6/18/2020 Rate-dependent plasticity: creep and swelling

Rate-dependent plasticity: creep and swelling

The classical deviatoric metal creep behavior in Abaqus/Standard: Related Topics

can be defined using user subroutine CREEP or by providing parameters as About the material library
input for some simple creep laws; Inelastic behavior
can model either isotropic creep (using Mises stress potential) or anisotropic
creep (using Hill's anisotropic stress potential);
In Other Guides
is active only during steps using the coupled temperature-displacement
procedure, the transient soils consolidation procedure, and the quasi-static Defining the gasket behavior
procedure; directly using a gasket
requires that the material's elasticity be defined as linear elastic behavior; behavior model
can be modified to implement the auxiliary creep hardening rules specified in *CREEP
Nuclear Standard NEF 9-5T, “Guidelines and Procedures for Design of Class 1
Elevated Temperature Nuclear System Components”; these rules are exercised *CREEP STRAIN RATE
by means of a constitutive model developed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory CONTROL
(ORNL – Oak Ridge National Laboratory constitutive model);
*POTENTIAL
can be used in combination with creep strain rate control in analyses in which
the creep strain rate must be kept within a certain range; and *SWELLING
can potentially result in errors in calculated creep strains if anisotropic creep *RATIOS
and plasticity occur simultaneously (discussed below).
Defining a creep law
Rate-dependent gasket behavior in Abaqus/Standard:
Defining swelling
uses unidirectional creep as part of the model of the gasket's thickness-
direction behavior;
can be defined using user subroutine CREEP or by providing parameters as
input for some simple creep laws;
is active only during steps using the quasi-static procedure; and
requires that an elastic-plastic model be used to define the rate-independent
part of the thickness-direction behavior of the gasket.

Volumetric swelling behavior in Abaqus/Standard:

can be defined using user subroutine CREEP or by providing tabular input;
can be either isotropic or anisotropic;
is active only during steps using the coupled temperature-displacement
procedure, the transient soils consolidation procedure, and the quasi-static
procedure; and
requires that the material's elasticity be defined as linear elastic behavior.

The following topics are discussed:

Creep behavior
Volumetric swelling behavior
User subroutine CREEP
Removing creep effects in an analysis step
Integration
Loading control using creep strain rate
Elements
Output

Products: Abaqus/Standard Abaqus/CAE

Creep behavior
Creep behavior is specified by the equivalent uniaxial behavior—the creep “law.” In practical cases creep laws are typically
of very complex form to fit experimental data; therefore, the laws are defined with user subroutine CREEP, as discussed
below. Alternatively, five common creep laws are provided in Abaqus/Standard: the power law, the hyperbolic-sine law, the
double power law, the Anand law, and the Darveaux law. These standard creep laws are used for modeling secondary or
steady-state creep. Creep is defined by including creep behavior in the material model definition (Material data definition).
Alternatively, creep can be defined in conjunction with gasket behavior to define the rate-dependent behavior of a gasket.
Input File Usage:
Use the following options to include creep behavior in the material model definition:
*MATERIAL
*CREEP
Use the following options to define creep in conjunction with gasket behavior:
*GASKET BEHAVIOR
*CREEP
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Property module: material editor: Mechanical > Plasticity > Creep

Choosing a creep model

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The power-law creep model is attractive for its simplicity. However, it is limited in its range of application. The time-
hardening version of the power-law creep model is typically recommended only in cases when the stress state remains
essentially constant. The strain-hardening version of power-law creep should be used when the stress state varies during
an analysis. In the case where the stress is constant and there are no temperature and/or field dependencies, the time-
hardening and strain-hardening versions of the power-creep law are equivalent. For either version of the power law, the
stresses should be relatively low.
In regions of high stress, such as around a crack tip, the creep strain rates frequently show an exponential dependence of
stress. The hyperbolic-sine creep law shows exponential dependence on the stress, σ, at high stress levels (σ/σ 0 ≫ 1,
0
where σ is the yield stress) and reduces to the power-law at low stress levels (with no explicit time dependence).
The double power, Anand, and Darveaux models are particularly well suited for modeling the behavior of solder alloys used
in electronic packaging and have been shown to produce accurate results for a wide range of temperatures and strain rates.
None of the above models is suitable for modeling creep under cyclic loading. The ORNL model (ORNL – Oak Ridge National
Laboratory constitutive model) is an empirical model for stainless steel that gives approximate results for cyclic loading
without having to perform the cyclic loading numerically. Generally, creep models for cyclic loading are complicated and
must be added to a model with user subroutine CREEP or with user subroutine UMAT.

