8 8Hrs
¾ F.L. 0.9 7Hrs
60% F.L. 1.0 6Hrs
No Load 0 3Hrs
24Hrs
a.) %𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉1𝑎𝑉
−𝑎𝑉2
Re’ Xe’ I2/a
2

𝐼2 ′
𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑉2 + 𝑟𝑒 + 𝑗𝑥𝑒′ aV2
𝑎 V1
𝑃𝐶𝑈 = 𝐼1 2 𝑟𝑒 ′

𝑃𝐶𝑈 39200 𝑥𝑒′ = 𝑍𝑒′2 − 𝑟𝑒′2

𝑟𝑒′ = =
𝐼1 2 3582
𝑉 1260
𝒓′𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟔𝜴 𝑍𝑒′ = = = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟐𝜴
𝐼 358
𝑥𝑒′ = (3.52)2 −(0.306)2
𝒙′𝒆 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟏𝜴
 𝐼2 5000𝑘𝑉𝐴
= ∟ − cos −1 0.866
𝑎 14000
𝑰𝟐
= 𝟑𝟓𝟕. 𝟏𝟒∟ − 𝟑𝟎 𝑨
𝒂
𝑉1 = 14000∟0 + (357.14∟ − 30)(0.306 + 𝑗3.51)
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝟓𝟔. 𝟗𝟔∟𝟒. 𝟎𝟐 𝑽

14756.96 − 14000
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑋100%
14000
%𝑽𝑹 = 𝟓. 𝟒𝟏%

5000𝑘𝑉𝐴(3 4)(0.866)
𝜂3 = 𝑋100%
4𝐹𝐿 3 3 2
5000𝑘𝑉𝐴 4 0.866 + ( 4) 39200 + 31000

𝜼𝟑 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟑𝟗%
𝟒𝑭𝑳
 5000𝑘𝑉𝐴(0.8)
b.) 𝜂𝐹𝐿 = 𝑥100%
5000𝑘𝑉𝐴 0.8 +39200+31000
𝜼𝑭𝑳 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟎𝟖%

31000
5000𝑘𝑉𝐴 39200 (0.8)
𝜂𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥100%
31000
5000𝑘𝑉𝐴 39200 0.8 + 2(31000)

𝜼𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟐𝟗%

 Σ𝑃𝑂 ∗𝑡
c.) 𝐴𝐷𝐸 = 𝑥100%
Σ𝑃𝑂 ∗𝑡+Σ𝑃𝐶𝑈 ∗𝑡+Σ𝑃𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸 ∗𝑡

𝜮𝑷𝑶 ∗ 𝒕: 5000kVA O.8 8hrs =32000 kwhr

5000kVA (3/4) (0.9) 7hrs = 23625 kwhr
5000kVA (0.6) (1) 6hr = 18000 kwhr
73625.00 kwhr
𝜮𝑷𝑪𝑼 ∗ 𝒕: 39200 8hrs = 313.60 kwhr
3
39200 (4)2 7ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 154.35 𝑘𝑤ℎ𝑟
39200 (0.6)2 6ℎ𝑟𝑠 = 84.67 kwhr
552.62 kwhr
𝜮𝑷𝑪𝑶𝑹𝑬 ∗ 𝒕: 31000 x 24hrs = 744.0 kwhr
73625.00𝑘𝑤ℎ𝑟
ADE =73625.00𝑘𝑤ℎ𝑟+552.62𝑘𝑤ℎ𝑟+744𝑘𝑤ℎ𝑟 𝑥100%

𝑨𝑫𝑬 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟐𝟕%

By Using Secondary Equivalent Circuit
Re” Xe” I2

V
__1
a V2

Assuming Lagging Power Factor

Ø V2
I2
𝑉1 1
= [(𝑉2 cos 𝜃 + 𝐼2 𝑟𝑒") + 𝑗(𝑉2 sin 𝜃 + 𝐼2 𝑥𝑒")]
𝑎 𝑉2
𝑉1
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑝𝑢) + 𝑗(sin 𝜃 + 𝑋𝑝𝑢)
𝑎𝑉2
𝑉1
= (cos 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑝𝑢)2 +(sin 𝜃 + 𝑋𝑝𝑢)2
𝑎𝑉2
𝑉1
𝑎 − 𝑉2
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥100%
𝑉2
𝑉1
%𝑉𝑅 = − 1 𝑥100%
𝑎𝑉2

%𝑉𝑅 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑝𝑢)2 +(sin 𝜃 + 𝑋𝑝𝑢)2 − 1 ∶ 𝑙𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔

%𝑉𝑅 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑝𝑢)2 +(− sin 𝜃 + 𝑋𝑝𝑢)2 − 1 ∶ 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

 1.) The following data were obtained when a short circuit test was
performed upon a 100KVA, 2400/240V distribution transformer:
Esc=72V, Isc=41.6V, Psc=1180W. All instrument are on the high side
during the short circuit test. Calculate the %VR at a power factor pf
0.75 lagging.
Primary side
𝐼1 𝑟𝑒′ 𝑃𝑐𝑢 𝑆 100𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑅𝑝𝑢 = ; 𝑅𝑒 ′ = 2 ; 𝐼1 = = = 𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝑨
𝑉1 𝐼1 𝑉1 2400
1180𝑊 (41.6)(0.6819)
𝑅𝑒 ′ = = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟖𝟏𝟗 𝜴 ; 𝑅𝑝𝑢 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏
41.67𝐴2 2400
𝑉 72𝑉
𝑍𝑒 ′ = = = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝜴
𝐼 41.67𝐴
𝑋𝑒 ′ = 𝑍𝑒′2 − 𝑅𝑒′2 = (1.73)2 −(0.6819)2 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗 𝜴
(41.6)(1.59)
𝑋𝑝𝑢 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 𝜴
2400

%𝑉𝑅 = (0.75 + 0.01)2 +(sin(cos −1 0.75) + 0.03)2 − 1

%VR=2.75%
2.) A 200KVA transformer with impedance of 5% & the power factor of
the load is 85%. The primary voltage is 6000V, while the copper loss is
5KW. Find the percent regulation.

%𝑉𝑅 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑝𝑢)2 +(sin 𝜃 + 𝑋𝑝𝑢)2 − 1

%IZ = 5%
𝑃𝑐𝑢 5𝑘𝑊
%IR= = 𝑥100%
𝑉𝐴𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 200𝑘𝑉𝐴
%𝑰𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒑𝒖 = 𝟐. 𝟓%
%𝐼𝑋 = (%𝐼𝑍)2 −(%𝐼𝑅)2 = (5%)2 −(2.5%)2
%𝐼𝑋 = 4.3%
Xpu = 0.043pu

%𝑉𝑅 = (0.85 + 0.025)2 +[sin(cos−1 0.85) + 0.043]2 − 1

%VR = 4.43%
3.) A 150KVA, single phase transformer supplies a 100KVA at 50%
lagging power factor. The transformer winding impedance is 2%
resistance & 5% reactance based on 150KVA. Determine the
voltage regulation of the transformer of this load. Assume 100%
voltage.
@150kVA  %IR = 2% and %IX = 5%
%𝑉𝑅 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑝𝑢)2 +(sin 𝜃 + 𝑋𝑝𝑢)2 − 1
𝐼1 𝑅𝑒′
%𝐼𝑅 =
𝑉1
100𝑘𝑉𝐴
%𝐼𝑅@100𝑘𝑉𝐴 = %𝐼𝑅@150𝑘𝑉𝐴
150𝑘𝑉𝐴
100𝑘𝑉𝐴
= 2% = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑%
150𝑘𝑉𝐴
100𝑘𝑉𝐴
%𝐼𝑋@100𝑘𝑉𝐴 = %𝐼𝑋@150𝑘𝑉𝐴
150𝑘𝑉𝐴
100𝑘𝑉𝐴
= 5% = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟑%
150𝑘𝑉𝐴
%𝑉𝑅 = (0.5 + 0.013)2 +[sin(cos −1 0.5) + 0.033]2 − 1
%VR = 3.56%
4.) A short circuit test was performed upon a 10KVA, 2300/230V
transformer with the following results: Esc=137V, Psc=192W, &
Isc=4.34A. Calculate the %VR @ a lagging power factor of
0.707.
%𝑉𝑅 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑅𝑝𝑢)2 +(sin 𝜃 + 𝑋𝑝𝑢)2 − 1
𝐼1 𝑅𝑒′ 𝐼2 𝑅𝑒"
𝑅𝑝𝑢 = =
𝑉1 𝑉2
′
𝑃𝐶𝑈 𝑃𝑆𝐶 192𝑊
𝑅𝑒 = 2 = 2 = (4.34𝐴)2 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟗 𝜴
𝐼1 𝐼𝑆𝐶
′
𝑉 𝐸𝑆𝐶 137𝑉
𝑍𝑒 = = = = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟕 𝜴
𝐼 𝐼𝑆𝐶 4.34𝐴

