INSULATION AND REFRACTORIES

Purpose of Insulation
• A thermal insulator is a poor conductor of heat and has a low
thermal conductivity
• Such materials are porous, containing large number of
dormant air cells
• Benefits
– To prevent heat loss or heat gain
– Reduces over-all energy consumption
– Helps better process control by maintaining process temperature.
– Prevents corrosion by keeping the exposed surface of a refrigerated
system above dew point
– Provides fire protection to equipment
– Absorbs vibration
 Types and Application
• Low Temperature Insulations (up to 90oC)
– This range covers insulating materials for refrigerators, cold and hot water
systems, storage tanks, etc. The commonly used materials are Cork, Wood,
85% magnesia, Mineral Fibers, Polyurethane and expanded Polystyrene, etc
• Medium Temperature Insulations (90 – 325oC)
– Insulators in this range are used in low temperature, heating and steam
raising equipment, steam lines, flue ducts etc. The types of materials used in
this temperatures range include 85% Magnesia, Asbestos, Calcium Silicate
and Mineral Fibers etc
• High Temperature Insulations (325o C – above )
– Typical uses of such materials are super heated steam system, oven dryer
and furnaces etc. The most extensively used materials in this range are
Asbestos, Calcium Silicate, Mineral Fibre, Mica and Vermiculite based
insulation, Fireclay or Silica based insulation and Ceramic Fibre
 Insulation material
• Insulation materials can also be classified into Organic and
Inorganic types.
• Organic insulations are based on hydrocarbon polymers,
which can be expanded to obtain high void structures
– Example: Thermocol (Expanded Polystyrene) and Poly Urethane
Form(PUF).
• Inorganic insulation is based on Siliceous / Aluminous
/Calcium materials in fibrous, granular or powder forms.
– Example: Mineral wool, Calcium silicate etc
 Properties of common insulating materials
• Calcium Silicate: Used in industrial process plant piping where high service temperature and
compressive strength are needed. Temperature ranges varies from 40 C to 950 C.
• Glass mineral wool: These are available in flexible forms, rigid slabs and preformed pipe
work sections. Good for thermal and acoustic insulation for heating and chilling system
pipelines. Temperature range of application is –10 to 500 C
• Thermocol: These are mainly used as cold insulation for piping and cold storage
construction.
• Expanded nitrite rubber: This is a flexible material that forms a closed cell integral vapour
barrier. Originally developed for condensation control in refrigeration pipe work and chilled
water lines; now-a-days also used for ducting insulation for air conditioning.
• Rock mineral wool: This is available in a range of forms from light weight rolled products to
heavy rigid slabs including preformed pipe sections. In addition to good thermal insulation
properties, it can also provide acoustic insulation and is fire retardant.
 Moulded Insulation
• Insulation material can be obtained in form of
moulded sections
– Semi-cylindrical sections for pipes
– Slabs for vessels, flanges and valves
• Main advantage of moulded sections are ease of
application when undertaking repairs for damaged
insulation
 Calculation of Insulation Thickness

• Heat loss from a surface is expressed as H = h X A x (Th-Ta)

• Where
• h = Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2-K
• H = Heat loss, Watts
• Ta = Average ambient temperature, ºC
• Ts = Desired/actual insulation surface temperature, ºC
• Th = Hot surface temperature (for hot fluid piping), ºC & Cold surface
temperature for cold fluids piping)
• For horizontal pipes, heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by:
• h = (A + 0.005 (Th – Ta)) x 10 W/m2-K
• For vertical pipes,
• h = (B + 0.009 ( Th – Ta)) x 10 W/m2-K
 Using the coefficients A, B as given below.

k = Thermal conductivity of insulation at mean temperature of Tm, W/m-C

tk = Thickness of insulation, mm
r1 = Actual outer radius of pipe, mm
r2 = (r1 + tk)

