Insurance law

University of Nairobi
Edited by Josiah M. Nyangweso LLB 3
©2004/2005[copyrighted work]

Lectures by Gakeri 25th October 2004.

Introduction

The insurance contract is contract like any other, but with particular peculiar principles. The insurance interest should be beyond the control of either party and
there must be an element of negligence or that there is uncertainty. Contracts dealing with uncertain future events are either alieatory, contingent or speculative.
In insurance risk exists a priori, whether or not we insure. However in a wager there is no insurable interest.
It has been observed that the contract of insurance is basically governed by rules which form part of the general law of contract. But equally, there is no doubt that
over the years, it has attracted many principles of its own to such an extent that it is perfectly proper to speak of the law of Insurance.
In the words of Collinvaux in Law of Insurance Pg 2.

“Insurance contracts also exhibit certain features which as a matter of common law apply only to them”

Problem of Definition

As a general rule statutes dealing with the regulation of insurance business do not or have not defined the contract of insurance to obviate the danger of excluding
contracts within or that should be within their scope. However a definition is essential as insurance business is closely regulated.
In the words of Ivamy, General Principles of Insurance,

“A contract of insurance in the widest sense of the term may be defined as a contract whereby one person called the insurer undertakes in return for the
agreed consideration called the premium, to pay to the other person called the assured, a sum of money or its equivalent on the happening of a specified
event”
In the words of John Birds, Modern Insurance Law, Pg 13,

“It is suggested that a contract of insurance is any contract whereby one party assures the risk of an uncertain event which is not within his control
happening at a future time. In which event the other party has an interest and under which contract the first party is bound to pay money or provide its
equivalent if the uncertain event occurs.”
In the words of Channel J, in Prudential Assurance CO. Ltd Vs Inland Revenue Commissioner [1904]2 KB 658 AT 663,

“A contract of insurance then must be a contract for the payment of a sum of money or for some corresponding benefit such as the rebuilding of a
house or the repairing of a shape to become due on the happening of an event, which event must have some amount of uncertainty about it and must be
of a character more or less adverse to the interest of the person effecting the insurance”
The Judge further observed that, “ it must be a contract whereby for some consideration usually but necessarily for periodical payments called premiums, you
secure yourself some benefit usually but not necessarily the payment of a sum of money upon the happening of some event”

Lord Clerk in Scottish Amicable Heritage Securities Association Ltd Vs Northern Assurance Co [1883] 11 ER 287

It is a contract belonging to a very ordinary class by which the insurer undertakes in consideration of the payment of an estimated equivalent beforehand to make
up to the assured any loss he may sustain by the assurance of an uncertain contingency.

Other cases:
1. Robertson Vs Hamilton [1811]14 East 522
2. Fuji Finance Vs Actria Insurance [1994] 4 All ER 1075
3. D.I.I. Vs St. Christopers Association [1974] 1 All ER 395
4. Medical Defence Union Vs Department of Trade [1979] 2 ALL ER 421
5. Gould Vs Curtis [1913] 2 KB 84
6. Hampton Vs Toxleth [1915] 1 Ch. 721
7. Re National Standard Life Assurance Corp. [1918] 1 Ch. 427.

Essentials/principles of an Insurance Contract

1. AGREEMENT

For a contract of insurance to exist, there must be an agreement under which the insurer is legally bound to compensate the other party or pay the sum assured
[premium]. This is the consideration that passes between the parties to support the transaction. It is asserted that premium is the considerations which the insurers
receive from the insured in exchange for their undertaking to pay the sum assured in the vent insured against. Any consideration sufficient to support a simple
contract may constitute a premium in a contract of insurance.

2. UNCERTAINTY
The insurance contract is aleatory or contingent or speculative as it deals with uncertain future events. For an event to be Insurable it must be characterized by
some uncertainty. In the words of Channel J in Prudential Assurance CO. Ltd Vs Inland Revenue Commissioner “then the next thing that is necessary is that the
event should be one which involves some amount of uncertainty. There must b either some uncertainty whether the event would ever happen or not, or if the event
is one which must happen at some time or another, there must be uncertainty as to the time at which it would happen”

