Canadian Psychology Copyright 2008 by the Canadian Psychological Association

2008, Vol. 49, No. 3, 182–185 0708-5591/08/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/a0012801

Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation,

Development, and Health
Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan
University of Rochester

Self-determination theory (SDT) is an empirically based theory of human motivation, development, and
wellness. The theory focuses on types, rather than just amount, of motivation, paying particular attention
to autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and amotivation as predictors of performance, rela-
tional, and well-being outcomes. It also addresses the social conditions that enhance versus diminish
these types of motivation, proposing and finding that the degrees to which basic psychological needs for
autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported versus thwarted affect both the type and strength
of motivation. SDT also examines people’s life goals or aspirations, showing differential relations of
intrinsic versus extrinsic life goals to performance and psychological health. In this introduction we also
briefly discuss recent developments within SDT concerning mindfulness and vitality, and highlight the
applicability of SDT within applied domains, including work, relationships, parenting, education, virtual
environments, sport, sustainability, health care, and psychotherapy.

Keywords: self-determination theory, autonomous motivation, personality development, wellness

As a macrotheory of human motivation, self-determination Since then SDT has been extended and applied by scholars across
theory (SDT) addresses such basic issues as personality devel- Canada, to which the papers in the current volume clearly attest.
opment, self-regulation, universal psychological needs, life
goals and aspirations, energy and vitality, nonconscious pro- Differentiating Motivation
cesses, the relations of culture to motivation, and the impact of
social environments on motivation, affect, behavior, and well- Whereas many historical and contemporary theories of motiva-
being. Further, the theory has been applied to issues within a tion have treated motivation primarily as a unitary concept, focus-
wide range of life domains. sing on the overall amount of motivation that people have for
Although the initial work leading to SDT dates back to the particular behaviours or activities, SDT began by differentiating
1970s and the first relatively comprehensive statement of SDT types of motivation. The initial idea was that the type or quality of
appeared in the mid-1980s (Deci & Ryan, 1985), it has been during a person’s motivation would be more important than the total
the past decade that research on SDT has truly mushroomed. Basic amount of motivation for predicting many important outcomes
research expanding and refining motivational principles has con- such as psychological health and well-being, effective perfor-
tinued at a vigorous pace, but the huge increase in the volume of mance, creative problem solving, and deep or conceptual learning.
published SDT studies has been most apparent in the applied Indeed, an abundance of research has now confirmed that the
fields—in sport, education, and health care, for example. Indeed, initial idea was sound.
the diversity of topics covered in the papers of this special issue, The most central distinction in SDT is between autonomous
along with the amount of research cited in each paper, make clear motivation and controlled motivation. Autonomous motivation
how extensive the literature has become. comprises both intrinsic motivation and the types of extrinsic
Earlier this year we published an article in Canadian Psychol- motivation in which people have identified with an activity’s value
ogy presenting an overview of SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Here we and ideally will have integrated it into their sense of self. When
present a much briefer introduction to the theory that will provide people are autonomously motivated, they experience volition, or a
a structure to help focus readers as they begin the series of papers. self-endorsement of their actions. Controlled motivation, in con-
It is particularly appropriate that this special issue appears in trast, consists of both external regulation, in which one’s behavior
Canadian Psychology insofar as a substantial portion of the con- is a function of external contingencies of reward or punishment,
tributions to SDT has been accomplished by Canadian scholars, and introjected regulation, in which the regulation of action has
beginning with the work of Vallerand (e.g., Vallerand, 1983). been partially internalized and is energized by factors such as an
approval motive, avoidance of shame, contingent self-esteem, and
ego-involvements. When people are controlled, they experience
pressure to think, feel, or behave in particular ways. Both auton-
Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, Department of Psychology,
omous and controlled motivation energize and direct behavior, and
University of Rochester. they stand in contrast to amotivation, which refers to a lack of
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Edward intention and motivation.
L. Deci, Department of Psychology, University of Rochester, P.O. Box An enormous amount of research, some of which is reviewed in
270266, Rochester, NY 14627. E-mail: [email protected] the papers of this special issue, has confirmed that, across domains,