The heat flow from the pipe surface and the ambient can be expressed as follows

From the above equation, and for a desired Ts, Rl can be calculated. From Rl and known
value of thermal conductivity k, thickness of insulation can be calculated.
Economic Thickness of Insulation
(ETI)
Economic Thickness of Insulation
(ETI)
 Factors to be considered for determining
economic insulation thickness
• Boiler efficiency
• Heat content of fuel
• Cost of fuel
• Annual hours of operation
• Operating surface temperature
• Pipe diameter/thickness of surface
• Estimated cost of insulation.
• Average exposure ambient still air temperature
Simplified formula for heat loss
calculation
This equation can be used up to 2000C surface temperature.
Factors like wind velocities, conductivity of insulating material etc
has not been considered in the equation

S = [10+(Ts-Ta)/20] x (Ts-Ta)

S = Surface heat loss in kCal/hr m2

Ts = Hot surface temperature in oC
Ta= Ambient temperature in oC

Total heat loss/hr (Hs)

=SxA
A is the surface area in m2
Hs x Yearly hours of operation
Equivalent fuel loss (Hf) (kg/Yr) = ---------------------------------------
GCV x ήb
Example:Surface heat loss Before and after insulation
S = [10+(Ts-Ta)/20] x (Ts-Ta)
Where S = Surface heat loss in Kcal/hr m2
Ts= Hot surface temperature in oC, Ta= Ambient temperature in oC
Total heat loss/hr (Hs)= S x A Where A is the surface area in m2

Surface temp without insulation–170oC

Ts – 65oC
Ambient temperature – 25oC
Ta – 25oC
Existing Heat Loss
S = [10+ (Ts-Ta)/20] x (Ts-Ta)
Modified System
Ts = 170oC S = [10+(65-25)/20] x (65-20)
Ta = 25oC = 480 K.cal/hrM2
S =[10+(170-25)/20]x(170-25) =
2500 Kcal/hr-m2
 Cold Insulation
• Should be considered operating temperature are below
ambient where protection is required against heat gain,
condensation or freezing.
• The most important characteristics of a suitable Cold
insulation material are:
– Low Thermal Conductivity
– High water resistance, and
– Durability at low temperature
S. Characteristics Rigid Urethane Foam Expanded Resin Resin Bonded Phenolic Foam
No Polystyrene Bonded Mineral Wool
Glass Wool

1. Physical Form Freon-filled closed Air filtered closed Open celled Open celled Open ceilled
cellular rigid plastic cellular rigid resilient mat resilient mat of rigid phenolic
form thermoplastic of resin resin bonded fibre foam.
foam bonded glass drawn from rock
wool of slag

2 Density (kg/m3) 32 13 – 25 12 – 48 40 – 144 24 – 32

3 Thermal 0.014 (initial) 0.028 (initial) (for 0.032 (for 32 0.035 (for 48 0.021 (initial)
Conductivity 0.0119 (design) 18 kg/cm3 kgs/m3 kg/m3 density)
(kCal/m hr oC) density) density)
0.032 (design)
4 Compressive 172 70 – 100 Negligible Negligible 75 – 117
strength at 10%
deformation
(kN/m2)
5. Service temperature -200 C to + 130 oC -200 C to + 80 oC O oC TO + 0 oC to + 232 oC - 196 oC to + oC
special grades can 232 oC
withstand temperature
upto + 150oC.

6. Effect of microbes Not attacked by vermin, Gets eaten by Not attacked Not attacked by Not attacked by
and vermin mould, pests, insects, rats, ants, birds by microbes microbes and microbes and
birds etc. etc. Also growth and pests pests pests.
of mould
 Application & Economics of Cold Insulation