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 3.
INSURABLE INTEREST
According to John Birds, it means that a party to the insurance contract must
The party insured must prove that he will enjoy from the exestence of the
 Absence of the interest or relationship renders the contract illegal, void or simply unenforceable or prevents a claim under it.
 Insurable interest is defined in cases no.3, no.6
 The insured must have peniary interest in the subject matter
 Time when insurable interest is required
 The insured must have insurable interest at the time of loss
Insurable interests before life policies
Fuji FInance Limited Vs Aetna Life Ins Ltd
The insurable event must be of an adverse nature.i.e. the insured must have an Insurable interest in the property, life or liability which is the subject of the
insurance. Insurable interest is said to be the pecuniary or financial interest which is at stake or in danger if the subject matter is not insured. It is a basic
requirement for the contract of insurance.
4. CONTROL
The insurable event must be beyond the control of the party assuring the risk. Re Sentinel Securities P.L.L [1996] I WLR 316

5. ACCIDENTAL OR NEGLIGENT LOSS

Insurance can only be effected where loss is accidental in nature or is a consequence of a negligent act or omission. Loss occasioned by intentional acts does not
qualify for indemnity or for payment of the sum assured. Toxleth Vs Hampton, Hall D. Ath Vs British Prudential Assurance [1932]48 LT 240.

6. RISK
This is the central problem that insurance attempts to address. It is understood to mean that in a given situation, there is uncertainty about the outcome and a
possibility exists that the outcome would be unfavorable. Risk has been defined as the chance of loss, the probability of loss of loss or the probability of any
outcome different from the one expected. It is a condition in which there is a possibility of an adverse deviation from a desired outcome that is expected or hoped
for. For individual proposes, risk is measured by the probability of loss as the individual hopes that it would not occur.

The probability that it could occur is used to measure the risk. However, where a large number of exposure units- policies- exists, it is possible to predict the
probability of loss which is the probability of an adverse deviation from the expected outcome. The standard deviation is used as a measure of risk. The higher the
probability of loss the greater the risk as the greater the possibility of loss the greater the probability of a deviation from what is hoped for.
Risk differs from peril and hazards. A peril is the cause of loss while a hazard is a condition that may create or increase the chance of a loss arising from a given
peril.

CLASSIFICATION OF RISKS

 Financial and Non-financial

 Static and Dynamic
 Fundamental and particular.
 Pure and speculative.
 Personal and business.
 Objective and subjective

1. FINANCIAL AND NON-FINANCIAL RISKS - the term risk, in its context, includes al those situations in which there is an exposure to adversity. Risk is
financial where the adversity involves the financial loss and it is non-financial where no financial loss is involved.
2. STATIC AND DYNAMIC RISKS – Dynamic Risks result from changes in the economy e.g. changes in price levels, consumer tastes, income and output,
and technology may cause a financial loss to some members. These risks may occasion financial loss to the population. However in the long term, they
benefit society as they are consequences of adjustments to misallocation of resources. Dynamic risks occur without any precise degree of regularity and are
therefore less predictable.
Static risks are those which involve losses whether or not there are changes in the economy e.g. dishonesty of other individuals, perils of nature. They do not
benefit society and are generally predictable because they tend to appear over time with a reasonable degree of regularity. They involve either a destruction
of the asset or a change in its possession and are thus not a source of gain to society.
3. FUNDAMENTAL AND PARTICULAR – Fundamental risks involve losses impersonal in nature both in origin and consequence, that is it is not caused
by one individual and its impact generally falls on a wide range of people. Examples of such risks include war, inflation, changing customs, hurricanes,
earthquakes and tidal waves. The first three arise out of the kind of society we have and the last three are attributable to some physical forces. A risk of an
particular nature has its origin in its individual events and its impact is felt locally. Accidental damages to personal effects, theft of property and explosion of
a boiler are examples of particular risks.

4. PURE AND SPECULATIVE RISKS – a pure risk refers to that situation that may result in one of two outcomes [a chance of loss]- either there is a
loss or there is no loss (breakeven). Pure risks can be classified as personal, property, liability and risks arising from the failure of others. Speculative risks
describe circumstances in which there is a possibility of loss or gain e.g. gambling and wagers. No benefit can emanate from an exposure to pure risks.
Damage to one’s car by accident is an example of a pure risk. Either there is damage (i.e. an accident occurs) or there is no damage (the car is not
involved in an accident).
Speculative risk refers to that situation that may result in one of three possible outcomes – either there is a loss or there is no loss or there is a gain. Those
whom buy shares on the stock market face speculative risks. One may buy shares at shs 20 each and a year later they may be only worth shs. 15. On the
other hand they may no have changed in value and could still stand at shs 20. Alternatively, they could have risen in value so that one could sell them at
shs 25 each and make a profit.