Modeling simultaneous creep and plasticity

If creep and plasticity occur simultaneously and implicit creep integration is in effect, both behaviors may interact and a
coupled system of constitutive equations needs to be solved. If creep and plasticity are isotropic, Abaqus/Standard properly
takes into account such coupled behavior, even if the elasticity is anisotropic. However, if creep and plasticity are
anisotropic, Abaqus/Standard integrates the creep equations without taking plasticity into account, which may lead to
substantial errors in the creep strains. This situation develops only if plasticity and creep are active at the same time, such
as would occur during a long-term load increase; one would not expect to have a problem if there is a short-term
preloading phase in which plasticity dominates, followed by a creeping phase in which no further yielding occurs.
Integration of the creep laws and rate-dependent plasticity are discussed in Rate-dependent metal plasticity (creep).

Power-law model
The power-law model can be used in its “time hardening” form or in the corresponding “strain hardening” form.
Time hardening form
The “time hardening” form is the simpler of the two forms of the power-law model:
cr
n m
˙
ε̄ = Aq̃ t ,

where
cr
˙
ε̄

2 cr cr
is the uniaxial equivalent creep strain rate, √ ε̇ : ε̇ ,
3

q̃

is the uniaxial equivalent deviatoric stress,

t
is the total or the creep time, and
A, n, and m
are defined by you as functions of temperature.
q̃ is Mises equivalent stress or Hill's anisotropic equivalent deviatoric stress according to whether isotropic or anisotropic
creep behavior is defined (discussed below). For physically reasonable behavior A and n must be positive and −1 < m ≤ 0

.
Input File Usage:
*CREEP, LAW=TIME
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Property module: material editor: Mechanical > Plasticity > Creep: Law: Time-Hardening
Time-dependent behavior
In the “time hardening” power law model the total time or the creep time can be used. The total time is the accumulated
time over all general analysis steps. The creep time is the sum of the times of the procedures with time-dependent material
behavior. If the total time is used, it is recommended that small step times compared to the creep time be used for any
steps for which creep is not active in an analysis; this is necessary to avoid changes in hardening behavior in subsequent
steps.
Input File Usage:
Use one of the following options:
*CREEP, TIME=TOTAL (default)
*CREEP, TIME=CREEP
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Specifying the time type is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.
Strain hardening form
The “strain hardening” form of the power law is

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1
cr n cr m
˙
ε̄ = (Aq̃ [(m + 1) ε̄ ] )
m+1
,

cr
where ˙
ε̄ and q̃ are defined above and ε̄
cr
is the equivalent creep strain.

Input File Usage:

*CREEP, LAW=STRAIN
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Property module: material editor: Mechanical > Plasticity > Creep: Law: Strain-Hardening
Numerical difficulties
Depending on the choice of units for either form of the power law, the value of A may be very small for typical creep strain
rates. If A is less than 10−27, numerical difficulties can cause errors in the material calculations; therefore, use another
system of units to avoid such difficulties in the calculation of creep strain increments.

Hyperbolic-sine law model

The hyperbolic-sine law is available in the form

cr n
△H
˙
ε̄ = A(sinh Bq̃ ) exp(− ),
Z
R (θ − θ )

where
cr
˙
ε̄ and q̃

are defined above,

θ

is the temperature,
Z
θ

is the user-defined value of absolute zero on the temperature scale used,

△H

is the activation energy,

R
is the universal gas constant, and
A, B, and n
are other material parameters.
This model includes temperature dependence, which is apparent in the above expression; however, the parameters A, B, n,
△H , and R cannot be defined as functions of temperature.

Input File Usage:

Use both of the following options:
*CREEP, LAW=HYPERB
*PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, ABSOLUTE ZERO=θ Z

Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Define both of the following:
Property module: material editor: Mechanical > Plasticity > Creep: Law: Hyperbolic-Sine
Any module: Model > Edit Attributes > model_name: Absolute zero temperature
Numerical difficulties

As with the power law, A may be very small for typical creep strain rates. If A is very small (such as less than 10−27), use
another system of units to avoid numerical difficulties in the calculation of creep strain increments.

