Moulay Ismail University Department of English

School of Arts and Humanities Semester 2: Grammar 2

Meknes S. Kerouad

Chapter 1: MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

Verbs can be classified by function into two types:

a. Lexical verbs: go, teach, learn, walk, get, buy, etc.
b. Auxiliary verbs. These can in turn be classified into three types:
Primary auxiliaries: do, have, be.
Modal auxiliaries: can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, ought

to.
Semi-modal auxiliaries (also called periphrastic modals): need, dare, used to.
would rather, had better.

To understand ‘modal auxiliary verbs’ better, let us first compare them to ordinary verbs.
Note.
a. Modals never take the infinitive to: *to must/ *to will
b. They never add the –s to third person singular in the present: *he cans/ *she mays
c. They never require the –ed ending for the past: *shoulded
d. They never use forms of do or be to make negatives, yes/no questions, or tag
questions: *you don’t can; instead, they use the word not for the negative: you cannot,
she should not. They are used before main verbs, in tags and short answers as in these
examples:
-A: You can speak French, can’t you? -A: You shouldn’t be here, should you?
B: Yes, I can. B: No, I shouldn’t.
e. All modals can refer to the present or the future using the same form, and what is
commonly called the past form of modals like ‘could, would’ is not really the past.
-Could you give me a ride to university tomorrow?
These forms are truly the past when they are clarified with additional information or
through context.
-They couldn’t attend the meeting yesterday.

Modals can have different meanings depending on what we want to express: ability,
permission, possibility, etc. This is considered in details in this chapter.
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1. ABILITY.

a. Can is used to talk about ability in the present.

-She can analyze people’s handwriting.
-He can’t afford to pay the bill. (He doesn’t have the ability …)
-She can do computer graphics.
We use can for the future if we are deciding now what to do in the future.
-If we earn some money, we can go on holiday next summer.
-We can take samples of the lake water tomorrow.

b. Be able to.
-The kids are able to use the computer. (Present)
-Helen is able to read well, even though she’s only three. (Present)
-By June she will be able to complete her computer class. (Future)
-I’m afraid I won’t be able to come to the disco on Friday. (Future)
-Souad was able to play the piano when she was six. (Past)
-I wasn’t able to do one problem. (Past)

c. Could is used to express an ability or opportunity in the past.

-The children could swim when they were quite young.
-After only six months, Ann could play the violin quite well.
-They had a car, so they could travel very easily.
Could is also used for ability in unreal conditions.
-If you spoke a foreign language, you could get a better job.
-If I had time I could help you.

Notice.
Use only was/ were able to to talk about specific achievement or a single event in the past.
(ability + a particular action).
-Amine was able to win the Math Prize last year.
-Luckily, Mark was able to get the work done in time. (succeeded in getting … )
-The drivers were able to stop before they crashed into each other. (managed to …)

Use either could or was/ able to in negative sentences and questions.

-It was foggy, so the plane couldn’t/ wasn’t able to take off.
-Could you/ Were you able to describe the man to the police.
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For forms and tenses other than the present or the past use be able to.
-It’s nice to be able to go to the opera. (To-infinitive)
-We were very lucky to be able to live in the country during our childhood.
-It’s been quiet today. I’ve been able to get some work done. (Present perfect)
-Since he left, none of the other team members have been able to match his
enthusiasm.

Practice.

Read these sentences. Complete them with can, could, or be able to. Choose between
affirmative and negative.

1. Stefan is enjoying his computer class. Two weeks ago, he ………………… even use the
mouse, but now he ………………… edit his homework. By next week, he …………………
do research on the Internet.

2. Suzan misses her family in Greece. She ………………… visit them for years, but they just
got an e-mail account, so now they …………………keep in touch daily.

3. I ………………… understand how to set up a presentation. The software instructions don’t

help. I think I’ll take a professional development course. In a few months, maybe I
………………… make that presentation.

4. Mike and I ………………… get along since we started this business. He …………………
work alone (he needs people), and I ………………… work in a group (I have to work alone).
I hope we ………………… work out our problems soon.

5. When the satellite is launched next week, scientists ………………… investigate the rings
around Saturn in more detail than ever before.

2. PERMISSION.
a. Can.
We use can to ask for permission.
-Can I use your pen?
-Can I take another biscuit?
-Can we use our dictionaries?

We use can to give permission.

-You can wait in my office if you like.
-She can use the computer if she needs it.
-I’m sorry, you can’t borrow the car tonight. (refuse a permission.)
To talk about rules made by someone else.
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 -Each passenger can take one bag onto the place. (Are allowed …)
-Can you park in this street on Sundays? (Are you allowed to …)
b. May.

We use may to ask for permission. (It is rather formal)

-May I see the letter?
-May I leave the room, Professor Smith?
To give permission.
-You may telephone from here. (You are allowed to …)
-You may use my fax machine if you want.
-You may go to the party if you want.
c. Could.

We use could to ask for permission. (It sounds more polite)
-Could I take the test tomorrow?
-Could we borrow your ladder, please?
-Could I have a look at your newspaper?
To talk about permission in the past.
-In the 1920s you could drive without taking a test. (You were allowed to … )

Notice that could is not used to give permission or to refuse permission; instead, we use
can’t or may not.
-A: Could we picnic here? B: I’m sorry. I’m afraid you can’t.
-Members may not bring more than two guests into the club.

Practice.

Rewrite these sentences using can, could or may.