𝑋𝑒 ′ = 𝑍𝑒′2 − 𝑅𝑒′2
𝑋𝑒 ′ = (31.7)2 −(10.19)2
Xe’ = 30.02%
 𝐼 𝑅𝑒′ 𝑆 10𝑘𝑉𝐴
Rpu= 1𝑉 ;𝐼1 = 𝑉 = 2300𝑉
= 𝟒. 𝟑𝟓𝑨
1 1
𝐼 𝑅𝑒′ (4.35)(10.19)
Rpu= 1𝑉 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟗𝒑𝒖
1 2300
𝐼1 𝑋𝑒′ (4.35)(30.02)
𝑋𝑝𝑢 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟕𝒑𝒖
𝑉1 2300

%𝑉𝑅 = (0.707 + 0.019)2 +[sin(cos −1 0.707) + 0.057]2 − 1

%VR = 5.41%
HYSTERESIS and EDDY CURRENT LOSS

𝑷𝑪𝑶𝑹𝑬 = 𝑷𝒉 + 𝑷𝒆

𝑬𝟏.𝟔
𝑷𝒉 = 𝒌𝒉
𝒁𝟎.𝟔

𝑷𝒆 = 𝒌𝒆 𝑬𝟐
1.) When 120V, 60Hz is applied to the primary windings of a
transformer, the core loss is 240W. When 50V, 25Hz is applied
the core loss is 50W. Determine the core loss when 230V, 50Hz
is applied to the primary windings.
1..6
120
𝑃𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸 = 240 = 𝑘𝑒(120)2 +𝑘ℎ →1
600.6
1.6
50
𝑃𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸 = 50 = 𝑘𝑒(50)2 +𝑘ℎ →2
250.6
ke = 0.0143
kh = 0.1885
1.6
230
𝑃𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸@230𝑉,50𝐻𝑧 = 𝑘𝑒(230)2 + 𝑘ℎ
50 0.6
1.6
230
= 0.0143 230 2 + (0.1885)
50 0.6

𝑷𝑪𝑶𝑹𝑬@𝟐𝟑𝟎𝑽,𝟓𝟎𝑯𝒛 = 𝟖𝟔𝟒. 𝟕𝟗 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔

2.) The eddy current and hysteresis loss of a 4400V, 60Hz, single
phase transformer are 280W and 560W respectively. Determine
the core loss when the transformer is connected across a 4600V,
50Hz source.
𝐸 1.6
Pe = ke(𝐸)2 Ph = kh 𝑓0.6
𝑃𝑒 280𝑊 𝑃ℎ 560𝑊
ke = = 4400𝑉 2 kh = 𝐸1.6
= 44001.6
𝐸2
𝑓0.6 500.6
ke= 1.45 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 kh =9.67 x 𝟏𝟎−𝟑

46001.6
𝑃𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸@4600𝑉,50𝐻𝑧 = (1,45𝑥10−5 )(4600)2 + (9.67𝑥10−3 )
500.6
𝐏𝐂𝐎𝐑𝐄@𝟒𝟔𝟎𝟎𝐕,𝟓𝟎𝐇𝐳 = 𝟗𝟕𝟕. 𝟒𝟏 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐭𝐬
3.) In a 400V, 50 cycle per second transformer, the total iron loss is
2500W. When the supplied potential difference is 220V, 25 c/s,
the corresponding loss is 850W. Calculate the eddy current loss
at normal frequency and potential difference.
1.6
400
2500 𝑊 = 𝑘𝑒(400𝑉)2 + 𝑘ℎ →1
600.6
1.6
220
850 𝑊 = 𝑘𝑒(220𝑉)2 + 𝑘ℎ →2
250.6

ke = 0.01353

Pe = 0.01353(400)2
Pe = 2164.8 Watts
Paralleling of Transformer
Reasons for Paralleling
1. To increase the capacity of the system in order to supply
greater loads.
2. To reduce/divide the capacity for the convenience of in
handling, transport and maintenance.
3. To reduce the capacity of reserve of space to ensure
continuous operation.
Condition for Paralleling
1. Both must have the same ratio of transformer (a1=a2).
2. Both must have the same voltage ratio.
3. Observe polarities carefully.
4. The equivalent impedance must vary in inverse proportion to
their respective capacity.
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒
5. 1 𝑋𝑒
≈2 𝑋𝑒
6. R & X must be added to the deficient transformer so that each
will deliver secondary currents proportional to their loads.
%Z1 = %Z2
 R1 X1 R2 X2

L
V1 O
A
V2
D

R1 X1 R2 X2
Considering Secondary Equivalent Circuit (lagging pf)

1Re” 2Re”

1I2 1Xe” 2I2 2Xe”

V1 I2
a
L
O
A
1V2 = 2V2
D

𝑉1
= 𝑉2 + 𝐼2 (𝑟𝑒"+jxe")
I2 = 1I2 + 2I2 𝑎
1𝑉1
I2 = IL 𝑎1
= 1𝑉2 + 1𝐼2 (1𝑍𝑒") → 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 1
2I2 = IL – 1I2 2𝑉1
= 2𝑉2 + 2𝐼2 (2𝑍𝑒") → 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 2
𝑎2
Multiply by Respective Transformation Ratio
1𝑉1 = 𝑎1 1𝑉2 + 𝑎1 1𝐼2 1𝑍𝑒" → 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 1
2𝑉1 = 𝑎2 2𝑉2 + 𝑎2 2𝐼2 2𝑍𝑒" → 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 2

Same Voltage Ratio

𝑎1 1𝑉2 + 𝑎1 1𝐼2 1𝑍𝑒" = 𝑎2 2𝑉2 + 𝑎2 2𝐼2 2𝑍𝑒"
𝑎1 1𝑉2 − 𝑎2 2𝑉2 = 𝑎2 2𝐼2 2𝑍𝑒" − 𝑎1 1𝐼2 1𝑍𝑒“
1𝑉2 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝐼𝐿 − 1𝐼2 2𝑍𝑒" − 𝑎1 1𝐼2 1𝑍𝑒“
1𝑉2 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝐼𝐿 2𝑍𝑒" − a2 1I2 2Ze" − 𝑎1 1𝐼2 1𝑍𝑒“
1𝑉2 𝑎1 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝐼𝐿 2𝑍𝑒"−1I2 (a2 2Ze" − 𝑎1 1𝑍𝑒")
𝑎2 𝐼𝐿 2𝑍𝑒" − 1𝑉2 𝑎1 − 𝑎2
1𝐼2 =
(a2 2Ze" − 𝑎1 1𝑍𝑒")
CASE I: Unequal Ratio (a1 ≠ a2) CASE II: Equal Ratios (a1 = a2)
a2 IL 2Ze"−1V2 a1 −a2 2𝑍𝑒"𝐼
𝐿
1I2 = 1I2 = 1𝑍𝑒"+2𝑍𝑒"
(a22Ze" −a1 1Ze")
1𝑍𝑒"𝐼𝐿
2I2 =
1V2 a1 −a2 +a1 IL 1Ze" 2I2 =
1𝑍𝑒"+2𝑍𝑒"
(a22Ze" +a1 1Ze")

CASE III: a1 ≠ a2 at No-Load (IL = 0)

−1V2 a1 −a2
1I2 =
(a 2Ze" −a1 1Ze")
2
1V2 a1 −a2
2I2 =
(a22Ze" +a1 1Ze")
1.) Given: 2 – 75KVA, 2200/220V
1Ze” = 0.5+j0.3Ω
2Ze” = 0.6+j1Ω
SL = 125KVA, 0.8 pf lagging
Find the % loading of T1 & T2.