• Application
• Generally on pipe work, preformed pipe sections should be used or alternatively an in-situ
or spray application could be considered. All insulation should fit the piping and equipment
snugly.
• On low temperature insulation work, all attachments to the piping or equipment and
projections through the insulation should also be insulated for a distance of four times the
thickness of the basic insulation from the point where the projection is exposed.
• Economics of Cold Insulation:
• Unlike hot insulation system, the concern area in Cold Insulation is the heat gain into the
refrigerated space, which leads to increase in the refrigeration load (TR) & energy
consumption as a consequence.
• The cost of heat gain can thus be assessed & evaluated against cost of additional cold
insulation thickness, to optimize overall energy consumption & cost in refrigeration system.
 Refractories
• Any material can be described as ‘refractory,’ if it can
withstand the action of abrasive or corrosive solids, liquids or
gases at high temperatures
• The various combinations of operating conditions in which
refractories are used, make it necessary to manufacture a
range of refractory materials with different properties.
• Refractory materials are made in varying combinations and
shapes and for different applications
 General requirements of a
refractory material
• Ability to withstand high temperatures.
• Ability to withstand sudden changes of temperatures.
• Ability to withstand action of molten metal slag, glass, hot
gases, etc.
• Ability to withstand load and abrasive forces
• Ability to withstand load at service conditions.
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Should be able to conserve heat.
• Should not contaminate the material with which it comes
into contact
 Properties of refractories
• Melting point
–Refractory materials must have melting point above the products to be
produced
• PCE
–temperature at which refractory will deform under its own weight is its
softening temperature indicated by PCE (Pyrometric Cone Equivalent)
• Size and shape
–Accuracy in size and shape is important to minimize thickness and joints in
construction
• Bulk density
–Increase in bulk density increases its volume stability, heat capacity and
resistance to slag penetration
• Porosity
–Low porosity is desirable as it would prevent easy penetration of refractory and
also larger number of small pores are preferred over small number of large
pores
 Properties of refractories

• Refractoriness under load (RUL)

– RUL test will give temperature at which refractories will collapse under
service condition with similar load
• Volume stability, expansion, and shrinkage at high
temperatures
– Permanent change in refractories due to chemical reaction
• Reversible thermal expansion
– Any material expands on heating and contract on cooling
• Thermal conductivity
 Classification of Refractories
Classification based on Chemical Examples
composition
ACID---which are not attacked by acid slag Silica, Semisilica,
and readily combines with bases. Aluminosilicate.
BASIC---which consists mainly of metallic Magnesite, chromemagnesite,
oxides which resist the action of basic slags Dolomite.
NEUTRAL---which doesn’t combine; neither Chrome, Pure Alumina
with acids nor bases.
Special Carbon, Silicon Carbide,
Zirconia.
Classification based on method of - Dry Press Process
manufacture - Hand Moulded
- Formed Normal, fired or
Chemically bonded.)
- Unformed (Monolithics-
plastics, Ramming Mass,
Gunning Castable, Spraying.)
 Mineral-based refractories

• Acid bricks contain at least 92%~ silicon oxide (SiO2)

(Silica);
• Semi-basic bricks contain at least 65% silicon oxide.
but less than 30% alumina (A12O3);
• Basic bricks contain at least 60% magnesium oxide
(MgO) (Magnesia).
• Neutral bricks contain at least 30% alumina;
• Synthetic refractories e.g. silicon carbide produced
by melting and casting processes.
Typical Refractories in Industrial
Use
 Fireclay refractories
• Basically hydrated aluminium silicates with minor proportion of
other minerals
• Classes are Super duty, High duty, Intermediate duty, High duty
and Low duty
• These classes cover the range from approximately 18% to 44%
alumina, and from about 50% to 78% silica
• As the quantity of impurities increases and the amount of Al2O3
decreases, the melting point of fireclay brick decreases
• Firebrick is the most common form of refractory material. It is
used extensively in the iron and steel industry, nonferrous
metallurgy, glass industry, pottery kilns, cement industry, and by
many others
 High alumina refractories