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 Speculative risks are common in the business world. Launching a new product, fixing retail prices, exporting to a new market, etc are all forms of
speculative risks because they hold the possibility of making a loss, breaking even, or making a profit. Similarly, pure risks are common. The factory may
burn down, profit may be lost following a fire, and stock may be stolen. Should they not occur, it wouldn’t mean that the firm has gained. It would only
have broken – even.

5. PERSONAL AND BUSINESS RISKS – To wrap it up, we can also say that risks could either be personal or business in nature. The former are those
relating to an individual, for example, premature death, dependent old age, sickness or disability and unemployment. The latter are those relating to a
business entity. They all have financial implications that are undesired by the business firm. Examples include the factory burning down, stock being stolen,
production being hampered by strikes, etc.

6. OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE- an example is loss of property by theft. This risk is financial static, particular and pure in nature. Furthermore, it
could either be personal or business.

THE BURDEN OF RISKS.

The loss likely to arise in the evenyt of risk attaching is the primary burden of risk and hence the need to caution oneself against such possibility. This
uncertainty has led to the evolution of various methods of handling risk e.g.
 Risk Avoidance – This is the outright refusal by a person to accept risk. It is accomplished by disengaging in the activity or venture that give rise
to a risk. However it is a negative approach to risk management.
 Risk Retention – is the most common method of managing risk where the person takes no positive step to address the problem. It may be
voluntary or involuntary that the person does not know.

Transfer of Risk
This is effected by its transfer to another person willing to take the risk or to bear it e.g. Hedging. Hedging is a method of risk transfer whereby a trader buys and
sells goods for future delivery cautioning himself against a decline or increase in the market price. Insurance transfers the risk from the insured to the insurer in
return for a premium.
Risk Sharing
It may be accomplished in various ways e.g. formation of a company where persons pool there investments together and each member bears only a portion of a
risk that the enterprise may fail. Insurance deals with risk through sharing.
Risk Reduction
Is effected by the adoption of loss prevention mechanisms e.g. Medicare, fire departments, burglar proof, alarms etc.

Distinction between Insurance and Wagering Contracts

A wager is a contract whereby two persons or groups with different views on the outcome of an uncertain event agre that some consideration is to pass depending
on the outcome. The contract is speculative and contingent. However it differs from insurance in various ways.

1. Wagers are generally unenforceable whilst insurance contracts are enforceable.

2. The fundamental distinction between insurance and a wager is the risk in that whereas in insurance risk exists a priori, in a wager there is a deliberate
assumption of risk. In the words of Lord Ellenborough in Robertson vs. Hamilton [1811] at p 533
“Although insurance and wagering contracts are both speculative contracts, risk is the essence to the insurance contract and the assured
and the insured is made to effect the insurance contract because of the risk of loss and does not create the risk of loss by the contract itself”
3. In wagering contracts neither of the contracting parties has the interest other than the sum to be won or loss depending on the outcome. Payment is
dependant upon the event as agreed to by the parties and is not paid by way of indemnity or otherwise. In insurance, the insured has an interest of the
subject matter in respect of which he may suffer loss.
4. The uncertain event upon which the uncertain event depends is prima facie adverse to the insured’s interest and insurance is effected so as to meet the
loss or detriment which may be suffered on the happening of the event. In the words of Blackburn J in Wilson Vs. Jones [1867] L.R. 2 EX 139.
5. In wagers it is essential that either party may win or lose depending on the outcome of the uncertain event. In insurance, the insured pays a premium to
furnish consideration, it is not dependant upon the event insured against and the insured cannot be called upon to contribute anything more, whether or
not the event occurs.

1st November 2004

Parties to an insurance Contract.
Generally insurance combines first and third party contracts. Most non-indemnity contracts are 1 st party whereas third party contracts are statutory. The
insurer undertakes to compensate third parties when risk attaches. However in all circumstances, parties to an insurance contract are the insurer and the
insured.