1. I’d like to talk to you for a minute, Bill. (friendly)

………………………………………………………
2. I would like to use your phone. (more polite)
………………………………………………………
3. I would like to stop work early today. (formal)
………………………………………………………
4. Take my bike if you want to.
………………………………………………………
5. Are the children allowed to go into pubs?
………………………………………………………
6. I don’t want you to come into my room.
………………………………………………………
7. I would like to speak to Jane, if she’s there. (polite)
………………………………………………………
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8. I would like to have a soda. (friendly)
………………………………………………………
9. Are students allowed to use this library?
………………………………………………………
10. I would like to pay you tomorrow. (polite)
………………………………………………………

3. POSSIBILITY.
a.May.

 It can be used for the present or the future to say that something is possible or that it is quite
likely.
-She may know the secret. (Perhaps she knows the secret.)
-This may be his last major speech before the election.
-I may go to the cinema tomorrow. (Perhaps I will go to the cinema)
-I’ll write the date of the meeting in my diary, otherwise I may forget it.
b. Might.

It is used in the same way as may for the present or the future.
-When Frank gets a job, I might get the money back.
-The news might come as a shock to many of the people present.
-There might be some cake left. I’ll go and look.
c. Could.

Could can also be used to say that something is possible.

-The story could be true, I suppose. (Possibly it is true)
-You could win a million dollars. (Possibly you will win …)
-‘Why isn’t Tim here yet?’ ‘It could be because his mother is ill again.

d. Can.

We use can in affirmative sentences when we talk about a more general possibility.
-The temperature can sometimes reach 40 C in August.
-The roads can be blocked if it keeps snowing.

Notice that after may/ might/ or could, we can use a continuous form (be + an ing- form)
-That man may/ might be watching us. (Perhaps he is watching us)
-Sarah may/ might be working late tonight. (Perhaps she will be working …)
-I’m not sure where Said is. He could be playing football. (Possibly he is playing …)

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In negative sentences, the meaning of may not and might not is different from that of could
not.
-Ann may not get the job.
-I might not finish the work tomorrow. (Something negative is possible)
-There are plans to rebuild the town center, but it can’t/ couldn’t happen for another
ten years. (It is impossible that it will happen …)
-There are plans to rebuild the town center, but it may not/ might not happen for
another ten years. (it is possible that it won’t happen …)

We do not use may to ask a question about the possibility of something happening. Instead we
use, for example, ‘could (n’t)’ or the phrase ‘be likely’.
-Could it be that you don’t want to leave?
-Are you likely to be visiting Spain again this summer?
It is possible to use might in this type of question, but it is rather formal.
-Might they be persuaded to change their minds?

Practice.

In which of these sentences is it possible to use can?

1. The butterfly …………… be recognized by the orange streaks on its wings.

2. ‘She’s probably on holiday.’ ‘Yes, you …………… be right.’
3. Peter …………… have a big screwdriver. I’ll go and ask him.
4. Infections …………… sometimes actually be a very successful experience.
5. Moving to a new job …………… be a very stressful experience.
6. I think Michael …………… enjoy himself if he joins the football club.
7. This 17th century chair ………… be of interest to you.
8. The seeds from this plant …………… be up to 20 centimeters long.
9. With the factory closing next week, he …………… lose his job.
10. Around this time of year, eagles …………… sometimes be seen in the mountains.

4. OBLIGATION/ NECESSITY.
We use must and have to to say that something is necessary
a. Must.
-To succeed in your exam, you must work hard.
-You’ll be leaving college soon, you must think about your future.
-To stay alive, people must breathe oxygen.

b. Have to.
-Teachers are very busy correcting exams. They have to give marks next week.
-Ahmed has to stay late at work. He has a lot of work to do.
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 -Everyone has to pass a road test before getting a driver’s license.

Notice that when we use the past or the future with will, we need a form of have to:
-Ann had to stay at home and watch the kids last weekend. (Past tense)
-That wasn’t very good. You’ll have to do better next time. (Future)
In fact, we can use the correct form of have to for all tenses and forms.
-Ali has had to take the bus to school for three years. (Present perfect)
We use have to for most questions. We rarely use have got to or must.
-Do you have to do all the exercises on modals?
-What time will Tom have to come to the meeting tomorrow?

Notice the differences in the meaning of must and have to.

We use must when the speaker decides that it is necessary. We use have to when we want
to suggest that someone else or some outside circumstances or authority makes something
necessary.
-I must see the headmaster. (I want to discuss something with him)
-I have to see the headmaster. (He has called me to his office)

 Have to is preferred when we talk about an obligation that is part of a habit or that is
characteristic of a person.
-She has to drink two cups of coffee in the morning before she feels really awake.
-I have to take an aspirin whenever I have a headache.
-Ann has (got) to have at least eight hours’ sleep a night.

c. Ought to and should.

These modals are generally used to express a logical necessity, less strong suggestions, advice
and opinion.
-You should/ ought to change your car.
-Students should/ ought to come to class on time.
-You really should/ ought to stop smoking. It’s bad for you.
Notice that the same form is used for present, future or past. The negative of should is should
not/ shouldn’t and that of ought to is ought not/ oughtn’t.

Ought to/ Should are used to indicate a correct or logical action.

-They should/ ought to install more street lights in the city.
-The government should/ ought to find solutions for transportation systems.