𝑘𝑉𝐴1 1I2 = _2Ze” IL___

%𝑇1 = 𝑥100%
𝑆𝐿 1Ze” + 2Ze”
𝑘𝑉𝐴2 1I2 = ____(0.6+j1)_____ 125KVA
%𝑇2 = 𝑥100% -1
𝑆𝐿 (0.5+j0.3)+(0.6+j1) 220V ∟-cos 0.8
1I2 = 339.0967 ∟-27.597 A
𝑘𝑉𝐴1 = 𝑉2 1𝐼2
𝑘𝑉𝐴2 = 𝑉2 2𝐼2 2I2 = _1Ze” IL___
1Ze” + 2Ze”
2I2 = ____(0.5+j0.3)____ 125KVA
(0.5+j0.3)+(0.6+j1) ∟-cos-1 0.8
220V
2I2 = 194.540 ∟-55.167 A
S1 = (220)(389.1)
= 85.6KVA
S2 = (220)(194.55)
= 42.8KVA

85.5𝑘𝑉𝐴
%𝑇1 = 𝑥100%
125𝑘𝑉𝐴
%T1 = 68.48%

42.8𝑘𝑉𝐴
%𝑇2 = 𝑥100%
125𝑘𝑉𝐴
%T2 = 34.24%
2.) Given: Transformer A 100KVA 2300/230V
%IR=5% %IX=10%
Transformer B 50KVA 2300/230V
%IR=6% %IX=8%
Determine the KVA loading of each transformer of 0.8 pf lagging if
load is equal to 125KVA.
I Re"
%IR= 2 x100%
V2
(%𝐼𝑅)(𝑉2 ) 5% 230𝑉
1𝑅𝑒" = 𝐼
= 100% 100𝑘𝑉𝐴
= 0.0265Ω
2
230𝑉
(%𝐼𝑋)(𝑉2 ) 10% 230𝑉
1𝑋𝑒" = = = 0.0529Ω
𝐼2 100% 100𝑘𝑉𝐴
230𝑉
(%𝐼𝑅)(𝑉2 ) 6% 230𝑉
2𝑅𝑒" = = = 0.0635Ω
𝐼2 100% 50𝑘𝑉𝐴
230𝑉
(%𝐼𝑋)(𝑉2 ) 8% 230𝑉
2𝑋𝑒" = 𝐼2
= 100% 50𝑘𝑉𝐴
= 0.0846Ω
230𝑉
1Ze”=0.0265+j0.0528Ω
2Ze”=0.0635+j0.0846Ω
Set Transformer A as Basis
100𝑘𝑉𝐴
B𝑍𝑒"𝑛𝑒𝑤 = (0.0635 + 𝑗0.0846)
50𝑘𝑉𝐴
B𝒁𝒆"𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟕 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝜴

0.127 + 𝑗0.17
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐴 = (125𝑘𝑉𝐴∟ cos −1 0.8)
0.0265 + 𝑗0.0529 + 0.127 + 𝑗0.17
𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝑨 = 𝟗𝟖. 𝟎𝟖∟𝟖𝟗. 𝟎𝟕 𝐤𝐕𝐀

0.0265 + 𝑗0.0528
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐵 = (125𝑘𝑉𝐴∟ cos−1 0.8)
0.0265 + 𝑗0.0529 + 0.127 + 𝑗0.17

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝑩 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟑𝟓∟𝟐𝟖. 𝟖𝟑 𝐤𝐕𝐀

Set Transformer B as Reference
50𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐴𝑍𝑒"𝑛𝑒𝑤 = (0.0265 + 𝑗0.0529)
100𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑨𝒁𝒆"𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟑 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟔𝟓𝜴

0.0635 + 𝑗0.0846
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑨 = (125𝑘𝑉𝐴∟ cos −1 0.8)
0.1333 + 𝑗0.0265 + 0.0635 + 𝑗0.0846
𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝑨 = 𝟗𝟕. 𝟗𝟎∟𝟑𝟗. 𝟒𝟐𝒌𝑽𝑨

0.0133 + 𝑗0.0265
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐵 = (125𝑘𝑉𝐴∟ cos −1 0.8)
0.1333 + 𝑗0.0265 + 0.0635 + 𝑗0.0846

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝑩 = 𝟐𝟕. 𝟒𝟒∟𝟐𝟖. 𝟖𝟕𝒌𝑽𝑨

 3.) Two transformers are to be paralleled on both their high and low
tension sides. Their characteristics are as follows:
No.1 100KVA 6900/230V %IR=1.25% %IX=5.4%
No.2 200KVA 6900/230V %IR=1.34% %IX=5.53%
At a load of 300KVA, 0.8 pf lagging. Determine the KVA and currents
supplied by each transformer.
%𝐼𝑅𝑉2
1𝑅𝑒" =
𝐼2
100𝑘𝑉𝐴 200𝑘𝑉𝐴
1𝐼2 = = 𝟒𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟖𝟐𝟔𝑨 ∶ 2𝐼2 = = 𝟖𝟔𝟗. 𝟓𝟔𝟓𝟐𝑨
230𝑉 230𝑉

1.25% 230𝑉
1𝑅𝑒" = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟔𝜴
100% 434.7827𝐴
5.4% 230𝑉
1𝑋𝑒" = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟔𝜴
100% 434.7827𝐴
1.34% 230𝑉
2𝑅𝑒" = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓𝜴
100% 869.5652𝐴
5.58% 230𝑉
2𝑋𝑒" = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟔𝜴
100% 869.5652𝐴
 1𝑍𝑒" = 0.0066 + 𝑗0.0286Ω
2𝑍𝑒" = 0.0035 + 𝑗0.0146Ω
Transformer 1 as reference
1𝑍𝑒" → 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∶ 2𝑍𝑒" → 2𝑍𝑒"𝑛𝑒𝑤
100𝑘𝑉𝐴
2𝑍𝑒"𝑛𝑒𝑤 = (0.0035 + 𝑗0.0146Ω)
200𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝟐𝒁𝒆"𝒏𝒆𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟖 + 𝒋𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑𝜴
(0.0018+𝑗0.0073𝛺 ) 300𝑘𝑉𝐴
1𝐼2 = ∟ − cos −1 0.8
0.0066+𝐽0.0236 +(0.0018+𝑗0.0073𝛺 ) 230𝑉
1𝐼2 = 𝟐𝟔𝟓. 𝟗𝟖𝟗𝟐∟ − 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓𝟓𝟐𝟎𝑨
(0.0066+𝑗0.0236𝛺 ) 300𝑘𝑉𝐴
2𝐼2 = ∟ − cos −1 0.8
0.0066+𝐽0.0236 +(0.0018+𝑗0.0073𝛺 ) 230𝑉
2𝐼2 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟖. 𝟑𝟖𝟐𝟑∟ − 𝟑𝟔. 𝟔𝟗𝟓𝟐𝑨

𝑘𝑉𝐴1 = 1𝐼2 𝑉2 = (265.892𝐴)(230𝑉)

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝟏 = 𝟔𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟕𝟓𝐤𝐕𝐀

𝑘𝑉𝐴2 = 2𝐼2 𝑉2 = (1038.3823𝐴)(230𝑉)

𝐤𝐕𝐀 𝟐 = 𝟐𝟑𝟖. 𝟖𝟐𝟕𝟗𝐤𝐕𝐀
4.) Given: Transformer 1 50KW 13200/2350V
1Re”=0.635 1Xe”=1.266
Transformer 2 50KW 13200/2300V
2Re”=0.656 2Xe”=1.38
Find the secondary current and the KVA loading of each transformer.
a.) If IL=0
b.) If IL=30A, with pf 0.8 lagging.
−1𝑉2 (𝑎1 −𝑎2 )
a.) 1𝐼2 = 𝑎
2 2𝑍𝑒"+𝑎1 1𝑍𝑒"
−(2350∟0)(5.617 − 5.739)
1𝐼2 =
5.739 0.656 + 𝑗1.38 + (5.617)(0.635 + 𝑗1.266)
𝟏𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟕. 𝟏𝟒𝟑𝟒∟ − 𝟔𝟑. 𝟗𝟗𝟖𝟓𝑨

2𝑉2 (𝑎1 −𝑎2 )

2𝐼2 = 𝑎
2 2𝑍𝑒"+𝑎1 1𝑍𝑒"
(2300∟0)(5.617 − 5.739)
2𝐼2 =
5.739 0.656 + 𝑗1.38 + (5.617)(0.635 + 𝑗1.266)
𝟐𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝟕𝟖𝟔∟𝟏𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟓𝑨
 𝑎2 𝐼𝐿 2𝑍𝑒"−1𝑉2 (𝑎1 −𝑎2 )
b.) 1𝐼2 = 𝑎2 2𝑍𝑒"+𝑎1 1𝑍𝑒"
[(5.739)(30∟ −cos −1 0.8) 0.656 + 𝑗1.38 ] − [ 2350∟0 5.617 − 5.739 ]
1𝐼2 =
5.739 0.656 + 𝑗1.38 + (5.617)(0.635 + 𝑗1.266)
𝟏𝑰𝟐 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟗𝟏𝟗𝟔∟ − 𝟓𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟐𝟔𝑨

1𝑉2 𝑎1 −𝑎2 +𝑎1 𝐼𝐿 1𝑍𝑒"

2𝐼2 = 𝑎2 2𝑍𝑒"+𝑎1 1𝑍𝑒"
2300∟0 5.617 − 5.739 + [(5.617)(30∟ − cos −1 0.8)(0.635 + 𝑗1.266)]
2𝐼2 =
5.739 0.656 + 𝑗1.38 + (5.617)(0.635 + 𝑗1.266)
𝟐𝑰𝟐 = 𝟕. 𝟓𝟐𝟏𝟕∟𝟓𝟖. 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟐𝑨
 AUTO-TRANSFORMER