Anand model
The Anand model is available in the form
1

cr
q̃ m
Q
˙
ε̄ = A[sinh(ξ )] exp(− ),
s R (θ − θ
Z
)

where
cr
˙
ε̄ , q̃ , R, θ, and θ
Z

are defined above,

Q

is the activation energy,

s

is the deformation resistance, and

A, m, and ξ

are material parameters.

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The evolution equation for the deformation resistance, s (initially s = s0 ), is

s a s
∣ ∣ cr
ṡ = h0 1 − sign (1 − ˙ ,
) ε̄
∣ s
∗ ∣
s
∗

with
n

1 cr Q
∗
s = ŝ [ ˙
ε̄ exp( )] ,
Z
A R (θ − θ )

where
2 cr cr 2
Z Z
h0 = A0 + A1 (θ − θ ) + A2 (θ − θ ) ˙
+ A3 ε̄ ˙
+ A4 (ε̄ ) ,

and a, n, ŝ , A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 , and A4 are material parameters.

In addition, the initial deformation resistance is a function of temperature of the form
2
Z Z
s0 = S1 + S2 (θ − θ ) + S3 (θ − θ ) ,

where S1 , S2 , and S3 are material parameters.

Input File Usage:
Use both of the following options:
*CREEP, LAW=ANAND
*PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, ABSOLUTE ZERO=θ Z

Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Specifying the Anand law is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.

Darveaux model
The Darveau model involves both primary and secondary creep. The secondary creep (steady-state) component is
described by a standard hyperbolic sine law

cr
Q
n
˙
ε̄ = Css [sinh(αq̃ )] exp(− ).
s
Z
R (θ − θ )

The steady-state law is modified to include the primary creep effects through
cr cr cr
˙
ε̄ ˙
= ε̄ ˙
[1 + ϵT B exp (−Bε̄ t)] ,
s s

where
cr
Z
˙
ε̄ , q̃ , R, Q, θ, and θ

are defined above,

Css

is the steady-state creep prefactor,

α

is the steady-state creep power law breakdown, and

n, ϵ T , and B

are other material parameters.

Input File Usage:
Use both of the following options:
*CREEP, LAW=DARVEAUX
*PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, ABSOLUTE ZERO=θ Z

Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Specifying the Darveaux law is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.

Double power model

The double power law is available in the form

C1 C2
cr B1 q̃ B2 q̃
˙
ε̄ = A1 exp(− )( ) + A2 exp(− )( ) ,
Z Z
(θ − θ ) σ0 (θ − θ ) σ0

where
cr
˙
ε̄ , q̃ , θ, and θ
Z

are defined above,

σ0

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is the normalized stress, and
A 1 , A 2 , B 1 , B 2 , C1 , and C2

are other material parameters.

Input File Usage:
Use both of the following options:
*CREEP, LAW=DOUBLE POWER
*PHYSICAL CONSTANTS, ABSOLUTE ZERO=θ Z

Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Specifying the double power law is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.

Anisotropic creep
Anisotropic creep can be defined to specify the stress ratios that appear in Hill's function. You must define the ratios Rij in
each direction that will be used to scale the stress value when the creep strain rate is calculated. The ratios can be defined
as constant or dependent on temperature and other predefined field variables. The ratios are defined with respect to the
user-defined local material directions or the default directions (see Orientations). Further details are provided in Anisotropic
yield/creep. Anisotropic creep is not available when creep is used to define a rate-dependent gasket behavior since only the
gasket thickness-direction behavior can have rate-dependent behavior.
Input File Usage:
*POTENTIAL
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Property module: material editor: Mechanical > Plasticity > Creep: Suboptions > Potential

Volumetric swelling behavior

As with the creep laws, volumetric swelling laws are usually complex and are most conveniently specified in user subroutine
CREEP as discussed below. However, a means of tabular input is also provided for the form
sw
˙
ε̄ = f (θ, f1 , f2 , …) ,

sw
where ˙
ε̄ is the volumetric strain rate caused by swelling and f1 , f2 , … are predefined fields such as irradiation fluxes in
cases involving nuclear radiation effects. Up to six predefined fields can be specified.
Volumetric swelling cannot be used to define a rate-dependent gasket behavior.
Input File Usage:
*SWELLING
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Property module: material editor: Mechanical > Plasticity > Swelling