• Refractories having alumina content of over 45% to

100% are termed as high alumina refractories.
• The refractoriness of high alumina refractories
increases with increase in alumina percentage.
• The applications of high alumina refractories
includes the hearth and shaft of blast furnaces,
ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks and
crucibles for melting a wide range of metals
 Silica brick
• Silica brick is a refractory material containing at least 92% SiO2.
• The raw material is quality rocks
• Silica refractories are well adapted to high-temperature service
because of their high refractoriness, high mechanical strength
and rigidity at temperatures
• The outstanding property of silica brick is that it does not
begin to soften under high loads until its fusion point is
approached.
• Typical applications are iron and steel melting furnace and
glass melting furnace
 Magnesite bricks
• Magnesite refractories are chemically basic materials,
containing at least 85% magnesium oxide.
• They are made from naturally occurring magnesite (MgCO3).
• Good quality magnesite usually results from a CaO-SiO2 ratio
of less than 2 with a minimum ferrite concentration,
particularly if the furnaces lined with the refractory operate
in oxidizing and reducing conditions.
• The slag resistance is very high particularly to lime and iron
rich slags
 Chromite refractories
• There are two types namely chrome-magnesite refractories
and magnesite-chromite-refractories.
• Chromemagnesite material usually contain 15-35% Cr2O3 and
42-50% MgO whereas magnesite-chromite refractories
contain 8-18% Cr2O3 and at least 60% MgO
• These materials can withstand corrosive slags and gases and
have high refractoriness.
• Magnesite-chromite refractories are suitable for service at the
highest temperatures
• Magnesite-chromite refractories usually has a better spalling
resistance than chrome-magnesite.
 Zirconia refractories
• Zirconia are basically compounds of zircon and oxygen
• Small quantities of calcium, magnesium and cerium oxide are added to
stabilize (prevent cracking and strengthening) it before application as a
refractory by incorporating, etc.
• Zirconia refractories have a very high strength at room temperature which is
maintained upto temperatures as high as 15000C and therefore finds
application as high temperature constructional materials for furnaces and
kilns.
• Since Zirconia exhibits very low thermal losses and does not react readily
with liquid metals, it is useful for making refractory crucibles and other
vessels for metallurgical purposes. Zirconia is a useful refractory material for
glass furnaces primarily since it is not easily wetted by molten glasses
 Alumina refractories
• Alumina refractory materials which consist of aluminium oxide with little
traces of impurities are often known as pure alumina.

• Alumina is one of the most chemically stable oxides known.

• It is mechanically very strong, insoluble in water and super heated steam,

and in most inorganic acids and alkalies.

• Its properties make it suitable for the shaping of crucibles.

• It has a high resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmosphere

• Highly porous alumina is used for lining furnaces operating up to 18500C.

 Monolithic refractories
• Most monolithic formulations consist of large refractory particulates, fine filler
materials (which fill the interparticle voids) and a binder phase (that gels the
particulates together in the green state).

• Monolith forming refractories are special mixes or blends of dry granular

plastic materials to form virtually joint-free linings

• Monolithic refractories (single piece cast in the shape of equipment such as one
for a ladle shown in figure 5.7) are replacing the conventional type fired
refractories at a much faster rate in many applications including those of
industrial furnaces.
 Advantages of Monolithics
– It eliminates joints which is an inherent weakness
– Method of application is faster and skilled measures in large number
are not required
– Transportation and handling are simple
– Offers better scope to reduce downtime for repairs
– Offers considerable scope to reduce inventory and eliminate special
shapes
– It is a heat saver
– Has better spalling resistance
– Has greater volume stability
• Various means are employed in the placement of
monolithics like ramming, casting, gunning mixes, spraying
etc.
 Insulating materials

• Insulating materials greatly reduce the heat losses through walls.

• Insulation is effected by providing a layer of material having a low heat
conductivity between the internal hot surface of a furnace and the
external surface, thus reducing the temperature of the external surface.
• The insulating materials may be classified into the following groups
– Insulating bricks
– Insulating Castables
– Ceramic fibre
– Calcium silicate
– Ceramic coating
Physical properties of insulating
refractories
• The most common refractory material is diatomite (made of mass of
skeleton of minute organism.