I1
a

Iab

b I2
V1

Icb V2

I2 = Iab + Icb
Power delivered to the load w/o transformation = Vcb I1 = V2I1

Power transformed = V2(I2-I1) = Power developed to load through the

= Vcb(Icb) core by transformer action.
= (Vab) I1
= (V1-V2)I1

Capacity of rating of Autotransformer = V1I1

= V2I2

Rating of a 2-Winding Transformer = Size of Core = KVA Rating

= V2(I2-I1)
= (V1-V2)I1
 𝑉1 𝐼1
Rating of an Auto-Transformer = 𝑉1 −𝑉2 𝐼2
𝑉1 1 𝑉2
=
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 1 𝑉2
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑉1 𝑉2
−
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝒂𝒏
=
𝒂𝒏 − 𝟏

Therefore: VA Rating of Transformer

𝒂𝒏
= Rating of 2-Winding → 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝐷𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝒂𝒏 −𝟏
𝒂𝒏
→ 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝 𝑈𝑝
𝟏−𝒂𝒏
Voltage Equation: V1 = aV2 + I1(re’+jxe’)
Where: re’ = rac + (𝑎𝑛 − 1)2 (rbc)
xe’ = xac + (𝑎𝑛 − 1)2 (xbc)
POWER TRANSFORMED POWER TRANSFORMED
= 𝑉2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) = 𝑉1 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 )
𝑃2𝑊 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) 𝑃2𝑊
=
𝐼2 = 𝐼2 − 𝐼1
𝐼2 − 𝐼1 𝐼1
= 𝑃2𝑊
𝐼2
𝐼2 − 𝐼1
= 𝑃2𝑊
𝐼1 𝐼2
= 𝑃2𝑊 1 −
𝐼2

𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐𝑾 𝒂𝑨 − 𝟏
= 𝑷𝟐𝑾 𝟏−
𝒂𝑨

Step-down
Step-up
1.) The core of a 50KVA, 2-winding is used for an autotransformer
with a voltage rating of 360/120V. What is the maximum
possible rating for an auto-transformer?

𝑎
Kva rating of Auto-transformer = 𝑘𝑉𝐴2𝑊 𝑎−1
3
= 50𝑘𝑉𝐴
3−1

kVA rating of Auto-transformer = 75kVA

 2.) Given:
I1 I2

240V 120V 360V

120V

Size of Core = 120KVA

Find the currents when connected as an Autotransformer.

3 𝐼2
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 120𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 180𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑎=
3−1 𝐼1
𝐼2
180𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝐼1 =
𝐼2 = 𝑎
120𝑉 1500𝐴
𝐼1 =
3
𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑨
𝑰𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑨
 3.) Given a two-winding transformer rated 200KVA, 2400/240V, 60Hz.
The primary and secondary resistance are 0.5Ω and 0.0055Ω
respectively while the primary and secondary reactance are 2.8Ω and
0.03Ω respectively. The 2-winding is used as auto-transformer with
rated V1=2640V and V2=240V. Find the %VR at unity pf.
a

V1 V2 2640V b
240V
c
re’=𝑟𝑎𝑐 + (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑟𝑏𝑐
𝑉1 − 𝑎𝑉2 𝑟𝑒 ′ = (0.5 + 0.0055) + 11 − 1 2
0.0055
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥100%
𝑎𝑉2 𝒓𝒆′ = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓𝟓𝟓𝜴
𝐼2
𝑉1 = 𝑎𝑉2 + (𝑟𝑒 ′ + 𝑗𝑥𝑒 ′ ) xe’=𝑥𝑎𝑐 + (𝑎 − 1)2 𝑥𝑏𝑐
𝑎
x𝑒 ′ = (2.8 + 0.03) + 11 − 1 2
0.03
x𝒆′ = 𝟓. 𝟖𝟑𝜴
 11
𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 200𝑘𝑉𝐴 = 𝟐𝟐𝟎𝒌𝑽𝑨
11 − 1
𝐼2 220𝑘𝑉𝐴
= ∟0
𝑎 240(11)

220𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝑉1 = 2640∟0 + ∟0 (1.0555 + 𝑗5.83)
240 11
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟐𝟕∟𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟖𝟐𝑽

2770.8827 − 2640
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥100%
2640
%𝑽𝑹 = 𝟒. 𝟗𝟓𝟕𝟕%
4.) A 20KVA, 500V load is to be supplied by an ideal step-up auto-
transformer from a 400V source. Find the current in the common
winding.

I2 𝐼𝑏𝑐 =?
a 𝐼𝑏𝑐 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼𝑎𝑏

I1 Iab
b 20𝑘𝑉𝐴
V2 𝐼𝑎𝑏=𝐼2 = = 40𝐴
500𝑉
V1 Ibc
𝐼2 40𝐴
c 𝐼1 = =
𝑎 0.8
𝐼1 = 50𝐴

𝐼𝑏𝑐 = 50𝐴 − 40𝐴

𝑰𝒃𝒄 = 𝟏𝟎𝑨
 5.) A 10KVA, 440/110 V, 1Ø transformer has an efficiency of 96% at a
rated load of unity pf. The full-load cu-loss is 250W. If the transformer
is to be connected as a 550/110V auto-transformer, determine it’s
efficiency when supplying full-load at 85% pf.
As a 2-Winding Transformer As an Auto Transformer
10𝑘𝑉𝐴 1 5
96% = 𝑥100% 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝐴 = 10𝑘𝑉𝐴
10𝑘𝑉𝐴 1 + 250𝑊 + 𝑃𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸 5−1
𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒆 = 𝟏𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕𝑾 𝒌𝑽𝑨𝑨 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝒌𝑽𝑨

12.5𝑘𝑉𝐴(0.85)
𝜂𝐴 = 𝑥100%
12.5𝑘𝑉𝐴 0.85 + 250𝑊 + 166.67𝑊
𝜼𝑨 = 𝟗𝟔. 𝟐𝟑%
6.) An auto-transformer having a primary voltage of 116V and a
secondary voltage of 80V delivers a load of 4KW at unity pf. Calculate
the power transformed and the power conducted from the source to
load.
Power Transformed=𝑃2𝑊 𝑎𝐴 − 1
= 4𝑘𝑊 1.45 − 1
Power Transformed = 1800Watts

Power Conducted = 𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃𝑇𝑅𝐴𝑁𝑆𝐹𝑂𝑀𝐸𝐷

= 4kW – 1800W
Power Conducted = 2200Watts
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER
Three-Phase Transformer
 Large scale generation of electric power is usually 3-phase at generated voltages
of 13.2 KV or somewhat higher. Transmission is generally accomplished at higher
voltages of 110,132,275,400 and 750 KV for which purpose 3-phase
transformers are necessary to step up the generated voltage to that of the
transmission line.
 Next, at a load centres, the transmission voltages are reduced to distribution
voltages of 6600,4600 and 2300 volts.
 Further, at most of the consumers, the distribution voltages are still reduced to
utilization voltages of 440,220 or 110 volts.
 Years ago, it was a common practice to use suitably interconnected three single-
phase transformers instead of a single 3-phase transformer.
 But these days, the latter is gaining popularity because of improvement in design
and manufacture but principally because of better acquaintance of operating men
with the three-phase type.
 As compared to a bank of single-phase transformers, the main advantages of a 3-
phase transformer are that it occupies less floor space for equal rating, weighs less
costs about 15% less and further, that only one unit is to be handled and
connected.
 Like single-phase transformers, the three-phase transformers are also of the core
type or shell type.
 The basic principle of a 3-phase transformer is illustrated in Fig. 31.1 in which
only primary windings have been shown interconnected in star and put across 3-
phase supply.
 The three cores are 120˚ apart and their empty legs are shown in contact with
each other. The centre leg, formed by these three, carries the flux produced by
the three phase currents IR,IY and IB; As at any instant IR+IY+IB = 0, hence the
sum of three fluxes is also zero.
 Therefore, it will make no difference if the common leg is removed. In that case
any two legs will act as the return for the third just as in a 3-phase system any
two conductors act as the return for the current in the third conductor.
 This improved design is shown in Fig. 31.2(a) where dotted rectangles indicate
the three windings and numbers in the cores and yokes represent the directions
and magnitudes of fluxes at a particular instant.
 It will be seen that at any instant, the amount of ‘up’ flux any leg is equal to the
sum of ‘down’ fluxes in the other two legs. The core type transformers are
usually wound with circular cylindrical coils.
 20