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 Unlike must and have to, ought to/ should are used without necessarily knowing if the
obligation is being or will be fulfilled.
-We must get ready for the wedding party. (more confidence)
-We should/ ought to get ready for the wedding party. (less confidence)

Notice that ought to and should, when used with the continuous infinitive, express the idea
that the subject is not fulfilling his/ her obligation.
-Amina ought to/ should be working hard on her thesis.
-The children shouldn’t be spending all their time on TV.
With the perfect infinitive, ought to and should are used to express a necessity that was not
accomplished or an action that was neglected.
-You ought to have brought enough money with you on this trip.
-She should have come to the party with her parents.

Notice that when an outside authority gives an advice or a recommendation, we use should:
-The manual says that the computer should be disconnected from the mains before the
cover is removed. (rather than … ought to be disconnected).
We also use should not ought to when we give advice with I:
-I should revise my lessons regularly, if I were you.

Practice.

I. Put in must or have to. Choose which is best for the situation
1. I …………………go to the airport. I’m meeting someone.
2. You ………………lock the door when you go out. There’ve been a lot of breaks-ins
recently.
3. Daniel ……………… go to the bank. He doesn’t have any money.
4. You really ……………… make less noise. I’m trying to concentrate.
5. I think you ……………… pay to park here. I’ll just go and read the notice.
6. You really ……………… hurry up, Vicky. We don’t want to be late.
7. I ………………put the heating on. I feel really cold.

II. Complete the sentences with should/ ought to + infinitive or should/ ought to have + past
participle. In which one is ought to NOT possible?
1. This medicine …………………… (keep) in a cool place.
2. Here’s someone you really ……………………… (meet).
3. If you’re feeling ill, I …………………… (stay) at home today, if I were you.
4. To have got a better mark, you …………………… (check) your answers more thoroughly.
5. According to the label, the jam ……………………… (refrigerate) after opening.
6. I think you …………………… (listen) to him. He knew what he was talking about.
7. The information you sent …………………… (include) details of courses taken at
university.
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5. Necessity: mustn’t, needn’t, etc.
a. Must not. (mustn’t)
We use mustn’t to say that something is not allowed or that something is a bad idea (an
emphatic/ strong advice).
-You mustn’t smoke in this area.
-You mustn’t take your children to this supermarket.
-I mustn’t favor some students over others.
-You mustn’t put anything on the shelves until the glue has set hard.

b. Need not. (needn’t)

We use needn’t to say that something is not necessary.
-You needn’t bring your umbrella. It’s not raining.
-They needn’t argue; the topic is not worth it.
-We needn’t make sandwiches. There’s a supermarket on our way to the lake.
c. Don’t have to.

We can also use don’t have to to express that something is not necessary.
-You don’t have to dress up for the party. It’s not a formal one.
-Mark doesn’t have to finish the report today. He can do it at the weekend.
-She doesn’t have to buy any glasses. There are many at home.

Notice that don’t need to is also possible in these examples.

For the past, we use didn’t:
-The food was free. We didn’t have to pay.
-The food was free. We didn’t need to pay.

Notice the differences between didn’t need to and needn’t have.

-Ali didn’t need to hurry. He had lots of time. (It was not necessary for him to hurry
and he didn’t hurry. We can also use didn’t have to)
-Ali needn’t have hurried. After driving at top speed, he arrived half an hour late.
(He hurried, but, in fact, it wasn’t necessary)
-We didn’t need to go to the supermarket because we had plenty of food.
-We needn’t have gone to the supermarket. We already had a pizza for tonight.
We use didn’t need to when something was not necessary, and it was not done. We use
needn’t have + p. participle for something we did which we now know was not
necessary.

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 Practice.

I. Complete the sentences. Use mustn’t, do not need/ do not have to.

1. You ………………… drink alcohol when you drive.

2. You ………………… keep medicines where children can get them.
3. You ………………… to be a member to use the tennis club.
4. You …………………… to play golf well to enjoy it.
5. Newspapers ………………… mislead the public.
6. Children …………………… be allowed to run up and down the aisle of the aircraft.
7. You ……………………… be surprised if teachers object to the new curriculum.

II. Underline the more likely answer. If they are equally likely, underline them both.
1. You needn’t / don’t need to close the door. I’m just going out.
2. In most developed countries, people needn’t / don’t need to boil water before they drink it.
3. Anna has agreed to organize the party, so she said that the rest of us needn’t / don’t need to

do anything.
4. I’ve brought the car, so you needn’t / don’t need to carry your bags to the station.
5. You needn’t / don’t need to have any qualification to be a politician.
6. Now that it has been eradicated, doctors needn’t / don’t need to vaccinate against smallpox.

III. Complete the sentences with either needn’t have or didn’t need to.
1. I bought a car last year, and then a month later I won one in a competition. So I
……………… (spend) all that money.
2. I ……………………… (have) an interview. They accepted me without one.
3. The accident ……………………… (happen) if only Tom had got his lights repaired when
he said he was going to.
4. I got a lift to the station, so I …………………… (take) a taxi after all.
5. Sue was feeling a lot better by the weekend, so we …………………… (do) her shopping
for her.

6. Deduction and assumption.

We often make assumptions, or “best guesses”, based on information we have about a
situation. The modal that we choose depends on how certain we are about our assumption.

a. Must.
We use must when we are 100 percent certain; when there are no other choices.
-They have more than three cars. They must be rich. (present)
-He didn’t come to class. He must be sick. (past)

Notice that we can use have to with the same meaning as must to make assumptions.
-Aaml is a brilliant student. She has to be a genius!
-Someone phoned yesterday. It had to be Ahmed.
b. May/ Might.