Insured- is the person who takes out the policy and may be natural or juristic. A proposer for insurance must have an insurance interest in the subject matter.
Section 5 [1] of the Marine Insurance Act, Cap 390 of the Laws of Kenya provides inter alia

“Every person has an insurable interest who is interest in marine adventure”

Section 94 of the Insurance Act Cap 487 of the Laws of Kenya is emphatic that,
“No policy of insurance shall be issued on the life or lives of any person[s] or any other event or events whatsoever wherein the person or persons for
whose use, benefit or on whose account such policy or policies shall be made shall have no insurable interest.”
All persons with an insurance interest may take out insurance policies. The question of unsoundness of mind in insurance was considered in Joel Vs Law Union
and Crown Insurance Co [1908] 2 kb 863.

Insurer – Is the person who undertakes to indemnify the insured or undertakes to pay the sum assured. Generally there are three classes of insurance.
1. Insurance Companies

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 2. Underwriting Associations and Brokers.
3. Insurance Agents
The history of insurance practice lays more emphasis in the company as a central undertaking in Insurance. The now repealed Insurance Companies Act
maintained that position.

Section 22 of the Insurance Act,

“ No person shall be registered as an insurer under the Act, unless that person is a body corporate incorporated under the companies Act and at least 1/3 of the
controlling interest, whether in terms of shares paid up capital or voting rights as the case may be as held by citizens of Kenya”

Section 23 of the Insurance Act prescribes the minimum capital requirements.

In 1987 it was Kshs 5,000,000/=, today it is Kshs 50, 000,00/=. The minimum capital requirements for General insurance is Kshs 100,000,000/= while for general
and others is Kshs 150,000,000/=.

Insurance Brokers
Section 2 [1] Insurance Act, provides that a broker is an intermediary concerned with the pacing of the insurance business with the insurer or re-insurer for or in
expectation of payment by way of brokerage, commission, fee, allowance, return or otherwise for or on behalf of an insurer, policy holder or proposer for the
insurance or Re-insurance. A broker is a person who promises to place insurance business with the most competent insurer or re-insurer. Broking I insurance has a
long history traceable to the Lloyds of London Association.
Insurance Agents
Section 2[1] of the Insurance Act, defines an agent as a person who being a salaried employee of an insurer who in consideration of a commission solicits or
procurers insurance business for an insurer or broker.
An insurance agent commits both parties to the transaction. At common law, an insurance agent is the agent of the insured, if the proposer engages him to
complete the proposal form. This is justified on the doctrine of non-disclosure which assumes that the proposer is in control of the material fats affecting the
subject matter. Consequently any incorrect statements affect th4e proposer adversely.
However in cases of active fraud, the agent is deemed to be the agent for the insurance company.

 Hughes Vs Liverpool Victoria Legal Friendly Society[ 1916] 2 KB 482

 Harse Vs Pearl Life Assurance Co. Ltd [1904] 1 KB 558

Are premiums recoverable where there is no insurable interest?

In the first case the premiums were recoverable. in the second case both parties were not aware or did not know whether there was an insurable interest in “ pari
delicto’

Harse Vs Pearl Life Assurance Co. Ltd [1904] 1 KB 558

Where the policy is illegal, the premium cannot be recovered if the insured is in pari delicto with the insurers. The plaintiff was induced to insure his mother’s life
by the insurer’s agent’s innocent misrepresentation that the policy would be a valid one. The policy was illegal under the Life Assurance Act 1774, Sec 1since the
plaintiff had no insurable interest. The plaintiff sought to recover the premium which he had paid. It was held by the Court of Appeal, that the premium was not
recoverable because the parties were in pari delicto. Moreover it was found that there was no mis-statement of fact nor fraud on the part of the agent. That there
was non greater impropriety on the part of the agent than there was on the part of the plaintiff.

Under the provision of the Insurance Act 1881 of England. Insurance Agents are deemed top be agents of the Insurer, and in the event of fraud, the insurer is
liable.

O’Conner Vs B.D.B Kirby and Co and Another

[1971] 2 ALL ER 1415.

The proposer who owned a motor vehicle took out an insurance policy through the defendant insurance broker. He supplied the necessary information and the
broker completed the proposer form. In response to one question, the proposer indicated that he had no garage and that the motor vehicle would be parked by the
side of the road. The broker indicated on the proposer form that the motor vehicle would be kept in a garage.
The proposer signed the proposer form without detecting the mistake and a policy was subsequently issued. The insured lodged a claim and the mistake was
discovered. The insurer repudiated liability whereupon the insured sued the broker in damages for the loss suffered on the ground that the broker had breached his
contractual duty to complete the proposal form correctly.
Held: The broker was not liable in that, first, it is the duty of the proposer for insurance to make sure that the information contained in the proposal form is
accurate and should not or ought not to sign it if it is inaccurate. As it was the insured’s duty to confirm the contents of the form, the effective failure of the loss is
his failure to do so.