20

10

10
Coil 20 10

Fig. 31.2(a)
 In a similar way, three single-phase shell type transformers can be
combined together to form a 3-phase shell type unit.
 But some saving in iron can be achieved in constructing a single 3-phase
transformer as shown in Fif.31.3.
 It does not differ from three single-phase transformers put side by side.
Saving iron is due to the joint use of the magnetic paths between the coils.
 The three phases, in this case, are more independent than they are in the
core type transformers, because each phase has a magnetic circuit
independent of the other.
 One main drawback in a 3-phase transformer is that if any one phase
becomes disabled, then the whole transformer has to be ordinarily
removed from service for repairs (the shell type may be operated open ∆
or Vee but this is not always feasible).
 However, in the case of a 3-phase bank of single-phase transformers, if one
transformer goes out of order, the system can still be run open-∆ at
reduced capacity or the faulty transformer can be readily replaced by a
single spare.
Star/Star or Y/Y Connection
This connection is most economical for small, high voltage
transformers because the number of turns/phase and the amount of
insulation required is minimum (as phase voltage is only 1/√3 of line
voltage). In Fig.31.4 is shown a bank of 3 transformers connected in Y on
both the primary and the secondary sides. The ratio of line voltages on the
primary and secondary sides is the same as the transformation ratio of each
transformer. However, there is a phase shift of 30˚ between the phase
voltages and line voltages both on the primary and secondary sides. Of
course, line voltages on both sides as well as primary voltages are
respectively in phase with each other. This connection works satisfactorily only
if the load is balanced. With the unbalanced load to the neutral, the neutral
point shifts thereby making the three line-to-neutral (i.e. phase) voltages
unequal. The effect of unbalanced loads can be illustrated by placing a
single load between phase (or coil) a and the neutral on the secondary side.
The power to the load has to be supplied by primary phase (or coil) A.
This primary coil A cannot supply the required power because it is in series
with primaries B and C whose secondaries are open. Under this condition,
the primary coils B and C act as very high impedances so that primary coil
can obtain but very little current through them from the line. Hence,
secondary coil a cannot supply any appreciable power. In fact, a very low
resistance approaching a short-circuit may be connected between point a
and the neutral and only a very small amount of current will flow. This, as
said above, is due to the reduction of voltage Ean because of neutral shift. In
other words, under short circuit conditions, the neutral is pulled too much
towards coil a. This reduces Ean but increases Ebn and Ein (however line
voltages EAB,EBC and ECA are unaffected). On the primary side, EAN will be
practically reduced to zero whereas EBN and ECN will rise to nearly full
primary line voltage. This difficulty of shifting (or floating) neutral can be
obviated by connecting the primary neutral (shown dotted in the figure)
back to the generator so that primary coil A can take its required power
from between its line and the neutral. It should be noted that if a single
phase load is connected between the lines a and b, there will be a similar
but less pronounced neutral shift which results in an overvoltage on one or
more transformers.
C c

B b

A a
R
N n
B b

A a

C c
0˚ Angular Displacement
Fig. 31.4
 Another advantage of stabilizing the primary neutral by connecting it
to neutral of the generator is that it eliminates distortion in the secondary
phase voltages. This is explained as follows. For delivering a sine wave of
voltage, it is necessary to have a sine wave of flux in the core, but on
account of the characteristics of iron, a sine wave of flux requires a third
harmonic component in the exciting current. As the frequency of this
component thrice the frequency of the circuit, at any given instant, it tends
to flow either towards or away from the neutral point in all the three
transformers. If the primary neutral is isolated, the triple frequency
current cannot flow. Hence, the flux in the core cannot be a sine wave and
so the voltages are distorted. But if the primary neutral is earthed i.e.
Joined to the generator neutral, then this provides a path for the triple-
frequency currents and e.mfs. and the difficulty is overcome. Another way
of avoiding this trouble of oscillating neutral is to provide each of the
transformers with a third or tertiary winding of relatively low KVA rating.
This tertiary winding is connected in ∆ and provides a circuit in which the
triple-frequency component of the magnetising current can flow (with an
isolated neutral, it could not). In that case, a sine wave of voltage applied
to the primary will result in a sine wave of phase voltage in the secondary.
The advantage of this connection is that insulation is stressed only to the
extent of line to neutral voltage i.e. 58% of the line voltage.
Delta-Delta or ∆-∆ Connection
This connection is economical for large, low-voltage transformers in
which insulation problem is not so urgent, because it increases the number
of turns/phase. The transformer connections and voltage triangles are
shown in Fig. 31.5. The ratio of transformation between primary and
secondary line voltage is exactly the same as that of each transformer.
Further, the secondary voltage triangle abc occupies the same relative
position as the primary voltage triangle ABC i.e. there is no angular
displacement between the two. Moreover, there is no internal phase shift
between phase and line voltages on either side as was the case in Y-Y
connection. This connection has the following advantages:
1. In order that the output voltage be sinusoidal, it is necessary that
the magnetising current of the transformer must contain a third harmonic
component. In this case, the third harmonic component of the magnetising
current can flow in the ∆-connected transformer primaries without
flowing in the line wires. The three phases are 120˚ apart which is 3 × 120
= 360˚ with respect to the third harmonic, hence it merely circulates in
the ∆. Therefore, the flux is sinusoidal which results in sinusoidal voltages.
 2. No difficulty is experienced from unbalanced loading as was the
case in Y-Y connection. The three-phase voltages remain practically
constant regardless of load imbalance.
3. An added advantage of this connection is that if one transformer
becomes disabled, the system can continue to operate in open-delta or in
V-V although with reduced available capacity. The reduced capacity is 58%
and not 66.7% of the normal value, as explained in Art. 31.7.
C c

B b

A a

B b

A a

C c
0˚ Angular Displacement
Fig. 31.5
C c

B b

A a

a b

a
a c
c
30˚ Angular Displacement
Fig. 31.6
C c

B b

A a

B a b

A n

C c
30˚ Angular Displacement
Fig. 31.7
Wye/Delta or Y/∆ Connection
The main use of this connection is at the substation end of the
transmission line where the voltage is to be stepped down. The primary
winding is Y-connected with grounded neutral as shown in Fig. 31.6. The
ratio between the secondary and primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the
transformation ratio of each transformer. There is a 30˚ shift between the
primary and secondary line voltages which means that a Y-∆ transformer
bank cannot be paralleled with either a Y-Y or a ∆-∆ bank. Also, third
harmonic currents flows in the ∆ to provide a sinusoidal flux.
Delta/Wye or ∆/Y Connection
This connection is generally employed where it is necessary to step
up the voltage as for example, at the beginning of high tension
transmission system. The connection is shown in Fig. 31.7. The neutral of
the secondary is grounded for providing 3-phase 4-wire service. In recent
years, this connection has gained considerable popularity because it can be
used to serve both the 3-phase power equipment and the single-phase
lighting circuits.
This connection is not open to the objection of a floating neutral and
voltage distortion because the existence of a ∆-connection allows a path
for the third-harmonic currents. It would be observed that the primary
and secondary line voltages and line currents are out of phase with each
other by 30˚ shift, it is impossible to parallel such a bank with a ∆-∆ or Y-Y
bank of transformers even though the voltage ratios are correctly adjusted.
The ratio of secondary of primary voltage is √3 times the transformation
ratio of each transformer.
Example 1. A 3-phase, 50-Hz transformer has a delta-connected primary
and star-connected secondary, the line voltages being 22,000V and 400V
respectively. The secondary has a star-connected balanced load at 0.8
power factor lagging. The line current on the primary side is 5A.
Determine the current in each coil of the primary and in each secondary
line. What is the output of transformer in KW?

22000V 5A 400V
√3

Fig. 31.8
Solution. It should be noted that in three-phase transformers, the phase
transformation ratio is equal to the turn ratio but the terminal or the
voltages depend upon the method of connection employed. The ∆-Y
connection is shown in Fig. 31.8.
𝑉 22000
𝑎=𝑎 3 ; 𝑎 = 𝑉1 = 400
= 55
2
5
𝐼𝜙2 = 𝐼𝜙1 = 3(55)
3
𝑰𝝓𝟐 = 𝟐𝟕𝟓𝑨

𝑃𝑜 = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 𝑝𝑓
𝑃𝑜 = 3 400 275 0.8

𝑷𝒐 = 𝟏𝟓𝟐. 𝟒𝟐𝒌𝑾
Example 2. A 500-kVA, 3-phase, 50-Hz transformer has a voltage ratio (line
voltages) of 33/11-kV and is delta-star connected. The resistances per
phase are high voltage 35Ω, low voltage 0.876Ω and iron loss is 3050W.
Calculate the value of efficiency at full-load and one-half of full load
respectively (a) at unity p.f. and (b) 0.8 p.f.
33𝑘𝑉
SOLUTION: Transformation Ratio : 𝑎 = 3 11𝑘𝑉
=𝟑 𝟑
𝑃𝐶𝑈𝐹𝐿 = 𝐼2 2 𝑅𝑒“

𝑟1 35
Re”= + 𝑟2 = + 0.876 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟕𝟐𝜴
𝑎2 (3 3)2

500𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐼𝟐 = = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟐𝟒𝑨
3(11𝑘𝑉)
Full-load condition
Full-load total Cu-loss = 3 × (500/11√3)2 × 2.172 = 4,490 W
Total full-load losses = 4,490 + 3,050 = 7,540W;
Output at unity p.f. = 500 kW
F.L. Efficiency = 500,000/507,540 = 0.9854 or 98.54%;
Output at 0.8 p.f. = 400 kW
Efficiency = 400,000/407,540 = 0.982 or 98.2%
Half-load condition
Output at unity p.f. = 250 kW
2
Cu losses = (1/2) ×4,490 = 1,122 W
Total losses = 3,050 + 1,122 = 4,172 W
H.L. Efficiency = 250,000/254,172 = 0.9835 = 98.35%
Output at 0.8 p.f. = 200 kW
Efficiency = 200,000/204,172 = 0.98 or 98%
Example 3. A 3-phase, 6,600/415-V, 2,000-kVA transformer has a per unit
resistance of 0.02 and per unit leakage reactance of 0.1. Calculate the Cu
loss and regulation at full-load 0.8 p.f.