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We use these modals when we are less certain that something is or was possible. When we
use may or might, we can make more than one guess. (We have other choices).
-He knows a lot about medicine. He may/ might be a doctor. (present)
-A: Why hasn’t Souad come to the party? B: She may/ might be ill.
-Daniel may/ might not have caught the bus. I expect he missed it. (past)
We can also use could when we are less certain.
-He always gets the best mark. He could be intelligent. (present)
-He didn’t find the wallet. Someone could have stolen it. (past)
-He could have forgotten all about the party.
c. Will.
We can use will to make assumptions about present actions when we are sure.
-Ring his home number. He’ll be at home now. (I’m sure he is at home)
-He’ll have finished his supper. (I’m sure he has finished …)
-It’s no use asking Tom. He won’t know.
d. Should.
This modal can also be used for assumptions about present or past actions, especially when
we are less confident.
-Said should know the phone number. (I expect him to know …)
-The letter should have arrived by now. (I expect it has arrived.)
Notice that for negative deduction we use can’t or couldn’t.
-Tom couldn’t have caught the bus. It doesn’t run on Sundays.
-You’ve only spent five minutes on that job. You can’t have done it properly.
7. Used to. We use used + infinitive to talk about past habits and long lasting situations which
are now finished or different.
-I used to play soccer every week. -Aicha used to have a cat.
Used to is only past. For present habits, we use the simple present tense.
-My brother smokes occasionally.
In an informal style, questions and negatives are generally made with do.
-Did you use to smoke? -He didn’t use to listen to Oumkaltoum.
-I used not to like Oumkaltoum. (More formal)
Notice that used to can be an adjective meaning ‘accustomed’. It is often preceded by ‘be,
become, or get’.
-The students are used to this kind of atmosphere.
-It’s hard to get used to this whether in the Sahara.
-I hope that you have become used to the university studies.
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 Practice

I. Choose the most appropriate modal and use it with the verb between brackets in the
correct tense.

1. …………………… I (speak) to Mrs. Smith, if she’s there?

Can – Should – Will – May

2. I ………………… (not, make) any new friends since I moved here.

can – might – be able to – must

3. Bring your umbrella. It …………………… (rain) later

must – may – can – should

4. Ahmed ………………… (go) to the dentist yesterday.

must – need – should – have to

5. The information you sent ………………………… (include) details of courses taken at

university.
should – will – could – must

6. You …………………… (not use) the office fax machine for personal affairs.
have to – could – must – can

7. If you’re feeling ill. I ………………… (stay) at home today, if I were you.

must – will – should – might

8. I ……………… (like) going to pop concerts when I was a teenager.

should – could – need – used to
9. The murderer ………………………… (not shoot) his victim where the body was found.
can – must – need – may
10. I took two books along to read as I knew I ……………………… (wait) a long time for
that train.
may – ought to – have to – be able to

II. Rewrite the following sentences using appropriate modals without changing the
original meaning of the sentences.(5pts.)

1. The students were expected to work regularly before the exam.

……………………………………………………………………………………………...........

2. They managed to finish their project before the deadline.

……………………………………………………………………………………………...........

3. It is not necessary for you to take the bus since it is possible to go on foot. The restaurant is
not far.
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……………………………………………………………………………………………...........
....................................................................................................................................................

4. Perhaps Ahmed didn’t catch the train. I expect he missed it.

……………………………………………………………………………………………........

5. Was it necessary for you to pay Ahmed to paint the fence?

……………………………………………………………………………………………...........

6. Fatima didn’t come, and she didn’t call. I guess she forgot about the meeting.
……………………………………………………………………………………………...........

7. She hasn’t managed to make any new friends since she moved to the new school.
……………………………………………………………………………………………...........

8. I regretted not cleaning the house instead of going out this weekend. My mother’s right;
I’m just lazy.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….......

III. Complete the sentences with the most appropriate modal and use it with the verb between
parentheses. Make sure that both the modal and the verb are used in the correct tense.(5pts.)

1. I ________________________ (not, make) any new friends since I moved here.

2. According to the manual, you _______________________ (disconnect) the computer from

the mains before the cover is removed.

3. They ________________________ (not, go) to the market; they already had some food for
the weekend.

4. I see her go out, so she _______________________ (not, be) at home.

5. When Ali was in junior high school, his father ___________________ (take) him to the
country side on his vacation.

6. You __________________________ (finish) your work on this project before you go on

vacation. You’ll probably lose your job if you don’t.

7. To have got a good mark, you __________________________ (work) regularly since the
beginning of the second semester.

8. When the weather was good, we __________________________ (go) walking in the hills
every weekend.

9. Ahmed __________________________ (not/hurry). After driving at top speed, he arrived

half an hour late.
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10. Despite yesterday’s snowballs, we __________________________ (drive) home in less
than an hour.

11. Around this time of year, the temperature __________________________ (reach) 45° C.
12. She (no, come) _______________________________ to Morocco since she left to the United

States six years ago.