Davis L.J. Said at 1421

“It was the duty of the insured to read this form. It was his application, he signed it and if he was so caress as not to read it properly, then in my opinion, he has
himself to blame”

however under section 81[2] of the Insurance Act, where an agent or servant of an insurer writes or fills in a proposal form for a policy of insurance with an
insurer, a policy issued in pursuance of the proposal shall not be avoided by reason only of an incorrect or untrue statement contained in the particulars so written
or filled in unless the incorrect or untrue statement was in fact made by the proposer to the agent or servant for the purpose of the proposal and the burden of
proving that the statement was so made shall lie upon the insurer.

Nature and Operation of Insurance Mechanism.

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Insurance may be described as a social device whereby a large group of individuals or companies through a system of equitable contribution may reduce or
eliminate certain measurable risks of economic cost resulting from the accidental occurrence of disastrous events. Its effect is to spread the cost which otherwise
would fall upon an individual in an equitable manner over the members of a large group exposed to the same hazard. The theory behind Insurance is that members
of an insurance scheme contribute to a central fund from which payments are made in case one of their members suffers loss by the occurrence of the risk [event]
insured against. The payment - individual contribution to the pool is the premium.

Role of Insurance
Conventional insurance writers have observed that insurance has two basic roles.
1. The transfer and shifting of risk from an individual to a group.
2. The sharing of loss on an equitable basis by members of the group.
These roles constitute the Insurance mechanism. Insurance attempts to shift individual risk to a group and does so equitably should the risk attach. Arguably
therefore, insurance is an economic device whereby the individual substitute a small certain cost for a large and uncertain financial loss in the future which could
exist or arise but for insurance.
In practice the Insurance mechanism anticipates the possibility of organizing individuals into a homogenous group exposed to the same risk. Insurance companies
employ two mechanisms to group individuals into homogenous groups.

1. Law of large numbers, averages or probabilities

2. Posterior or empirical probabilities.

Law of Large Numbers.

Is based on the likelihood of an event taking place and makes predictions on the likelihood of such event happening on the assumption that the happening of
the event can be predicted with certainty. It operates on the premise that the observed frequency of nay event approaches the underlying probability as the number
of trials approaches infinity. Hence the greater the number of exposure units [risks], the greater he certainty.

Posterial or Empirical Probabilities.

Under posterior or empirical probabilities, acturial scientists determine the probability of risk attaching by the reference to the past and prevailing circumstances.
It has been observed that insurance in its fullest can only exist if the following elements are present :-
1) A person with an interest in something which can be valued (valuable), monetary or otherwise.
2) The thing in which he has interest is subject to loss by a peril.
3) A substantial number of other persons have an interest in similar things subject to loss by similar perils.
4) The chance of loss from the peril can be measured or measurable with some degree of certainty or accuracy.
5) The desire by enough persons or members of the group to share each others loss.
6) The loss or losses resulting from the insured risk must be definite and predictable in financial or pecuniary terms.
7) The loss must be tortuous or accidental.
8) The loss must not be catastrophic in aggregate.
9) The cost of insurance must be economically feasible (managerial premiums).

8th November 2004

Historical Development of Insurance

According to John Birds: the origins of modern insurance contracts are to be found in the practices adapted by Italian Merchants from the 14 thC though the
concept of insuring is an ancient one. Maritime risks i.e. loss of ship and cargo at sea led to the practice of medieval insurance dominated insurance for many
years. The practice of insurance spread to London in the 16 thC. Originally there were no separate insurers. A group of merchants would agree to bear their
risks among themselves.

Insurance business in England developed alongside the Lloyds exchange of London which was chartered in 1570. By it incorporation the exchange was a
meeting place for merchants involved in commercial transactions with time, the merchants realized that every transaction had a risk element and hence the
need to cushion themselves.