Solution: %𝑉𝑅 = (𝑅𝑝𝑢 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 +(𝑋𝑝𝑢 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 − 1

%𝑉𝑅 = (0.02 + 0.8)2 +(0.1 + sin(cos −1 0.8))2 − 1
%𝑽𝑹 = 𝟕. 𝟖𝟏%

𝑃𝐶𝑈 = 𝐼2 2 𝑅𝑒“
2000𝑘𝑉𝐴
𝐼2 = = 𝟐𝟕𝟖𝟐. 𝟒𝟏𝑨
3 x 415𝑉
3
𝑃𝐶𝑈𝐹𝐿 = 2782.41 2 (0.0030)
3
𝐏𝐂𝐔𝐅𝐋 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟐𝟑 𝐤𝐖
Example 4. A 120-kVA, 6,000/400-V,Y-Y, 3-ph, 50-Hz transformer has an
iron loss of 1,600W. The maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ full-load. Find
the efficiencies of the transformer at (a) full-load at 0.8 power factor
(b) half-load at unity power factor (c) the maximum efficiency

Solution: Since maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ full-load, Cu loss at ¾ full-

load equals iron loss of 1600W.

2
Cu loss at ¾ F.L. = 1,600W; Cu loss at F.L. = 1,600 × (4/3) = 2,845 W

(a) F.L. Output at 0.8 p.f. = 120 kVA × 0.8 = 96 kW = 96,000 W

Total loss = 1,600 + 2,845 = 4,445 W
Efficiency = (96,000/100,445) × 100 = 95.57%
(b) Cu loss at ½ full-load = (1/2)2 × 2,845 = 710 W
Total loss = 710 +1,600 = 2,310 W
Output at ½ F.L. at u.p.f. is = 60 kW = 60,000
Efficiency = (60,000/62,310) × 100 = 96.3%

(c) Maximum efficiency occurs at ¾ full-load when iron loss equals Cu loss.
Total loss = 2 ×1,600 = 3,200 W
Output at u.p.f. = (3/4) × 120 kW = 90 kW = 90,000 W
Input = 90,000 + 3,200 = 93,200 W
Efficiency = (90,000/93,200) × 100 = 96.57%
Example 5. A 3-phase transformer, ratio 33/6.6-kV, ∆/Y, 2-
MVA has a primary resistance of 8Ω per phase and a secondary
of 0.08Ω per phase. The percentage impedance is 7%. Calculate
the secondary voltage with rated primary voltage and hence the
regulation for full-load at 0.75 p.f. lagging conditions.

Solution: 2𝑀𝑉𝐴
F.L secondary current = 6.6𝑘𝑉 x 3
= 175𝐴
33𝑘𝑉
𝑎= 3 = 8.6603
6.6𝑘𝑉
𝑟1 8
𝑅𝑒" = 2 + 𝑟2 = + 0.08 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟔𝟕𝜴
𝑎 (8.6603)2
7% (6.6𝑘𝑉)/ 3
𝑍𝑒" = = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟐𝟑𝜴
100% 175𝐴
𝑋𝑒" = (1.523)2 −(0.1867)2 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟏𝜴
Drop per phase = I2(R02cosØ+X02sinØ)
= 175 × [(0.1876×0.75)+(1.51×0.66)]
= 200 V

Secondary voltage/phase = 6,600/√3 = 3,810 V

V2 = 3,810-200 = 3,610 V

Secondary line voltage = 3,610 × √3 = 6,250 V

%Regn. = 200 × 100/3,810

= 5.23%
6.) A 5000-kVA. 3-phase transformer. 6.6/33kV, delta-wye connected, has no load
of 15kW and a full-load of 50kW. The impedance drop at full load is 7%. Calculate
the primary voltage when a load of 3200kW at 0.8 p.f is delivered at 33kV.
SOLUTION:
𝑉1𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 𝑉𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑉𝑑
Vd=𝐼2 (𝑅𝑒cosθ+Xe"𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑃𝑐𝑢 = 3𝐼2 2 𝑅𝑒“
2
5000𝑘𝑉𝐴
35𝑘𝑊 = 3 𝑟𝑒“
3(33𝑘𝑉)
Re”=1.53Ω
𝑋𝑒" = (𝑍𝑒")2 −(𝑅𝑒")2
33𝑘𝑉
7%( )
𝑉2 3
𝑍𝑒" = = = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟑𝜴
𝐼2 87.5
𝑋𝑒" = (15.3)2 −(1.53)2
𝑿𝒆" = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟐𝟑𝜴
Vd=70A[(1.53)(0.8)+(15.23)sin(cos−1 0.8)]
Vd= 725V

725
%𝑉𝑅 = 𝑥100% = 𝟑. 𝟖%
33𝑘𝑉/ 3

𝑉1𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = 6.6𝑘𝑉 + 3.8% 6.6𝑘𝑉

𝑽𝟏𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 = 𝟔𝟖𝟓𝟎𝑽
7.) A 3-phase transformer has its primary connected in delta and its
secondary in wye. It has an equivalent resistance of 1% and an equivalent
reactance of 6%. The primary applied voltage is 6600V. What must be the
ratio of transformation in order that it will deliver 4800V at full load
current and 0.8 power factor(lag).
SOLUTION:
%𝑉𝑅 = %𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + %𝑋𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
%𝑉𝑅 = 1 0.08 + 6 sin(cos −1 0.8)
%𝑽𝑹 = 𝟒. 𝟒%

𝑉2𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 4.4% 4800 + 4800 = 5010𝑉

6600
𝑎=
5010/ 3
𝒂 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟖
8.) A 2000kVA, 6600/400-V, 3-phase transformer is delta-
connected on the high voltage side and star-connected on the
low-voltage side. Determine its % resistance and % reactance
drops, % efficiency and % regulation on full load 0.8 pf.
Leading given the following data:
S.C Test ; H.V Data ; 400V, 175A and 17kW
O.C Test ; L.V Data ; 400V, 150A and 15kW
𝐼2 /𝑎
%𝑅 = 𝑅𝑒′
%R=0.86% 𝑉1
𝐼2 /𝑎
%X=3.4% %𝑋 = 𝑋𝑒′
𝑉1
%𝑉𝑅 = %𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − %𝑋𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
%VR=-1.34% 𝑃𝑂
𝜂𝐹𝐿 = 𝑥100%
𝜼𝑭𝑳 =98.04% 𝑃𝑂 + 𝑃𝐶𝑈 + 𝑃𝐶𝑂𝑅𝐸
Open-Delta or V-V connection
If one of the transformers of a ∆-∆ is removed and 3-phase supply is
connected to the primaries as shown in Fig. 31.10, then three equal 3-
phase voltages will be available at the secondary terminals on no load. This
method of transforming 3-phase power by means of only two transformers
is called the open ∆-∆ or V-V connection.
It is employed:
1. When the three-phase load is too small to warrant the installation of full
three phase transformer bank.
2. When one of the transformers in a ∆-∆ bank is disabled, so that service
is continued although at reduced capacity, till the faulty transformer is
repaired or a new one is substituted.
3. When it is anticipated that in future the load will increase necessitating
the closing of open-delta.
C c
VL
B b
VL