Moulay Ismail University Department of English
School of Arts and Humanities Semester 2: Grammar 2

Meknes S. Kerouad

Chapter 2: THE PASSIVE

1. Introduction
Active and passive sentences often have similar meanings but different focuses. Consider:
-Authors write books. (The focus is on authors)
-Books are written by authors. (The focus is on books)

How do we form the passive sentences? Consider this example:

-Active: (a) Souad discovered the mistake.
-Passive: (b) The mistake was discovered by Souad.
In the passive, the object of an active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb: the
mistake in (a) becomes the subject of the passive verb in (b). In the passive, we add a form of
the verb to be + past participle. (Be is conjugated in the tense of the active sentence.)

Notice. We use the passive with by if you mention the agent.

-The bill was not paid by Ahmed.
Do not mention the agent:
a. if it does not add any new information.
-All our money and passports were stolen.
b. if it is not important.
-The streets are cleaned everyday.
c. if it is difficult to say who the agent is.
-This king of jacket is considered very fashionable these days.

Notice that only verbs that take an object (transitive verbs) can have a passive form. Verbs
which do not take an object (intransitive verbs) do not have passive forms.
-She will come tomorrow.

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 -Accidents happen every day.

2. Passive verb forms.

Present simple
Active: -Laila buys chocolate whenever she goes to school.
Passive: ..........................................................................................

Past simple
Active: -The police caught the burglar.
Passive: ………………………………………………………………

Present perfect
Active: -Someone has stolen her smartphone.
Passive: ……………………………………………………………...

Past perfect
Active: - The kids had broken one of the car windows.
Passive: ……………………………………………………………...

Present continuous
Active: - They are painting every wall in the city.
Passive: ……………………………………………………………..

Past continuous
Active: -Mohammed was always telling jokes during breaks.
Passive: ……………………………………………………………..

Future simple
Active: -They will buy a new car next summer.
Passive: ……………………………………………………………..

.Future perfect
Active: -By the end of the year she will have read 10 books.
Passive: …………………………………………………………….

Present perfect continuous

Active: -Amal has been reading novels to improve her English.
Passive: ………………………………………………………….
Modal verbs with passives.
Active: should/ could/ might/ ought to, etc. + verb -You can borrow the office computer.
Passive: should/ could/ might/ ought to, etc. be + verb ……………………………………
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Active: should/ could/ might/ ought to, etc. have told -You could have asked for a rise.
Passive: should/ could/ might/ ought to, etc. have been told ………………………………

3. Special passive structures.

a. Henry gave some flowers to Claire.
b. Henry gave Claire some flowers.
-Some flowers were given to Claire. (This is about the flowers, and it tells us who
received them.)
-Claire was given some flowers. (This is about Claire, and it tells us what she
received.)

♦Verb + -ing + object

-I enjoyed taking the children to the zoo. (the children enjoyed their uncle taking them
to the zoo)
………………………………………………………………………………………
-I hate somebody waking me up when I’m fast asleep.
………………………………………………………………………………………

♦Verb + object + -ing

-They saw him climbing over the fence.
………………………………………………………………………………………

♦Verb + to infinitive + object

-His colleagues started to respect Tom.
………………………………………………………………………………………

♦Verb + object + to infinitive

-Mr. Smith taught Peter to sing.
………………………………………………………………………………………
-She invited me to go to the movies.
………………………………………………………………………………………

♦it + passive verb + clause with verb of reporting

16
 -People say that Henry is in love with Mary.
………………………………………………………………………………………

Other reporting verbs are: agree, announce, believe, consider, expect, hope, and explain.

♦Verb like advise/ beg/ order/ recommend/ urge + indirect object + infinitive + object
-He ordered the secretary to write the reports.
………………………………………………………………………………………

♦Verb such as decide/ demand/ agree/ arrange + infinitive + object.

-He decided to sell the car.
………………………………………………………………………………………

♦Verbs like advise/ insist/ propose/ recommend/ suggest + gerund + object.

-He recommended using bullet-proof glass.
……………………………………………………

Practice
I. Put the following sentences into the passive voice when possible.
1. You must account for every penny you spent.
………………………………………………………………………………………

2. He hates people making fun of him.

………………………………………………………………………………………

3. They denied access to the secret documents to all but a few.

………………………………………………………………………………………

4. They declared him ‘persona non grata’ and allowed him only 48 hours to leave the country.
………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Didn’t they promise you a rise in the salary at the beginning of the year?
………………………………………………………………………………………

6. We should give slum-clearance priority over the building of new properties.

………………………………………………………………………………………

7. They had never sent anyone to prison for that particular crime.
………………………………………………………………………………………

8. They can make the law effective only in this way.

………………………………………………………………………………………

9. They are to write e-mails to the leaders of charitable organizations.

……………………………………………………………………………………….
17
10. It is impossible to do that task in less than four hours.
…………………………………………………………………………………………

II. Change the following sentences from the active to the passive voice.

1. People came to recognize her as the leading violinist of her generation.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

2. They generally agree that we need new industries for the southern part of the country.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

3. Someone will demonstrate the game to the children.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

4. The separatist rebels freed three UN health workers and a pilot yesterday, after they had
held them in captivity for over 10 weeks.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………

5. He enjoyed taking the kids to the movies.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

6. The engineers are installing the new computer system next month.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

7. They gave over the whole program to a report from Bosnia.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

8. Are they meeting him at the station?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

9. Don’s decision to give up his job and move to Sydney surprised me.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. The government has announced that they will close the road for repairs.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

III. Complete the following brochure by forming either active or passive constructions using the
verbs in parentheses. Use the correct form of the verbs (5pts.)