Marine Insurance

This is the oldest form of insurance which was for many years transacted at the Lloyds coffee house. The earliest forms of insurance contracts were known as
remissions or loons on Bottomy or Bills of Obligations. A merchant could borrow money either by a public subscription or privately for the purpose of purchase
of goods or shipment and the amount was payable at fixed rate of interest if the cargo arrive safely and nothing was payable in the event of loss. This system of
insurance imposed a heavy burden on lenders and was unsatisfactory for commercial purpose.
In marine insurance, the practice was that a merchant wishing to insure would pass a slip of paper on which the particulars of the ship and its cargo were written to
people desirous of providing insurance and those willing to accept a portion of the risk thereof, would initial the slip when the entire amount of insurance was
underwritten, the contract was concluded.
For many years, common law played an insignificant role in the resolution of the disputes relating to insurance. This however changed with the appointment of
Lord Manisfield as Chief Justice in the mid 18th century and by the latter half of the century the jurisdiction of courts of an insurance matter had been established.
The principle developed in relation to marine insurance has by and large been applied to other categories of insurance. Medieval insurance was closely associated
with banking. Attempts were made during the 13 th century to separate the two traders in Venile Geneva where risk was developed. Carrier or bill of lading or as a
bond which developed with insurance transaction exclusively. Its mode of operation was that a merchants could say a specific sum of money in advance and the
value of the goods in question was payable in the event of lesser destruction.
In 1574, a chamber of insurance was established at the Royal Exchange of London. This was a specialized section devoted to insurance transactions and by 1575
insurance contracts had been standardized and subject to resign. These developments were necessary to discourage fraudulent practices by insurers with insecure
financial base.
The chamber of insurance and the raging insurance policies registered in Act of 1601. this statute created a special court to adjudicate insurance matters because
by statute and an insurance was underwritten by individuals at the Lloyds of London. The South Sea Bubble scan of 1720 revealed the dangers of an unregulated

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business and this led to the enactment of the South Sea Bubble Act. It also led to the incorporation of two insurance companies i.e. the Royal Exchange Assurance
Corporation or Marine insurance and the London Assurance Corporation.

The London Fire Assurance Company was the 3rd company and was incorporated in 1772 after the great London fire. Since then significant attempts have been
made to regulate the insurance industry by legislation i.e. by the passage of the Marine Insurance Act of 1746 and the Life Assurance Act 1774. These
developments led to the codification of Marine Insurance Act 1906.
[Some Text missing]

19TH November 2004

Nature and Scope of the Insurance contract
Formalities – common law did not suggest that we should have an insurance contract to be in any specific form. See Jupiter General Insurance Co. Vs Kassanda.
The contract of insurance must satisfy basic requirements of a contract at common law, it must be characterized by an offer which is unequivocally accepted and
consideration must be furnished. The parties must have intended there dealing to be a legally binding agreement. A contract of insurance must be in writing by
some note or memorandum. However, this was not the requirement. At common law parole contract of insurance was enforceable.

1. Jupiter General Insurance Co. Vs Kassanda.

2. Murfit Vs Royal Insurance Co. [1922] TLR 334
3. Ackman Vs Policy Holders Protection Board [1992] Lloyds Reports 321.

Marine Insurance

However marine insurance must be written.

Section 22 of the Marine Insurance Act provides that a contract of Marine insurance is inadmissible in evidence unless it is embodied in a policy in accordance
with this Act. Under Section 23 of the Marine Insurance Act, the contract of marine insurance must specify the name of the assured or the person who effect the
policy on his behalf, the subject matter of insurance and the risk insured against, the insurance duration, the sum[s] insured and the names of the insurers.
Under Section 24 of the Marine Insurance Act, a contract for marine insurance must be signed by or on behalf of the insured. Life, fire and other types of
insurance are not generally subject to any formalities. However, under the provisions of the Stamp Duty Act, a stamp duty in print must be fixed on the face of
every policy without which the policy is inadmissible as evidence. Failure to fix the imprint renders the insurer liable to a fine not exceeding Kshs 2000/=
In the contract of insurance the offer is made by the proposer by completing and submitting the proposer form to the insurer. The offer must be as complete as
possible in materiality setting out the type of contract and other necessary details. It must be communicated to the insured. The proposal form is standard and so
are the terms and are subject to minimum negotiation. The insured [proposer] must have insurable interest.
The bargain element cases include.
1. ReYager Vs Gurdian Association Co. [1912] 108 MT 38
2. Stir Fire and Burglary Insurance Co. Vs Davidson [1902] 5 AC 38
3. Interfoto Picture Library Vs Sulhoute Visual program [1989] QB 432
4. Rust Vs Abbey Life Assurance Co [1979] 2L.R. 334 (Lloyds)
PROPOSAL FORM
This is document furnished by the insurer for completion by the proposer. It varies I form and content depending on the contract applied for. It solicits specific
information pertaining to the proposer and subject matter. It generally seeks information relating to;
1. Name, postal address, occupation and residence of the proposer as well as the location of the subject matter.
2. The risk or risks to be insured where the proposer does not seek an all risk policy. The duration of the cover must be specified and must be specific.
3. Circumstances affecting the risk. These are circumstances peculiar to the subject matter as they determine the scope of the risk to be undertaken.
4. The history of the subject matter; I.e. whether the risk has previously attached, previous insurance, refusals if any, including any cancellation. In
addition the proper depose that the information provided is true and forms the basis of the contract between the parties. This is refereed to as the basis
of the contract clause.