A a
C c

B A b a

0˚ Angular Displacement
Fig. 31.10
 One important point to note is that the total load that can be carried
by a V-V bank is not two-third of the capacity of a ∆-∆ bank but it is only
57.7% of it. That is a reduction of 15% (strictly, 15.5%) from its normal
rating. Suppose there is ∆-∆ bank of three 10-kVA transformers. When
one transformer is removed, then it runs in V-V. The total rating of the two
transformers is 20 kVA. But the capacity of the V-V bank is not the sum of
the transformer kVA ratings but only 0.866 of it i.e. 20 × 0.866 = 17.32
or (30 × 0.577 = 17.3 kVA). The fact that the ratio of V-capacity to ∆-
capacity is 1/√3 = 57.7% (or nearly 58%) instead of 66(2/3) percent can
be proved as follows:
As seen from Fig. 31.11 (a)
∆-∆ capacity = √3•VL•VL = √3•VL(√3•IS) = 3VLIS
In Fig. 31.11 (b), it is obvious that when ∆-∆ bank becomes V-V bank, the
secondary line current IL becomes equal to the secondary phase current IS.
V-V capacity = √3VLIL = √3VLIS
𝑉−𝑉 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝑆 1
= = = 0.577 𝑜𝑟 58%
Δ−Δ 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 3𝑉𝐼𝑆 3
 It means that the 3-phase load which can be carried without exceeding
the ratings of the transformers is 57.7 percent of the original load rather
than the expected 66.7%.
IL = √3IS
C c
IS IS VL
B b
IS
A a
(a)Closed-∆
IL = IS
C c
IS IS VL

Load
B b
IS
A a
(b) Open-∆
Fig. 31.11
 It is obvious from above that when one transformer is removed from a ∆-∆
bank.
1. The bank capacity is reduced from 30 kVA to 30 × 0.577 = 17.3 kVA
and not to 20 kVA as might be thought off-hand.
2. Only 86.6% of the rated capacity of the two remaining transformers is
available (i.e. 20 × 0.866 = 17.3 kVA). In other words, ratio of operating
capacity to available capacity of an open-∆ is 0.866. This factor of 0.866 is
sometimes called the utility factor.
3. Each transformer will supply 57.7% of load and not 50% when
operating in V-V.
However, it is worth noting that if three transformers in a ∆-∆ are
delivering their rated load and one transformer is removed, the overload
on each of the two remaining transformers is 73.2% because.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 − 𝑉 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝑆
= = 3 = 1.732
𝑉𝐴 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝑆
 This over-load may be carried temporarily but some provision must
be made to reduce the load if overheating and consequent breakdown of
the remaining two transformers is to be avoided.
The disadvantages of this connection are:
1. The average power factor at which the V-bank operates is less than that of the
load. This power factor is actually 86.6% of the balanced load power factor.
Another significant point to note is that, except for a balanced unity power
factor load, the two transformers in the V-V bank operate at different power
factors.
2. Secondary terminal voltages tend to become unbalanced to a great extent
when the load is increased, this happens even when the load is perfectly
balanced.
It may, however, be noted that if two transformers are operating in V-V
and loaded to rated capacity, the addition of a third transformer
increases the total capacity by √3 or 173.2% (i.e. To 30 kVA). It means
that for an increase in cost of 50% for the third transformer, the increase
in capacity is 73.2% when converting from V-V system to a ∆-∆ system.
Power Supplied by V-V Bank
When a V-V bank of two transformers supplies a balanced 3-phase
load of power factor cosØ, then one transformer operates at a p.f. of
cos(30˚-Ø) and the other at cos(30˚+Ø). Consequently, the two
transformers will not have the same voltage regulation.
P1 = kVA cos(30˚-Ø) and P2 = kVA cos(30˚+Ø)
(a) When Ø = 0 i.e. load p.f. = 1
Each transformer will have a p.f. = cos 30˚ = 0.866
(b) When Ø = 30˚ i.e. load p.f. = 0.866
In this case, one transformer has`a p.f. Of cos(30˚-30˚) = 1 and the
other of cos(60˚-30˚) = 0.866.
(c) When Ø = 60˚ i.e. load p.f. = 0.5
In this case, one transformer will have a p.f. = cos(30˚-60˚) = cos(-
30˚) = 0.866 and the other of cos(30˚+60˚) = 0. It means that one of the
transformers will not supply any load whereas the other having a p.f. =
0.866 will supply the entire load.
Example 1: What should be the kVA rating of each transformer in a V-V
bank when the 3-phase balanced load is 40 kVA? If a third similar
transformer is connected for operation, what is the rated capacity? What
percentage increase in rating is affected in this way?

Solution: As pointed earlier, the kVA rating of each transformer has to be

15% greater.

kVA/transformer = (40/2) × 1.15 = 23 kVA

∆-∆ bank rating = 23 × 3 = 69

69−40
Increase = 40
𝑥100% = 𝟕𝟐. 𝟓%
Example 2: A ∆-∆ bank consisting of three 20-kVA, 2300/230-V
transformers supplies a load of 40 kVA. If one transformer is removed,
find for the resulting V-V connection.
(a) kVA load carried by each transformer
(b) percent of rated load carried by each transformer
(c) total kVA rating of the V-V bank
(d) ratio of the V-V bank to ∆-∆ bank transformer ratings
(e) percent increase in load on each transformer when bank is converted
into V-V bank.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑉−𝑉 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑘

Solution: (a) 𝑉𝐴 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
= 3

kVA load supplied by each of the two transformers = 40/√3 = 23.1 kVA
Obviously, each transformer in V-V bank does not carry 50% of the
original load but 57.7%.
 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 23.1
(b) Percent of rated load = 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟
= 20
= 𝟏𝟏𝟓. 𝟓%

carried by each transformer.

Obviously, in this case, each transformer is overloaded to the extent
of 15.5 percent.

(c) kVA rating of the V-V bank = (2×20)×0.866 = 34.64 kVA

𝑉−𝑉 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 34.64

(d) Δ−Δ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
= 60
= 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟕 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟕%

As seen, the rating is reduced to 57.7% of the original rating.

(e) Load supplied by each transformer in ∆-∆ bank = 40/3 = 13.33 kVA
Percentage increase in load supplied by each transformer.

𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉−𝑉 23.1

= 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 Δ−Δ = 13.3 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑𝟐 = 𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟑%

It is obvious that each transformer in the ∆-∆ bank supplying

40kVA was running underloaded (13.33 vs 20 kVA) but runs
overloaded (23.1 vs 20 kVA) in V-V connection.
Example 3: A balanced 3-phase load of 150 kVA at 1000 V, 0.866 lagging
power factor is supplied from 2000 V, 3-phase mains through single-phase
transformers (assumed to be ideal) connected in (a) delta-delta (b) Vee-
Vee. Find the current in the windings of each transformer and the power
factor at which they operate in each case. Explian your calculations with
circuit and vector diagrams.

Solution: (a) Delta-Delta Connection

√3 ×VLILcosØ
15,000; √3 × 1000 × IL × 0.866
IL =100 A
Secondary line current = 100A
Secondary phase current = 100/√3 = 57.7A
Transformation ratio = 2000/1000 = 2
Primary phase current = 57.7/2 = 28.85 A
(b) Vee-Vee Connection
Let I be the secondary line current which is also the phase current
in V-V connection. Then
√3 × 1000 × I × 0.866 = 150,000
I = 100 A
Secondary phase current = 100 A
Primary phase current = 100 × ½ = 50 A
Transformer power factor = 86.6 percent of 0.866 = 0.75 (lag).
Example 4: (a) Two identical 1-phase transformers are connected in open-
delta across 3-phase mains and deliver a balanced load of 3000 kW at 11
kV and 0.8 p.f. Lagging. Calculate the line and phase currents and the
power factors at which the two transformers are working.
(b) if one more identical unit is added and the open-delta is
converted to close delta, calculate the additional load of the same power
factor that can now be supplied for the same temperature rise. Also
calculate the phase and line currents.

Solution: (a) If I is the line current, then

√3 × 11,000 × I × 0.8 = 3,000,000
I = 197 A
Since, this also represents the phase current,
Secondary phase current = 197 A
Transformer p.f. = 86.6 percent of 0.8 = 0.693
(b) Additional load = 72.5 percent of 3000 = 2175 kW
Total load = 3000 + 2175 = 5175 kW
√3VLILcosØ = 5,175,000
√3×11,000×IL×0.8 = 5,175,000
IL = 340 A
Phase current = 340/√3 = 196 A
Example 5:Two transformers connected in open-delta supply a 400 kVA
balanced load operating at 0.866 p.f. (lag). The load voltage is 440 V. What
is the (a) kVA supplied by each transformer? (b) kW supplied by each
transformer?
Solution: The ratio of operating capacity to available capacity in an open-∆
is 0.866. Hence, kVA of each transformer is one-half of the total kVA load
divided by 0.866.