PUERTO RICO- Experience the pleasure of Puerto Rico. Cruise the crystal clear waters of
the Atlantic, and enjoy the fishing and the nighttime swimming. The galleries and shops of
the cobblestones _________________________ (must, visit) and its restaurants
_________________________ (should, enjoy). They _________________________ (speak)
Spanish and English here.
HAWAII- Hawii _______________________ (settle) long ago by Polynesians, who
___________________

18
(enchant) by the beauty and lushness of the islands and therefore never
_____________________ ( leave). The astonishing array of luxurious tropical products, from
sun-ripened papayas to macadamia nuts and orchids, _________________________ (amaze)
all the visitors

Moulay Ismail University Department of English

School of Arts and Humanities Semester 2: Grammar 2

Meknes S. Kerouad

Chapter 3: INDIRECT SPEECH

Indirect speech reports what a speaker said without using the exact words. There are no
quotation marks.

Direct speech: ‘I have a dream’, said Martin Luther King.

Indirect speech: Martin Luther King said that he had a dream.

The reporting verb such as say and tell is usually in the simple past tense.

Notice that we use say when the listener is not mentioned. We do not use tell.

-Sarah’s boss said she could leave early.

-Sarah’s boss * told she could leave early. (… told her…)

When the reporting verb is in the simple past tense, the verb in the indirect speech statement
is often in a different tense from the verb in the direct speech statement. The following are the
verb forms in both the direct and indirect speech.

Table 1: verb forms of direct and indirect speech.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

Simple present Simple past
Present progressive Past progressive
Simple past Past perfect
Present perfect Past perfect
Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous
Past perfect Do not change.
Will/ can/ may/ must Would/ could/ might/ had to
Should/ might/ could/ ought to Do not change.
Verbs in present and past unreal Do not change. *
conditional sentences

19
* - “If I knew, I would tell you”, said Ali. Ali said if he knew, he would tell me.
- “If I had known, I would have told you”, said Ali. Ali said if he had known he
would have told me.

Notice that we change time phrases in indirect speech to keep the speaker’s original
meaning

Direct speech Indirect speech

now  then
today  that day
tomorrow  the next day/ the following day
the day after tomorrow  in two days time
yesterday  the day before/ the previous day
the day before yesterday  two days before
this week/ month/ etc.  that week/ month/ etc.
last week/ month/ etc.  the week/ month/ etc. before
next week/ month/ etc.  the following week/ month/ etc.
a week/ month/ etc. ago  a week/ month/ etc. before
Person: I  he/ she my  his/ her
Place: here  there
Demonstrative: this  that these  those

Practice: change these direct speech statement into their indirect counterparts. Choose an
appropriate reporting verb:

-“I am looking for a purple dress.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

-“I lost my grammar book last week, so I couldn’t revise the chapter on modal verbs.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

-“He may travel to Rabat next weekend to visit his uncle.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

-“if you want to smoke, you’ll have to go out of this room.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

-“The exam will take place on June 1st.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

-“When I arrived at the station, the bus had already left.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

-“I was reading an exciting novel when the light went off.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

-“We’ll be working on the last chapter next week.”

20
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

-“I might bring a friend to the party.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

Reported questions.
We usually report questions with verbs like ask, wonder, or want to know. Notice that the
subject in indirect questions comes before the verb, the same as in statement word order.

-“Where is your office?”

I asked where his office was.

-“How much money have you got?”

He asked me ……………………………………………………………………….

-“Which way is the post office?”

She wanted to know ………………………………………………………………

Notice that we do not use do, does, or did in indirect wh-questions.

-“Why did you leave your job?”
He asked me ……………………………………………………………………..
When there is no question word like where, when, who, etc. , if or whether must be used.
-“Can you type?”
He asked if/ whether I could type.
-“Do you have any experience?”
He asked her …………………………………………………………………….

Whether is sometimes preferred

 To emphasize a choice:
-“Do you want to travel by train or by bus?”
She asked whether ………………………………………………………………
 When we use wonder or want to know:
-Shall I phone him or go and see him?”
He wondered whether …………………………………………………………..
Or He wondered whether …………………………………………………………..

Reported requests, offers, advice, etc.

We can use the structure tell/ ask someone to do something in reported orders and requests.
-“Please move this car.”
A policeman told me …………………………………………………………….

21
 -“Would you mind turning the music down?”
-I asked her ………………………………………………….................................

But we usually use a verb of command, offer, advice, etc. + object + to-infinitive. Some of the
verbs used are: advise, command, instruct, invite, order, persuade, recommend, remind, urge,
warn, forbid, request, expect, encourage.
-“I think you should take a taxi.”
He…………………………………………………………………………………..
-“Don’t forget to ring me.”
I ……………………………………………………………………………………

-“Could you show me your ticket, please?”

He ………………………………………………………………………………….

-“If I were you, I’d stop smoking.”

I …………………………………………………………………………………...

We can also use a verb + to-infinitive clause. Some verbs are: agree, demand, guarantee,
hope, promise, swear, threaten, refuse, offer.
-“We’ll pay for the damage.”
They ……………………………………………………………………………….

-“I’ll definitely finish it by the end of the following week.”

He …………………………………………………………………………………

Reported suggestions.
-“Shall we go to a night club?”
She …………………………………………………………………...................
Or she ………………………………………………………………………………

-“Let’s revise these lessons.”