Type Thermal Max. safe Cold Crushing Porosity Bulk density

conductivity at temperature0C Strength % Kg/m3
4000C Kg/cm2
Diatomite .025 1000 270 52 1090
Solid
Grade
Diatomite .014 800 110 77 540
Porous
Grade
Clay .030 1500 260 68 560
High .028 1500-1600 300 66 910
Aluminia
Silica .040 1400 400 65 830
Ceramic Fibre

• Ceramic fibre is a low thermal mass insulation material

• Basic components are high purity alumina and silica
• Working temperature is from 1150oC to 1250oC
• A recent addition is Zr O2 added alumino silicate fibre, which
helps to reduce shrinkage levels thereby rating the fibre for
higher temperatures (1325oC)
 Important Properties of Ceramic
Fibre
• Lower Thermal Conductivity
• Light Weight
• Lower Heat Storage
• Thermal Shock Resistant
• Chemical Resistance
• Mechanical Resilience
• Low Installation Cost
• Simple Maintenance
• Ease of Handling
• Thermal Efficiency
 High Emissivity Coatings

Emissivity of Refractory Materials at Different temperatures

 Selection of Refractories

• Area of application
• Working temperatures
• Extent of abrasion and impact
• Structural load of the furnace
• Stress due to temperature gradient in the structures and
temperature fluctuations
• Chemical compatibility to the furnace environment
• Heat transfer and fuel conservation
• Cost considerations
 Heat losses from furnace walls
• Extent of wall losses depends on
• Emissivity of walls
• Conductivity of refractories
• Wall thickness
• Whether furnace or kiln is operated
continuously or intermittently
 INSULATION AND REFRACTORIES
Solved Example:
A steam pipeline of 250 mm outer diameter & 100 meters long is insulated with
150 mm Mineral wool insulation. As an energy conservation measure, the
management has upgraded the existing Mineral wool insulation with efficient
calcium silicate insulation. Calculate the economics in terms of payback if the
insulation is upgraded at a cost of 20 lakhs.
Given:
Operating hours : 8000
Boiler efficiency : 87 %
Fuel Oil Cost : Rs. 5,000 per ton
GCV of the fuel : 10,200 kcal/kg
Thickness of Mineral wool insulation : 150 mm
Thickness of Calcium Silicate insulation : 100 mm
Surface temperature with Mineral wool insulation : 70 °C
Surface temperature Calcium silicate insulation : 55 °C
Ambient temperature : 30 °C
Ans:
Heat loss with Mineral wool insulation = {10 + (Ts –Ta)/20} x (Ts – Ta)
= ( 10 + (70 – 30)/20 } x (70 – 30)
= 480 kcal/hr per Square meter
Heat loss with Calcium silicate insulation = ( 10 + (55 – 30)/20 } x (55 – 30)
= 281.25 kcal/hr – Sq. m
Surface Area with Mineral wool = 3.14 D L
= 3.14 x 0.550 x 100 = 172.7 Square meter
Surface Area with Calcium Silicate = 3.14 x 0.450 x 100 = 141.3 Square meter
Heat loss with Mineral wool = 480 x 172.7 = 82896 kcal/hr

Heat loss with Calcium silicate = 281.25 x 141.3 = 39741 kcal/hr

Annual savings =

(82,896 - 39,741) x 8,000 x 45,000

10,200 x 1000 x 0.87

= Rs. 17.5 Lakhs / year

Payback period = 20 / 17.5
= 1.14 years = 13.7 months
Ans:
Heat loss with Mineral wool insulation = {10 + (Ts –Ta)/20} x (Ts – Ta)
= ( 10 + (70 – 30)/20 } x (70 – 30)
= 480 kcal/hr per Square meter
Heat loss with Calcium silicate insulation = ( 10 + (55 – 30)/20 } x (55 – 30)
= 281.25 kcal/hr – Sq. m
Surface Area with Mineral wool = 3.14 D L
= 3.14 x 0.550 x 100 = 172.7 Square meter
Surface Area with Calcium Silicate = 3.14 x 0.450 x 100 = 141.3 Square meter
Heat loss with Mineral wool = 480 x 172.7 = 82896 kcal/hr

Heat loss with Calcium silicate = 281.25 x 141.3 = 39741 kcal/hr

Annual savings =

(82,896 - 39,741) x 8,000 x 45,000

10,200 x 1000 x 0.87

= Rs. 17.5 Lakhs / year

Payback period = 20 / 17.5
= 1.14 years = 13.7 months