5.

1 Introduction to Agriculture
Climates & Food
Depending on the climate, different types of crops/livestock can/cannot be produced;

- Cold Mid-Latitude Climate; Regions that produce wheat, barely, & livestock; examples
being Eastern Europe.
- Warm Mid-Latitude Climate; Regions that produce fruits, vegetables, & rice; examples
being Southern China.
- Mediterranean Climate; Regions that produce grapes, olives, & dates; examples being the
countries that surround the Mediterranean Sea.
- Tropical Climate; Regions that produce sugar, coffee, & tea; examples being
Indonesia/Southeast Asia.
- Steppe Climate; Regions that produce sheeps, goats, horses, & camels via cattle ranching;
examples being Central Asia

The locations of these agricultural climate regions is dictated by a number of factors, such as longer
growing seasons, the presence of water, fertile soil, arable land, and more.

Environmental Possibilism & Agriculture

As a result of scientific advancements in technology and technique, the further development of
agriculture has occurred in a number of ways, with the following being examples:

- GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms)

Enable plants to last longer, taste better, and grow in regions they previously could not grow
in.
- Fertilizers
Are used to return nutrients to soil and to make plants grow faster/better.
- Pesticides
Are used to ward off unwanted pests that may eat off grown crops.
- Herbicides
Are used to kill off unwanted vegetation such as weeds which take in nutrients at the
expense of the crops being grown.
- Greenhouses
Are built and used to increase the length of growing seasons by enabling plants to grow in
previously inhospitable regions.

And more.

Intensive Agriculture
Consolidated agriculture located near populated areas with the focus being on producing as much as
possible in a small area. Examples of intensive agriculture being plantations, mixed crop/livestock,
and market gardening agriculture.

- Plantations are usually more common in peripheral countries/underdeveloped regions as a

result of cheap labor costs which enables for further profit to be made on cash crops which
are
- Mixed Crop & Livestock agriculture is most common in developed countries and makes
profit by growing crops which are then fed to livestock to be fattened up, slaughtered, then
sold later.
- Market Gardening (truck gardening) agriculture is most common in regions with longer
growing seasons as fruits and vegetables are often grown with the help of cheap labor
sources. These fruits and vegetables are then exported to the rest of the country once they
are processed, canned, etc.

Extensive Agriculture
Dispersed agriculture located away from populated areas. Here, production of livestock/crops
occurs in large areas with labor intensive work. Examples of extensive agriculture include shifting
cultivation, nomadic herding, and ranching.

- Shifting Cultivation
An agricultural practice that sees farmers clear out a plot of land for crops to be grown on.
Once the soil loses its nutrients and fertility, the plot is abandoned and the process repeats.
This now abandoned plot is left to have the nutrients reform to hopefully be later used.
Most common in Asia.
- Nomadic Herding
An agricultural practice mostly found in steppe-like terrain, nomadic herding is a practice by
which herders travel with their herds of livestock from grazing pasture to grazing pasture.
- Ranching
An agricultural practice mostly found in plains away from populated areas, ranching involves
large pastures of land for grazing by livestock which are then shipped to slaughter houses.

5.2 Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods

Settlement Patterns
The patterns by which settlements form.

- Clustered Settlements
Settlements that are closely packed together, giving them higher population densities and a
stronger feeling of connectivity and community.
 - Dispersed Settlements
Settlements that are dispersed and have a higher focus on the natural environment and its
utilization, as it leaves perfect space for farming and agriculture.
- Linear Settlements
Settlements that develop along transportation routes such as roads, rivers, railways, etc.

Survey Methods
Methods utilized to accurately measure out areas of land.

- Metes & Bounds

Metes & bounds are utilized for shorter distances with key geographical features. Metes are
often straight lines that connect areas of a place, whereas bounds are the key geographical
features themselves.
- Long Lots
Land is divided into long parcels which are each given their own individual transportation
route/method such as canals, roads, etc.
- Township & Range
Utilizes longitude and latitude alongside a baseline, with the townships going north-south
whereas the range goes east-west. This forms a grid-like pattern that divides up the land.

5.3 Agricultural Origins and Diffusions

Agricultural Hearths (Origins)
The ancient origins of sedentary agriculture and their development.

- Fertile Crescent
A region stretching from Mesopotamia to Syria where sedentary agriculture developed by
growing wheat, barely, & oats, and later diffused agriculture. to regions such as Europe.
- Sub-Saharan Africa
A region below the Sahara Desert in North Africa where sedentary agriculture developed as
a result of diffusion from the Southern tip of the continent with the cultivation of yams,
coffee, and sorghum.
- Southeast Asia
A region north of the Malacca state and east of India where agriculture was diffused from
India which saw the development of sedentary agriculture with the cultivation of mangos
and coconuts.
- East Asia
A region primarily within Eastern China that follows the three major rivers, where sedentary
agriculture developed with rice and soybeans being cultivated and which eventually diffused
elsewhere such as Korea.
 - Central America
A region primarily within Mexico and the smaller southern states which developed sedentary
agriculture as a result of the cultivation of maize, potatoes, squash, and peppers, which were
later diffused into North and South America as well as Europe via trade.