400𝑘𝑉𝐴
(a) kVA of each transformer = = 230.9469 kVA
3

(b) The two transformers have power factors of cos (30˚-Ø) and cos
(30˚+Ø).
P1 = kVA cos (30˚-Ø) and P2 = cos (30˚+Ø)
= cos Ø = 0.866: Ø = cos −1 0.866= 30˚
P1 = 230.9469 × cos 0˚ = 230.9468kW; P2 = 230.9469 × cos 60˚ = 115.5 kW
Obviously, P1 + P2 must equal 400 × 0.86 = 346.5 kW
Scott Connection or T-T Connection
This connection by which 3-phase to three phase transformation is
accomplished with the help of two transformers as shown in Fig. 31.12.
Since it was first proposed by Charles F. Scott, it is frequently referred to
Scott connection. This connection can also be used for 3-phase to 2-phase
transformation.
One of the transformers has centre taps both on the primary and
secondary windings (Fig. 31.12) and is known as the main transformer. It
forms the horizontal member of the connection (Fig. 31.13).
The other transformer has a 0.866 tap and is known as teaser
transformer. One end of both the primary and secondary of the teaser
transformer is joined to the centre taps on both primary and secoondary of
the main transformer respectively as shown in Fig. 31.13(a). The other and
A of the teaser primary and the two ends B and C of the main transformer
primary are connected to the 3-phase supply.
A a

B b
D d
C c

Fig. 31.12
 The voltage diagram is shown in Fig. 31.13 (a) where the 3-phase
supply line voltage is assumed to be 100 V and a transformation ratio of
unity. For understanding as to how 3-phase transformation results from
this arrangement, it is desirable to think of the primary and secondary
vector voltages as forming geometrical T’s (from which this connection
gets its name).
In the primary voltage T of the Fig. 31.13(a), EDC and EDB are each 50
V and differ in phase by 180˚ because both coils DB and DC are on the
same magnetic circuit and are connected in opposition. Each side of the
equilateral triangle represents 100 V. The voltage EDA being the altitude of
the equilateral triangle is equal to (√3/2) × 100 = 86.6 V, and lags behind
the voltage across the main by 90˚. The same relation holds good in the
secondary winding so that abc is a symmetrical 3-phase system.
With reference to the secondary voltage triangle of Fig.13(b), it
should be noted that for a load of unity power factor, current Idb lags
behind volts Edb by 30˚ and Ids leads Edc by 30˚. In other words, the teaser
transformer and each half of the main transformer, all operate at different
power factors.
 A Teaser a
Transformer

100 V

D d
100 V C B c b
100 V 100 V
Primaries Secondaries
Main
A Transformer a
2/3

N N
1/3

C D B c b
EDC EDB 30˚ 30˚
100 V
Idc Idb
(a) (b)
Fig. 30.13
 Obviously, the full rating of the transformers is not being utilized.
The teaser transformer operates at only 0.866 of its rated voltage and the
main transformer coils operate at cos 30˚ 0.866 power factor,which is
equivalent to the main transformer’s coils working at 86.6 percent of this
kVA rating. Hence, the capacity of rating ratio in T-T connection is 86.6% -
the same as in V-V connection if two identical units are used, although
heating in two cases is not the same.
If, however, both the teaser primary and secondary windings are
designed for 86.6 volts only, then they will be operating at full rating,
hence the combined rating of the arrangement would become
(86.6+86.6)/(100+86.6) = 0.928 of its total rating. In other words, ratio
of kVA utilized to that available would be 0.928 which makes this
connection more economical than open-∆ with its ratio of 0.866.
 Fig. 31.14 shows the secondary of T-T connection with its different
voltages based on a nominal voltage of 100 V. As seen, the neutral point n is
one third way up from point d. If secondary voltage and current vector
diagram is drawn for load power factor of unity, it will be found that
1. Current in teaser transformer is in phase with the voltage.
2. In the main transformer, currents leads the voltage by 30˚ across one half
but lags the voltage by 30˚ across the other half as shown in Fig.
31.13(b).
Hence, when a balanced load of p.f. = cosØ is applied, the teaser
current will lag or lead the voltage by Ø while in the two halves of the
main transformer, the angle between current and voltage will be (30˚-Ø)
and (30˚+Ø). The situation is similar to that existing in a V-V
connection.
Example: Two T-connected transformers are used to supply a 440-V, 33-
kVA balanced load from a balanced 3-phase supply of 3300 V. Calculate (a)
voltage and current rating of each coil (b) kVA rating of the main and
teaser transformer.
Solution:
a. Voltage across main primary is 3300 V whereas that across teaser primary is
= 0.866 × 3300 = 2854 V.
The current is the same in the teaser and the main and equals the line
current.
ILP = 33.000/(√3 × 3300) = 5.77 A – Fig. 31.15
The secondary main voltage equals the line voltage of 440 V whereas
teaser secondary voltage = 0.866 ×440 = 381 V
The secondary line current , ILS = ILP/k = 5.77/(440/3300) = 43.3
A as shown in Fig. 31.15.
 5.77 A 43.3 A
A a

3300 V 440 V
381 V

33 kVA Load
2858 V
B 3300 V 440 V b

3300 V 440 V

C c
Fig. 31.15

(b) Main kVA = 3300 × 5.77×10 -3 = 19 kVA

Teaser kVA = 0.866 × main kVA = 0.866 × 19 = 16.4 kVA

Parallel Operation of 3-Phase Transformers
All the conditions which apply to the parallel operation of single
phase transformers also apply to the parallel running of 3-phase
transformers but with the following additions :
1. The voltage ratio must refer to the terminal voltage of primary and
secondary. It is obvious that this ratio may not be equal to the ratio of the
number of turns per phase. For example, V1, V2 are the primary and
secondary terminal voltages, then for Y/∆ connection, the turn ratio is
V2/(V1/√3) = √3V2/V1.
2. The phase displacement between primary and secondary voltages must
be the same for all transformers which are to be connected for parallel
operation.
3. The phase sequence must be the same.
4. All three transformers in the 3-phase transformer bank will be of the
same construction either core or shell.
Note:
(i) In dealing with 3-phase transformers, calculations are made for one
phase only. The value of equivalent impedance used is the equivalent
impedance used is the equivalent impedance per phase referred to
secondary.
(ii) In case the impedances of primary and secondary windings are given
separately, then primary impedance must be referred to secondary
by multiplying it with (transformation ratio).
(iii) For Y/∆ or ∆/Y transformers, it should be remembered that the
voltage ratios as given in the questions, refer 2to terminal voltages
and are quite different from turn ratio.
Example 1: A load of 500 kVA at 0.8 power factor lagging is to be shared by
two three-phase transformers A and B of equal ratings. If the equivalent
delta impedances as referred to secondary are (2+j6)Ω for A and (2+j5)Ω
for B, calculate the load supplied by each transformer.
Solution:
SA = S __ZB__ = S ____1____
ZA + ZB 1+(ZA/ZB)

S = 500(0.8-j0.6) = (400-j300)
ZA/ZB = (2+j6)/(2+j5) = 1.17+j0.07
ZB/ZA = (2+j5)/(2+j6) = 0.85-j0.05
SA = (400-j300)/(2.17+0.07) = 180-j144.2 = 230.7 ∟35.05˚kVA
cosØA = 0.78 lagging
SB = (400-j300)/(1.85/0.05) = 220.1-j156 = 270.17 ∟38.42kVA
cosØB = 0.76 lagging
Example 2:
State (i) the essential and (ii) the desirable conditions to be satisfied
so that two 3-phase transformers may operate successfully in parallel.
A 2,000 kVA transformer (A) is connected in parallel with a 4,000
kVA transformer (B) to supply a 3-phase load of 5,000 kVA at 0.8 p.f.
Lagging. Determine the kVA supplied by each transformer assuming equal
no-load voltages. The percentage voltage drops in the windings at their
rated loads are as follows.

Transformer A resistance 2% reactance 8%

Transformer B resistance1.6% reactance 3%
Solution:
On the basis of 4,000 kVA
%ZA = (4,000/2,000)(2+j8) = (4+j16) = 16.5 ∟76˚
%ZB = (1.6+j3); %ZA+%ZB = (5.6+j16) = 19.8 ∟73.6˚
S = 5,000 ∟-36.9˚ = (4,000-j3,000)

SA = S __ZB__ = 5,000 ∟-36.9˚ × _16.5 ∟76˚_

ZA + Z B 19.8 ∟73.6˚

= 5,000 ∟-36.9˚ × 0.832 ∟2.4˚ = 4.160 ∟-34.5˚ = (3,245-j2,355)

SB = S-SA = (4,000-j3000) – (3,425-j2355)

= (575-j645) = 864 ∟-48.3˚

cosØA = cos 34.5˚ = 0.824 (lag)

cosØB = cos 48.3˚ = 0.665 (lag)