This information enables the insurer to make a fair decision whether or not to insure the risk and how much premium to charge
22nd November 2004

Signification of Acceptance of a Policy.

The submission to the insurer of a duly completed proposal form by the proposer constitutes the formal offer to contract. In an indemnity contract, insurers often
extend temporal cover to the proposer between submission of the proposal form and its formal acceptance or rejection. This is the cover note. This is a technical
term used by issuers to describe the temporal insurance cover extended to the proposer during the interim period between submission of the proposal from and its
formal acceptance or rejection.

1. The note may be justified on various grounds. Firstly before cover is extended time and care must be taken to access and ascertain the risk being
undertaken.
2. It is argued that the insurance industry is rigid and formal and hence the need for more time.
3. As explained in Julian Bright Vs H.G. Poland [1960] Lloyds Rep. 420, the typical motorist is an impatient person and demands cover before the
traditional steps are complied with. The cover note need note be a formal document. It is siufficient if the insurer intimates to the proposer that cover
has been extended from a particular date.

Murfit Vs Rayal Insurance Co. Ltd

[1922] 38 TLR 334

It was held that a letter from the head office of the company stating that cover had been extended in a particular situation constituted a cover note. The cover note
operates as a contract of insurance between the insurer and the proposer on the terms and conditions therein embodied or necessarily implied from the nature of

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the policy applied for. The proposer is entitled to indemnity in the event of attachment of risk during the subsistence of the cover note if the document is
comprehensive. The proposer recovers on the basis of its terms and conditions.

 Jadavji Shamji Panday Vs Oriental Fire and General Insurance Co [ 1957] EA 21

 General Re-Insurance Case [ 1982] QB 1022
 Stockton Vs Mason [1978] Lloyds Rep. 430

The legal effect of the cover note lapses when the insurer issues a policy or communicates his rejection of the proposal form. The effect of the policy is backdated
to the date of issue of the cover note. The cover note is ordinarily effective for 30 days.

Section 75 of the Stamp Duty Act, provides that a policy should be issued within 30 days of the receipt of the proposal form. However in practice, the duration of
cover note varies. If the insurer refuses to take the risk, he must notify the proposer, failing which over note remains effective and the insurer is liable should the
risk attach as was the case in

Cartwright Vs Mac Cormick Trafalgar Insurance

[1963]1 ALL ER 11.

The English Companies Act observed inter alia that an insurer must actually signify his rejection of the proposal form expressly in order to bring an end the
binding nature of the cover note. Acceptance of the proposal form is the prerogative of the insurer. However an insurer is not obliged to accept any proposal from
and in the vent of a refusal, he is not bound to assign any reasons. However the insurer cannot while accepting the proposal from vry or modify its terms without
the proposer’s concurrence.
1. Canning Vs Farquhar [1886] 16 QBD 727
2. General Accident Insurance Corp Vs Cronk [1901] 17 TLR 334.
Acceptance of the proposal form may be signified in various ways.

1. Formal Communication – this is an express intimation by the insurer to the proposer that it has accepted the proposal form.
2. Issue of policy – as a general rule issue of a policy is conclusive intimation of acceptance of the proposal form. The policy becomes legally effective on
the date of issue notwithstanding any defects in the proposal form.