Diffusion via Trade

When states met each other for the first time they would often exchange goods, ideas, and more
importantly, agricultural ideas and produce, which through routes such as the Silk Road and
Columbian Exchange, made their way from the Americas and China to Europe and vice versa.

Diffusion via Migration

Diffusion of agricultural ideas and produce as a result of the voluntary/involuntary migration of
peoples from one geographic region to another.

Diffusion Today
Diffusion today of agricultural ideas and produce mainly occurs as a result of the connectivity of
distant places of the world brought on by things such as globalization.

5.4 The Second Agricultural Revolution

Defining Agriculture
The deliberate modification of the Earth’s surface through cultivation and livestock production to
obtain subsistence or economic gain.

The 1st Agricultural Revolution

A massive socioeconomic shift also known as the Neolithic Revolution which saw a shift from
nomadic to sedentary lifestyles and subsequently the first civilizations in the Fertile Crescent.

The 2nd Agricultural Revolution

A massive economic movement started as a result of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain
which saw the widespread utilization of innovations to better increase yields, quality, and overall
agricultural production.

Enclosure Movement
A process started as a result of the 2nd Agricultural Revolution by which farms previously owned by
individual and communal farmers were consolidated into massive private farms which significantly
increased efficiency.

Effects of the 2nd Agricultural Revolution

Further migration from rural to urban regions occurred as a result of a lesser need for labor in
addition to now semi-automated functions brought on by the industrial revolution which
significantly increased production of agricultural goods as mass surpluses occurred. Further
agricultural connectivity and diffusion would also additionally occur as a result of advents of the
Industrial Revolution such as steam trains.

5.5 The Green Revolution

Green Revolution Advancements
A period that took place between the 1950s to 1970s in which modern inventions such as pesticides,
GMOs, hybrid plants, and more were heavily utilized and introduced as common practice.

- Benefits
Higher yields and surpluses occurred and subsequently led to lower costs of produce.
- Consequences
Industrialized agriculture emerged which saw the destruction of family farms, as well as the
introduction of semi-harmful pesticides and herbicides. Soil depletion also occurred as a
result of continued utilization in addition to erosion.

Hybrid Plants
A mix of similar plant species that sought after a superior variant of the original plant species that
would give off higher yields, be resistant to pests and weeds, as well as be able to sustain themselves
in colder/hotter climates.

GMO
Genetically modified plants species that are made to be specifically resistant to pests and weeds as
well as provide higher yields that hybrid plants were incapable of doing.

Globalization
With the majority of agriculture now significantly and adequately modernized, the mass and ease of
transit of agricultural goods could occur across the world, with agricultural machinery cutting down
on labor and increasing overall efficiency.

5.6 Agricultural Production Regions

Subsistence Agriculture
Agricultural production done to provide food for a person’s family and not profit.

Commercial Agriculture
Agricultural production with the goal of selling products for profit.

Identifying Types of Agriculture

It is important to be able to identify the types of agriculture. To do so, considering the following:
how much land was utilized? How much labor was utilized? How much money was utilized? Where
did the produce go towards?

Examples of Agriculture
Utilizing the four major types of agriculture and means to identify them, the following are examples
of sets of classification for agriculture.

- Pastoral Nomadism
A practice that requires large swabs of land for herds and the herders utilize the substance
produced to feed themselves; Extensive Subsistence Agriculture.
- Cattle Ranching
A practice that utilizes large swabs of land for herds of livestock that are then shipped out to
slaughter houses to be sold in urban areas; Extensive Commercial Agriculture.

Bid-Rent Theory & Agriculture

A theory that looks at the relation between the price of land and the distance to the nearest urban
center, with the theory stating that the further away you go from urban centers the cheaper land gets.

Monocropping
The process by which farmers grow the same crop each year. Farmers who practice monocropping
risk soil depletion as a result of lacking crop rotations to regenerate soil nutrients.

Monoculture
Farmers grow a singular type of crop at a period of time, however, following a harvest the crop will
be switched for another. This prevents soil depletion as it enables soil nutrients to be regenerated as
a result of crop rotations.

5.7 Spatial Organization of Agriculture

Agribusiness & Family Farms
As a result of the Green Revolution and enclosure movements, the number of family farms have
dwindled with agribusinesses and corporate agriculture on the rise in their place.

Commodity Chains
A process used by companies to transform raw resources into usable commodities and then
transport them to customers. As a result of these chains, products such as food no longer need to be
grown in the place where they are needed, but instead, can be grown anywhere and transported
instead.

Agribusiness
Agribusiness dominates modern agriculture as a result of a lesser reliance on human labor and more
of a reliance on efficient machinery to do the majority of work. These have affected a multitude of
aspects of our lives as things such as the carrying capacity, physiological density, and more are
changed as a result of larger influxes of crops.