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 SPECIAL ISSUE: SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY: A MACROTHEORY 183

autonomous motivation and controlled motivation lead to very Causality Orientations

different outcomes, with autonomous motivation tending to yield
greater psychological health and more effective performance on Causality orientation are general motivational orientations that
heuristic types of activities. It also leads to greater long-term refer to (a) the way people orient to the environment concerning
persistence, for example, maintained change toward healthier be- information related to the initiation and regulation of behavior, and
haviors. thus (b) the extent to which they are self-determined in general,
In recent years, research on autonomous versus controlled mo- across situations and domains. There are three orientations: auton-
tivation has been extended to examinations of nonconscious pro- omous, controlled, and impersonal. Development of a strong au-
cesses. Studies using priming methodologies and implicit assess- tonomous orientation results from ongoing satisfaction of all three
ment methods have begun to show how the motivational processes basic needs. Development of a strong controlled orientation results
and principles of SDT operate at both the conscious and noncon- from some satisfaction of the competence and relatedness needs
scious levels, and at both levels the advantages of autonomous but a thwarting of the need for autonomy. And development of the
motivation for many important outcomes have become apparent. impersonal orientation results from a general thwarting of all three
The paper in this issue by Levesque, Copeland, and Sutcliffe needs. According to SDT, people have some level of each of the
(2008) reviews some of the research on nonconscious processes. three orientations, and one or more of these can be used in making
predictions about various psychological or behavioral outcomes.
Consistently, the autonomy orientation has been positively related
Basic Psychological Needs to psychological health and effective behavioral outcomes; the
Based on years of research on intrinsic motivation and internal- controlled orientation has been related to regulation through in-
ization we found that a satisfactory account of the various empir- trojects and external contingencies, to rigid functioning, and di-
ical results required the hypothesis that there is a set of universal minished well-being; and the impersonal orientation has been
psychological needs that must be satisfied for effective functioning reliably associated with poor functioning and symptoms of ill-
and psychological health. Subsequent research in a variety of being, such as self-derogation and lack of vitality.
countries, including some cultures with collectivist, traditional
values and others with individualist, equalitarian values, have Aspirations or Life Goals
confirmed that satisfaction of the needs for competence, auton- Considerable empirical work within the SDT tradition has fo-
omy, and relatedness do indeed predict psychological well-being cused on the long-term goals that people use to guide their activ-
in all cultures. Thus, although some cultural relativists have main- ities. Empirically, these goals fall into two general categories that
tained, for example, that the need for autonomy is important only have been labelled intrinsic aspirations and extrinsic aspirations
in cultures that value individualism and is essentially irrelevant in (Kasser & Ryan, 1996). Intrinsic aspirations include such life goals
cultures that value collectivism, that turns out not to be the case. as affiliation, generativity, and personal development, whereas
Feelings of autonomy, like competence and relatedness, are essen- extrinsic aspirations include such goals as wealth, fame, and at-
tial for optimal functioning in a broad range of highly varied tractiveness. Numerous studies have revealed that an emphasis on
cultures. intrinsic goals, relative to extrinsic goals, is associated with greater
The concept of human needs turns out to be extremely useful health, well-being, and performance (Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens,
because it provides a means of understanding how various social Sheldon, & Deci, 2004).
forces and interpersonal environments affect autonomous versus Aspirations have been studied in terms of their strength or
controlled motivation. More specifically, by considering whether a importance. As such, they bear similarity to what some other
particular contextual factor such as a monetary reward, an oppor- researchers refer or as needs and motives. We do not, however,
tunity for choice, or a performance evaluation is likely to support consider them to be needs, for needs are essential nutriments rather
versus thwart satisfaction of the basic psychological needs, people than learned desires. Instead, we understand aspirations to be
are able to predict the effects of that factor on such outcomes as acquired as a function of the degree to which the basic needs for
motivation, behavior, affect, and well-being. In addition the pos- competence, relatedness, and autonomy have been satisfied versus
tulation of basic needs helps explain why only some efficacious thwarted over time. When needs have been thwarted, for example,
behaviors actually enhance well-being, whereas others do not. people tend to adopt extrinsic goals that will lead to external
indicators of worth, rather than the internal feelings of worth that
Individual Differences result from need satisfaction. As such, extrinsic aspirations are one
type of need substitute—they provide little or no direct need
Many theories of motivation have as their primary individual satisfaction but people pursue these goals because they provide
difference the strength of one or more psychological needs—for some substitute or compensation for the lack of true need satis-
example, the need for achievement, for intimacy, or for control. faction. Unfortunately, as extrinsic goals are being pursued they
The idea is that needs are learned, and some people develop tend to crowd out pursuit of basic need satisfaction, and they fail
stronger needs than others. Because SDT maintains that the needs to foster integration or wellness, even when attained.
for competence, relatedness, and autonomy are basic and univer-
sal, the individual differences within the theory do not focus on the
Some Newer Developments
varying strength of needs but instead focus on concepts resulting
from the degree to which the needs have been satisfied versus In recent years there have been many developments and exten-
thwarted. Specifically, within SDT there are two general individ- sions of the research and theorizing within the SDT tradition. We
ual difference concepts, causality orientations and life goals. now mention a few of these.
184 DECI AND RYAN