Anisotropic swelling
Anisotropy can easily be included in the swelling behavior. If anisotropic swelling behavior is defined, the anisotropic
swelling strain rate is expressed as

sw sw sw sw 1 sw
˙
ε̄ ˙
= ε̄ ˙
+ ε̄ ˙
+ ε̄ = (r11 + r22 + r33 ) ˙
ε̄ ,
A 11 22 33
3

sw
where ε̄
˙ is the volumetric swelling strain rate that you define either directly (discussed above) or in user subroutine
CREEP. The ratios r11 , r22 , and r33 are also user-defined. The directions of the components of the swelling strain rate are
defined by the local material directions, which can be either user-defined or the default directions (see Orientations).
Input File Usage:
Use both of the following options:
*SWELLING
*RATIOS
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Property module: material editor: Mechanical > Plasticity > Swelling: Suboptions > Ratios

User subroutine CREEP

User subroutine CREEP provides a very general capability for implementing viscoplastic models such as creep and swelling
models in which the strain rate potential can be written as a function of equivalent pressure stress, p; the Mises or Hill's
equivalent deviatoric stress, q̃ ; and any number of solution-dependent state variables. Solution-dependent state variables
are used in conjunction with the constitutive definition; their values evolve with the solution and can be defined in this
subroutine. Examples are hardening variables associated with the model.

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The user subroutine can also be used to define very general rate- and time-dependent thickness-direction gasket behavior.
When an even more general form is required for the strain rate potential, user subroutine UMAT (User-defined mechanical
material behavior) can be used.
Input File Usage:
Use one or both of the following options. Only the first option can be used to define gasket behavior.
*CREEP, LAW=USER
*SWELLING, LAW=USER
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Use one or both of the following models. Only the first model can be used to define gasket behavior.
Property module: material editor:
Mechanical > Plasticity > Creep: Law: User defined
Mechanical > Plasticity > Swelling: Law: User subroutine CREEP

Removing creep effects in an analysis step

You can specify that no creep (or viscoelastic) response can occur during certain analysis steps, even if creep (or
viscoelastic) material properties have been defined.
Input File Usage:
Use one of the following options:
*COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT, CREEP=NONE
*SOILS, CONSOLIDATION, CREEP=NONE
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Use one of the following options:
Step module: Create Step:
Coupled temp-displacement: toggle off Include creep/swelling/
viscoelastic behavior
Soils: Pore fluid response: Transient consolidation: toggle off Include creep/swelling/viscoelastic behavior

Integration
Explicit integration, implicit integration, or both integration schemes can be used in a creep analysis, depending on the
procedure used, the parameters specified for the procedure, the presence of plasticity, and whether or not geometric
nonlinearity is requested.

Application of explicit and implicit schemes

Nonlinear creep problems are often solved efficiently by forward-difference integration of the inelastic strains (the “initial
strain” method). This explicit method is computationally efficient because, unlike implicit methods, iteration is not required.
Although this method is only conditionally stable, the numerical stability limit of the explicit operator is usually sufficiently
large to allow the solution to be developed in a small number of time increments.
Abaqus/Standard uses either an explicit or an implicit integration scheme or switches from explicit to implicit in the same
step. These schemes are outlined first, followed by a description of which procedures use these integration schemes.

1. Integration scheme 1: Starts with explicit integration and switches to implicit integration based on either stability or if
plasticity is active. The stability limit used in explicit integration is discussed in the next section.
2. Integration scheme 2: Starts with explicit integration and switches to implicit integration when plasticity is active. The
stability criterion does not play a role here.
3. Integration scheme 3: Always uses implicit integration.
The use of the above integration schemes is determined by the procedure type, your choice of the integration type to be
used, as well as whether or not geometric nonlinearity is requested. For quasi-static and coupled temperature-displacement
procedures, if you do not choose an integration type, integration scheme 1 is used for a geometrically linear analysis and
integration scheme 3 is used for a geometrically nonlinear analysis. You can force Abaqus/Standard to use explicit
integration for creep and swelling effects in coupled temperature-displacement or quasi-static procedures, when plasticity is
not active throughout the step (integration scheme 2). Explicit integration can be used regardless of whether or not
geometric nonlinearity has been requested (see General and perturbation procedures).
For a transient soils consolidation procedure, the implicit integration scheme (integration scheme 3) is always used,
irrespective of whether a geometrically linear or nonlinear analysis is performed.
Input File Usage:
Use one of the following options to restrict Abaqus/Standard to using explicit integration:
*VISCO, CREEP=EXPLICIT
*COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT, CREEP=EXPLICIT
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Use one of the following options to restrict Abaqus/Standard to using explicit integration:

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Step module: Create Step:
Visco: Incrementation: Creep/swelling/viscoelastic integration:
Explicit
Coupled temp-displacement: toggle on Include creep/swelling/
viscoelastic behavior: Incrementation: Creep/swelling/viscoelastic integration: Explicit

Automatic monitoring of stability limit during explicit integration

Abaqus/Standard monitors the stability limit automatically during explicit integration. If, at any point in the model, the
cr
creep strain increment ˙
(ε̄ ∣ Δt)
∣ is larger than the total elastic strain, the problem will become unstable. Therefore, a
t

stable time step, Δts , is calculated every increment by

el
ε ∣
∣
t
Δts = 0.5 ,
cr
˙
ε̄ ∣
∣
t

cr
where ε
el
∣
∣ is the equivalent total elastic strain at time t, the beginning of the increment, and ˙
ε̄ ∣
∣ is the equivalent creep
t t

strain rate at time t. Furthermore,

q̃ |
el t
ε ∣ = ,
∣
t
Ẽ

where q̃ |
t
is the Mises stress at time t, and

el ¯
¯¯
Ẽ = 2 (1 + ν) (n : D : n) ≈ 2.5E ,

where
n = ∂ q̃ | / ∂ σ
t

is the gradient of the deviatoric stress potential,

el
D

is the elasticity matrix, and

¯
¯¯
E
¯
¯¯
is an effective elastic modulus—for isotropic elasticity E can be approximated by Young's modulus.
At every increment for which explicit integration is performed, the stable time increment, Δts , is compared to the critical
time increment, Δtc , which is calculated as follows:

errtol
Δtc = .
cr cr
˙
ε̄ ∣ ˙
− ε̄ ∣
∣ ∣
t+Δt t

The quantity errtol is an error tolerance that you define as discussed below. If Δts is less than Δtc , Δts is used as the
time increment, which would mean that the stability criterion was limiting the size of the time step further than required by
accuracy considerations. Abaqus/Standard will automatically switch to the backward difference operator (the implicit
method, which is unconditionally stable) if Δts is less than Δtc for nine consecutive increments, you have not restricted
Abaqus/Standard to explicit integration as discussed above, and there is sufficient time left in the analysis (time left
≥ 50Δt). The stiffness matrix will be reformed at every iteration if the implicit algorithm is used.

Specifying the tolerance for automatic incrementation

The integration tolerance must be chosen so that increments in stress, △σ, are calculated accurately. Consider a one-
dimensional example. The stress increment, △σ, is
el cr
△σ = E△ε = E (△ε − △ε ),

where △εel , △ε, and △εcr are the uniaxial elastic, total, and creep strain increments, respectively, and E is the elastic
cr
modulus. For △σ to be calculated accurately, the error in the creep strain increment, △εerr , must be small compared to
△ε
el
; that is,
cr el
△εerr ≪ △ε .

Measuring the error in △ε

cr
as

cr cr
˙ cr ˙
△εerr = (ε̄ ∣ − ε̄ ∣ ) △t
∣ ∣
t+△t t

leads to

cr cr △σ
el
˙
(ε̄ ∣ ˙
− ε̄ ∣ ) △t ≪ △ε = , or
∣ ∣
t+△t t
E

△σ
errtol ≪ .
E

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You define errtol for the applicable procedure by choosing an acceptable stress error tolerance and dividing this by a typical
elastic modulus; therefore, it should be a small fraction of the ratio of the typical stress and the effective elastic modulus in
a problem. It is important to recognize that this approach for selecting a value for errtol is often very conservative, and
acceptable solutions can usually be obtained with higher values.
Input File Usage:
Use one of the following options:
*VISCO, CETOL=errtol
*COUPLED TEMPERATURE-DISPLACEMENT, CETOL=errtol
*SOILS, CONSOLIDATION, CETOL=errtol
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Use one of the following options:
Step module: Create Step:
Visco: Incrementation: toggle on Creep/swelling/viscoelastic strain error
tolerance, and enter a value
Coupled temp-displacement: toggle on Include creep/swelling/
viscoelastic behavior: Incrementation: toggle on Creep/swelling/
viscoelastic strain error tolerance, and enter a value
Soils: Pore fluid response: Transient consolidation: toggle on Include creep/swelling/viscoelastic behavior:
Incrementation: toggle on Creep/swelling/viscoelastic strain error tolerance, and enter a value