He ……………………………………………………………………..................
Or he ………………………………………………………………………………..
Notice how to report the negative orders, requests, suggestions, etc.
-“Please don’t wear those boots in the house.”
She asked him not to wear those boots in the house.

-“Let’s not take the taxi today.”

He …………………………………………………………………………………

Orders could also be reported using be + infinitive.

22
 -“Don’t turn the TV.”
He told me not to turn the TV.
Or he order that I wasn’t to turn on the TV.

-“Meet me at the university.”

He said that ……………………………………………………………………….

EXERCISES.
Write the sentences in reported speech, using the most appropriate reporting verb for each
sentence. The verb must be in the past tense.
1. “John left here an hour ago.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. “I like your coat. I’m looking for one like that myself.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3. “Jim’s arriving at our house tomorrow.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. “Would you like to come on a picnic with us?”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. “Don’t forget to go to the supermarket after work.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. “Can you give me a lift to the station?”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. “Who shall I deliver the parcel to?”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. “We’ll organize the Christmas party.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. “I don’t know the answer to the first question. Do you?”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. “You’d better wear a short sleeve shirt. It’s very hot outside.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
11. “Please, please, don’t drink too much! Remember that you’ll have to drive home.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
12. “Let’s go to the movies on Saturday afternoon.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
13. “I must be at work by 8:30 tomorrow.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

14. “I’ll definitely collect the children from school today.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
15. “It’s a beautiful day. Why don’t we go for a walk in the woods?”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
23
16. “Can I borrow your car. Mine is at the garage and I have to take the kids to school.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

17. “This box is heavy. Where should I put it?”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

18. “Please type these reports and don’t forget to send an e-mail to Mr. Barker.”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Moulay Ismail University Department of English

School of Arts and Humanities Semester 2: Grammar 2

Meknes S. Kerouad

Chapter 4: Relative Pronouns and Relative clauses

Introduction
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and a verb. There are two types of clauses:
(1) the independent clause which is a complete sentence. It contains the main subject and
verb of a sentence; it is also called a main clause. (2) the dependent clause which is not a
complete sentence. It must be connected to an independent clause.
A relative clause which is also called an adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a
noun. It describes, identifies, or gives further information about a noun.
A relative clause uses pronouns to connect the dependent clause to the independent clause.
These pronouns are: who, whom, which, that, and whose

1. Relative pronouns used as the subject.

I saw the woman.
She helped the child.
-I saw the woman who/that helped the child.

The book is mine.

It is on the table.
-The book which/that is on the table is mine.

who/that is the subject of the adjective clause ‘who helped the child’. which/that is the
subject of the adjective clause ‘which is on the table’.

Notice that an adjective clause closely follows the noun it modifies.

2. Relative pronouns used as the object of a verb.

The man was Mr.Smith.

I met him at the party.
24
-The man who(m)/that I met at the party was Mr. Smith.
-The man Ø I met at the party was Mr.Smith.

The movie wasn’t very good.

We saw it last night.
-The movie which/that we saw last night wasn’t very good.
-The movie Ø we saw last night wasn’t very good.

Notice that the pronouns him and it must be omitted. They are unnecessary because who(m),
or that functions as the object of the verb.

Notice also that an object pronoun can be removed from an adjective clause, but a subject
pronoun cannot.

3. Relative pronouns used as the object of a preposition.

He is the student.
I told you about him.
-He is the student who(m)/that I told you about.
-He is the student Ø I told you about.
-He is the student about whom I told you.

The music was good.

We listened to it last night.
-The music which/that we listened to last night was good.
-The music Ø we listened to last night was good.
-The music to which we listened last night was very good.

Notice that if the preposition comes at the beginning of the adjective clause, only whom or
which can be used. A preposition is never immediately followed by that or who.

Exercise.

1.The girl is happy. She won the

race. ...........................................................................................................................................
............

2. I liked the preposition. You wrote

it. ...............................................................................................................................................
........

3. The people were very nice. We visited them

yesterday. .....................................................................................................................................
..................

4. The meeting was interesting. I went to

it. ...............................................................................................................................................
........

25
5. I must thank the pleople. I got a present from
them. ............................................................................................................................................
...........

6. We are studying sentences. They contain adjective clauses.

.......................................................................................................................................................

7. The student is from China. He sits next to

me. ...............................................................................................................................................
........

8. The book was very interesting. I read

it. ................................................................................................................................................
.......

9. The picture was beautiful. She was looking at it.

...................................................................................................................................................
....

10. The man is standing over there. I was telling you about
him. ...........................................................................................................................................
............

4. The use of ‘whose’.

I know the man.

His bicycle was stolen.
-I know the man whose bicycle was stolen.

A woman’s purse was stolen.

She called the police.
-The woman whose purse was stolen called the police.

Mr. Jones has a painting.

Its value is inestimable.
-Mr. Jones has a painting whose value is inestimable.

Whose is used to show possession. It carries the same meaning as other pronouns used as
adjectives: his, her, its, and their. Like these pronouns whose is connected to a noun:
his bycicle → whose bicycle its value → whose value

Both whose and the noun it is connected to are placed at the beginning of the adjective clause.
Whose cannot be omitted.

5. The use of ‘where’ and ‘when’ in relative clauses.

The building is very old.

He lives in that building (there).
-The building where he lives is very old.
-The building in which he lives is very old.
-The building which/that he lives in is very old.
-The building Ø he lives in is very old.
26
Where is used in an adjective clause to modify a place. If where is used, a preposition is not
included in the adjective clause. If where is not used, the preposition must be included.