Profits & Large Commercial Farms

Immigrant labor is often heavily utilized as a means to cut costs down in commercial farms as a
result of their usually mass-operational basis.

5.8 Von Thünen Model

Von Thünen Model
A model which describes how societies effectively utilize their land. The model also makes several
assumptions:

- The physical environment is uniform

- There is a singular market present
- All land has equal access to said market
- Farmers wish to maximize profits
- All farmers are commercial farmers

- At the center of Von Thünen’s model

is the market which is where all produce
would be sold to consumers
- Moving outside the first ring we find
dairy farming and market gardening. The
ring’s location is a result of
pre-industrialization standards, as diary
products were often spoiled before arriving at
markets where they could be sold. At the
same time, due to dairy farming’s
categorization being Intensive Commercial
Dairy Farming, the dairy farming should
ideally be placed near the market.
 - Forests don’t make much sense in the modern day, but at the time of Von Thünen lumber
was heavily utilized in the construction of everything, so was required to be near urban
centers.
- Grains and Field Crops are placed in one of the outer rings as a result of their ease of
transportation as they don’t spoil, alongside their categorization of Extensive Commercial
Grain Farming, meaning ideally they would require mass swabs of land and should be farther
away from urban centers.
- Ranching and Livestock are placed the furthest away as a result of extremely large amounts
of land required to enable for healthy grazing.
- After the final ring we enter the wilderness, which is everything too far for any realistic
profit to be made in pre-industrial standards.

Changes to the Von Thünen Model

As a result of massive advancements in areas of technology such as fast transportation and
refrigeration, the majority of the rings of the Von Thünen Model need to be rearranged, with the
forest ring being entirely pushed off of the image due to their necessity being now rendered null.
Livestock are now fed grains instead of grazing, making more intensive than extensive agriculture
and more.

5.9 The Global System of Agriculture

Globalization & Food
As a result of globalization and the inclusion of agriculture and its produce in it, a sort of
interdependency has emerged between states that now rely on each other for the necessary
agricultural goods.

Site & Situation Factors

Due to climates, certain more southern states are able to grow produce most northern states are
unable to, thus leading to the interdependency to form, rendering seasons non-existent.

Global Trade of Food

Usually, the flow of food goes from LDC to MDC as a result of cheaper labor and, more often than
not, luxury crops and produce being more prevalent in LDCs than MDCs. This creates another
interdependency between states as LDC farmers are now required to rely on MDCs in order to turn
a profit.

MDCs however, more often than not, are in a significant place of advantage due to their superior
state. These advantages include government subsidies, better transportation, and access to
machinery.
Global Trade of Agriculture
As a result of all the aforementioned reasons, all of these factors create an imbalance of
interdependency where LDCs suffer at the gain of MDCs due to luxury foods and produce being
majorly exported to MDCs instead of growing actual produce that would benefit themselves.

5.10 Consequences of Agricultural Practices

Consequences of Agricultural Practices
The overreliance on things such as pesticides, herbicides, GMOs, and other things raises health
concerns regarding the safety

Change to Diets
The growing demand for meats and specialty crops not only negatively affects us via the means of
our diets, but also negatively affects the soil and environment as the continued expansion of
agriculture occurs to meet demands.

Desertification
Desertification continues to occur as soil quality deteriorates as a result of overuse by agriculture
which subsequently causes the spread of the deserts.

Deforestation
Deforestation also continues to occur as the expansion of agriculture in peripheral countries sees the
further destruction of forests and jungle to make room for monocultures.

Slash & Burn

The destruction of a patch of forested territory occurs in order to better fertilize soil; putting more
carbon into the air and destroying ecosystems.

Soil Salinization
The accumulation of salts which eventually has such a presence that it kills off a significant portion
of vegetation.

Terrace Farming
Terrace farming is incredibly labor intensive and significantly increases the chances of a mudslide.

Irrigation
In the process of properly irrigating crops, water pollution from pesticide, herbicide, and fertilizer
runoff can occur as well as removing water from areas which significantly need it more.

Drainage of Wetlands
In the process to increase overall arable land, societies may see to the draining of wetlands,
destroying natural environments and harming the natural water filtration systems that exist in the
process.

5.11 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture

GMOs
Societies which utilize GMOs tend to see significant increases in yield and overall increase in
growing speeds; debates arise over possible health concerns.

Crop & Livestock Diversity

Increases in crop/livestock diversity prevents a singular disease from obliterating an entire harvest.
However the opposite is true for livestock diversity, with only 1-3 species necessary which also
subsequently spawns specialization.

Industrial Food System

The utilizations of systems such as antibiotics and the feeding of unnatural dietary supplements to
livestock raises concerns regarding their effectiveness.

Food Miles Problem

The measuring of the total distance agricultural products need to travel in order to reach the
consumer. The higher the total distance the subsequent higher probability of inefficiency.

Food Choice/Food Deserts

Locations present within food deserts are more likely to be susceptible to bad food choices.