Mindfulness motivation en tant qu’indicateurs prévisionnels des résultats en

matière de performance ainsi que de rapports et de bien-être
SDT has always maintained that the development of integrated, humains. La théorie touche aussi les conditions sociales qui sont
autonomous functioning depends on awareness. Recently SDT favorables ou non à ces types de motivation, en suggérant puis en
researchers have begun to incorporate that idea through studies of concluant que les diverses façons dont les besoins psychologiques
mindfulness, defined as an open awareness and interested attention fondamentaux en matière d’autonomie, de compétence et de rap-
to what is happening within and around oneself (Brown & Ryan, prochement sont soutenus ou non affectent tant le type que
2003). Mindfulness has been associated with autonomous motiva- l’ampleur de la motivation. La théorie de l’autodétermination
tion and with a variety of positive psychological and behavioral examine aussi les objectifs et les aspirations de vie des gens, en
outcomes. Accordingly, promoting mindfulness or awareness has comparant les éléments différentiels entre les objectifs de vie
been theorized to be a central element in psychotherapy, one that intrinsèques et extrinsèques par rapport à la performance et à la
allows inner exploration, reflective examination of needs and santé psychologique. Dans notre introduction, nous abordons aussi
feelings, and the development of a more autonomous orientation. brièvement l’évolution récente de la théorie de l’autodétermination
We (Ryan & Deci, 2008a) address this matter more fully in our concernant la conscience et la vitalité, et nous soulignons
paper on psychotherapy within this special issue. l’applicabilité de la théorie de l’autodétermination au sein de
domaines appliqués, dont le travail, les rapports humains, le pa-
Energy and Vitality rentage, l’éducation, les environnements virtuels, le sport, la du-
An important aspect of motivation concerns the energization rabilité, les soins de santé et la psychothérapie.
of people’s psychological processes and behaviors. Within Mots-clés : théorie de l’autodétermination, motivation autonome,
SDT, the energy for action comes either directly or indirectly développement de la personnalité, mieux-être
from basic psychological needs, and we have been particularly
interested in the concept of vitality, which is the energy that is
available to the self—that is, the energy that is exhilarating and References
empowering, that allows people to act more autonomously and
persist more at important activities. Whereas other theories Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present:
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determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.
Deci, & Ryan, 2006). Autonomous regulation is not depleting
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Facilitating optimal motivation and
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need satisfaction can actually enhance energy available for Gagné, M., & Forest, J. (2008). The study of compensation systems
self-regulation (Ryan & Deci, 2008b). through the lens of self-determination theory: Reconciling 35 years of
debate. Canadian Psychology, 49, 225–232.
Applications Guay, F., Ratelle, C. F., & Chanal, J. (2008). Optimal learning in optimal
contexts: The role of self-deetermination in education. Canadian Psy-
Finally, as we said earlier, there has been a surge of activity in chology, 49, 233–240.
applying SDT to many of life’s domains. In this special issue we Joussemet, M., Landry, R., & Koestner, R. (2008). A self-determination
are pleased to have papers summarizing some of the research theory perspective on parenting. Canadian Psychology, 49, 194 –200.
applying SDT concepts to the important topics of close relation- Kasser, T., & Ryan, R. M. (1996). Further examining the American dream:
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Vallerand, 2008), sport and exercise (Wilson, Mack, & Grattan, 201–209.
2008), and sustaining our planet (Pelletier & Sharp, 2008). These Levesque, C., Copeland, K. J., & Sutcliffe, R. A. (2008). Conscious and
applications are inspiring in terms of the quality of research nonconscious processes: Implications for self-determination theory. Ca-
supporting them, but perhaps more importantly because they dem- nadian Psychology, 49, 218 –224.
onstrate that comprehensive theorizing, when backed by a tradition Miquelon, P., & Vallerand, R. J. (2008). Goal motives, well-being, and
of strong empirical testing, can actually lead to improvements in physical health: An integrative model. Canadian Psychology, 49, 241–
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Résumé Pelletier, L. G., & Shapr, E. (2008). Persuasive communication and pro-
environmental behaviours: How message tailoring and message framing
La théorie de l’autodétermination est de nature empirique et con- can improve the integration of behaviours through self-determined mo-
cerne la motivation, le développement et le bien-être de l’être tivation. Canadian Psychology, 49, 210 –217.
humain. Elle porte davantage sur les types de motivation que sur Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2008a). A self-determination theory approach
son ampleur et elle cible en particulier la motivation autonome, la to psychotherapy: The motivational basis for effective change. Canadian
motivation basée sur le contrôlé (extrinsèque) et le manque de Psychology, 49, 186 –193.
 SPECIAL ISSUE: SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY: A MACROTHEORY 185

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2008b). From ego-depletion to vitality: Theory contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 246 –
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Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., & Deci, E. L. Received December 15, 2007
(2004). Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The syn- Revision received May 17, 2008
ergistic effects of intrinsic goal contents and autonomy-supportive Accepted May 17, 2008 䡲