Loading control using creep strain rate

In superplastic forming a controllable pressure is applied to deform a body. Superplastic materials can deform to very large
strains, provided that the strain rates of the deformation are maintained within very tight tolerances. The objective of the
superplastic analysis is to predict how the pressure must be controlled to form the component as fast as possible without
exceeding a superplastic strain rate anywhere in the material.
To achieve this using Abaqus/Standard, the controlling algorithm is as follows. During an increment Abaqus/Standard
calculates rmax , the maximum value of the ratio of the equivalent creep strain rate to the target creep strain rate for any
integration point in a specified element set. If rmax is less than 0.2 or greater than 3.0 in a given increment, the increment
is abandoned and restarted with the following load modifications:

rmax < 0.2 p = 2.0 pold ,  or

rmax > 3.0 p = 0.5 pold ,

where p is the new load magnitude and pold is the old load magnitude. If 0.2 ≤ rmax ≤ 3.0, the increment is accepted;
and at the beginning of the following time increment, the load magnitudes are modified as follows:

0.2 ≤ rmax < 0.5 p = 1.5 pold ;

0.5 ≤ rmax < 0.8 p = 1.2 pold ;

0.8 ≤ rmax < 1.5 p = pold ;  or

1.5 ≤ rmax ≤ 3.0 p = pold /1.2.

When you activate the above algorithm, the loading in a creep and/or swelling problem can be controlled on the basis of the
maximum equivalent creep strain rate found in a defined element set. As a minimum requirement, this method is used to
define a target equivalent creep strain rate; however, if required, it can also be used to define the target creep strain rate
as a function of equivalent creep strain (measured as log strain), temperature, and other predefined field variables. The
creep strain dependency curve at each temperature must always start at zero equivalent creep strain.
A solution-dependent amplitude is used to define the minimum and maximum limits of the loading (see Defining a solution-
dependent amplitude for superplastic forming analysis). Any number or combination of loads can be used. The current
value of rmax is available for output as discussed below.

Input File Usage:

Use all of the following options:
*AMPLITUDE, NAME=name, DEFINITION=SOLUTION DEPENDENT
*CLOAD, *DLOAD, *DSLOAD, and/or *BOUNDARY with
AMPLITUDE=name
*CREEP STRAIN RATE CONTROL, AMPLITUDE=name, ELSET=elset
The *AMPLITUDE option must appear in the model definition portion of an input file, while the loading options
(*CLOAD, *DLOAD, *DSLOAD, and *BOUNDARY) and the *CREEP STRAIN RATE CONTROL option should appear
in each relevant step definition.
Abaqus/CAE Usage:
Creep strain rate control is not supported in Abaqus/CAE.

Elements
Rate-dependent plasticity (creep and swelling behavior) can be used with any continuum, shell, membrane, gasket, and
beam element in Abaqus/Standard that has displacement degrees of freedom. Creep (but not swelling) can also be defined
in the thickness direction of any gasket element in conjunction with the gasket behavior definition.
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Output
In addition to the standard output identifiers available in Abaqus/Standard (Abaqus/Standard output variable identifiers),
the following variables relate directly to creep and swelling models:
CEEQ
t 2 cr cr
Equivalent creep strain, ∫ √ ε̇ : ε̇ dt.
0 3

CESW
Magnitude of swelling strain.
The following output, which is relevant only for an analysis with creep strain rate loading control as discussed above, is
printed at the beginning of an increment and is written automatically to the results file and output database file when any
output to these files is requested:
RATIO
Maximum value of the ratio of the equivalent creep strain rate to the target creep strain rate, rmax .

AMPCU
Current value of the solution-dependent amplitude.

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