I’ll never forget the day.

I met you on that day (then).
-I’ll never forget the day when I met you.
-I’ll never forget the day on which I met you.
-I’ll never forget the day that I met you.
-I’ll never forget the day Ø I met you.

When is used in an adjective clause to modify a noun of time. The use of a preposition in an
adjective clause that modifies a noun of time is somewhat different from that in other clauses.
A preposition is used preceding which. Otherwise, the preposition is omitted.

Exercise.

1. I met the woman. Her husband is the president of the corporation.

.......................................................................................................................................................

2. The city was beautiful. We spent our vacation there.

.......................................................................................................................................................

3. That is the drawer. I keep my jewelry in that drawer.

.......................................................................................................................................................

4. July is the month. The weather is usually the hottest then.

.......................................................................................................................................................

5. There came a time. The miser had to spent his money at that time.
.......................................................................................................................................................

6. The man’s wife had been admitted to the hospital. I spoke to him.
.......................................................................................................................................................

7. The house was destroyed in an earthquake ten years ago. I was born there.
.......................................................................................................................................................

8. I read about a child. Her life was saved by her pet dog.
.......................................................................................................................................................

6. The use of expressions of quantity in adjective clauses.

In my class there are 20 students.

Most of them are from Meknes.
-In my class there are 20 students, most of whom are from Laqsiba.

He gave several reasons.

Only a few of them were valid.
-He gave several reasons, only a few of which were valid.

27
 The teachers discussed Ahmed.
One of his problems was poor study habits.
-The teachers discussed Ahmed, one of whose problems was poor study habits.

An adjective clause may contain an expression of quantity with of: some of, many of, none of,
two of, half of, both of, neither of, each of, all of, a few of, a little of, a number of, etc.
Notice that the expression of quantity precedes the pronoun. Only whom, which, and whose
are used in this pattern.
Adjective clauses that begin with an expression of quantity are more common in writing than
in speaking. Commas are used.

Exercise.

1. The city has sixteen schools. Two of them are junior colleges.
.......................................................................................................................................................

2. Last night the orchestra played three symphonies. One of them was Beethoven’s Seventh.
.......................................................................................................................................................

3. I tried on six pairs of shoes. I liked none of them.

.......................................................................................................................................................

4. The village has around 200 people. The majority of them are farmers.
.......................................................................................................................................................

5. That company currently has five employees. All of them are computer experts.
.......................................................................................................................................................

6. After the riot, over one hundred people were taken to the hospital. Many of them had been
innocent bystanders.
.......................................................................................................................................................

7. Punctuating adjective clauses.

Generally, we do not use commas if the relative clause is necessary to identify the noun it
modifies. However, we use commas if the relative clause simply gives additional information
and is not necessary to identify the noun it modifies.
Consider these examples:
a. The professor who teaches poetry is an excellent lecturer.
b. Professor Wilson, who teaches poetry, is an excellent lecturer.

In (a) no commas are used. The adjective clause is necessary to identify which professor is
meant.

28
In (b) commas are used. The adjective clause is not necessary to identify Professor Wilson.
We already know who he is. The clause simply gives additional information.

- Hawaii, which consists of eight principal islands, is a favorite vacation spot.

- Mrs. Smith, who is a retired teacher, does volunteer work at the hospital.
Note that we use commas if an adjective clause modifies a proper noun.
- The man who(m)/ that/ Ø I met teaches chemistry.
- Mr. Lee, whom I met yesterday, teaches chemistry.

If no commas are used, any possible pronoun may be used in the adjective clause. Object
pronouns may be omitted. When commas are necessary, the pronoun that cannot be used and
object pronouns cannot be omitted.
Adjective clauses that do not require commas are called ‘essential’, or ‘restrictive’, or ‘de
fining’ clauses.
Adjective clauses that do require commas are called ‘nonessential’, or ‘nonrestrictive’, or
‘nondefining’ clauses.

Exercise. Add commas where necessary. Change the relative pronoun to that if possible.

1. Alan and Jackie who did not come to class yesterday explained their absence to the teacher.
.......................................................................................................................................................

2. Only people who speak russian can apply for the job.
.......................................................................................................................................................

3. Rice which is grown in many countries is a staple food throughout much of the world.
.......................................................................................................................................................

4. Paul O’Grady who died two years ago was a kind and loving man.
.......................................................................................................................................................

5. A river which is polluted is not safe for swimming.

.......................................................................................................................................................

6. The teacher thanked the students who had given her some flowers.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Exercises
Combine the two sentences into one using an appropriate relative pronoun. Make
any necessary changes in word order without affecting the meaning.

1. Tom Brown is giving a speech at Harvard University. I have long admired him.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Alderson wrote a number of books about British coal mines. He specialized in their history.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
29
3. I picked up the magazine. Ali had written his name and phone number on it.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. The beach is a nice place. It’s the place I most like to be in the summer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
5. I’ll never forget the day. I met you on that day.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. You asked me to get you a paper. Here’s the paper.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...
7. My sister bought a new car last month. The car has broken down four times already.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...
8. Jane had some friends at school. Only a very few of the friends went to university.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...
9. Mark wrote an essay while we were on holiday. The essay has won a prize in the school
competition.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

10. My mother was working for a man before she met my father. The man was very
intelligent, but also very disorganized.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………...

30