McElroy Vs London Assurance Corp. [1894] 24 Lloyds Rep. 287. Where the proposer had not signed the proposal form but the insurer issued a policy,
a subsequent attempt to csancel the policy on the ground of the defect failed. It was held thet the policy was binding as its issue was evidence that the
company had studied, considered and accepted the proposal form.
Pearl Life Assurance Co Ltd Vs Johnson [1909] 2 KB 88.
However issue of policy does not amount to an acceptance where
 The proposer does not treat it as such but continues negotiating fro purposes of obtaining a modification of its terms.
 The policy departs from the proposal form by introducing fresh terms and thus amounts to a counter – offer.
3. Acceptance of premium – the acceptance and retention of premium raises presumption in the absence of any circumstance leading to a contrary
conclusion that the insured had accepted the proposal form. In such a case, the insurer is bound to issue a policy and make good any loss arising.
In the words of Lord Mc Laven at Page 291 in McElroy Vs London Assurance Corporation
“The company is not bound to deliver a policy without payment of the premium. If they accept a premium before delivery of a policy, I should be
disposed to hold that the acceptance of the premium and the delivery of the receipt thereof was sufficient to create the obligation to issue a policy.
Unless circumstances can be shown to the contrary, the receipt of the premium offered and its retention at once create a contract of insurance.”

 Re Economic Fire Office [1896] 12 TLR 142

 Harrington Vs Pearl Life Assurance Co. [1913] 30 TLR 24
4. Conduct of the Insurer – the fact that premium has not been paid nor the policy issued does not necessarily mean that the proposal from has not been
accepted. Evidence may clearly show that it has been accepted and that there is a binding agreement between the parties. On the part of the proposer to
pay the premium and on the part of the insurer to issue the policy in which case the insurer cannot refuse to accept the premium when tendered or
repudiate the contract.
1. Thompson Vs Adams [1889] 23 QBD 361
2. Adie and Sons Vs Insurance Corporation Ltd [1898] 14 TLR 544.
3. Re Yager [1912] LT 38
4. Jupiter General Insurance Company Vs Kassand Cotton
5. White well Vs Auto Car Fire and Accident Insurance Co. [1927] 27 Lloyds Rep. 41
Under Section 21 of the Marine Insurance Act, a contract of Marine Insurance is deemed concluded when he proposal of the insured is accepted by the insurer.

Acceptance of the proposal form marks the end of the proposer’s duty to disclose material facts and the insurer cannot generally avoid the contract for the non-
disclosure of facts coming to the proposer’s knowledge thereafter.

Commencement of the Insurance Cover.

Commencement of cover determines the time from which the insurer is bound to indemnify the insured or pay the sum assured should the risk attach. Indemnity
contract ordinarily run fro one year while the duration of non-indemnity contract is determined by the parties.

The date and time of commencement of cover is critical as it determines the commencement of the parties’ obligations. As a general rule, cover commences at the
time and date prescribed by the policy or cover note. However, if the document is silent as to the time or is ambiguous, cover commences at the beginning of the
next full day.
A full day is a period of twenty four consecutive hours from midnight. In

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Cartwright Vs Mac Cormick Trafalqar Insurance Co. Ltd

An insurance co. issued a cover note to a motorist showing the effective time and date of commencement as 11.45 AM. On December 1959. the not efurther
stated.

‘ This cover note is only valid for 15 days from the commencement date of risk…under no circumstances is the time and date of commencement of risk to be prior
to the actual time of issue of this cover note. …in nay event the duration of the cover note shall not be more than 15 days from the date of commencement stated
herein”.

The motorist was involved in an accident at 5.45 pm on December 17, 1959, 15 dasy and 6 hours after the commencement of the cover.

It was held that the insurance company wads liable to indemnify the insured. The court was of the view that on the true construction of the cover note, the
descriptions, date and time of commencement were used as separate terms and the term ‘commencement date’ and date of commencement were synonymous with
the day of commencement and consequently the 15 days read from the midnight of the commencement date.

The decision in this case was also justified on common law. In the words of Harman L.J. pg. 14 and 15;

“These cases seem to me to show that generally speaking when a day mentioned, from which the time is to start running, fractions of a day ought to be disregarded
and time should run from midnight… and therefore the 15 days is to be calculated from midnight on the commencement date.”

In the words of Wilmer L.J

“There is abundant authority going back at least to Lord Mansfield’s day for the proposition that in calculating a period of time, within which some acts must be
done or after which it may not be done, fractions of the day are ignored.”
Cases on the day and date argument include;
 Hayman Vs Downs [1942] AC 356
 Stewart Vs Chapman [1951] 2 ALL ER 613, [1951] 2 KB 792
 Hercules Insurance Co. Ltd Vs Trivedi and Co. Ltd [1962] EA 348
 Cornfoot Vs Royal Exchange Association Corporation [1904] 1 kb 40

Termination of Insurance Contracts.

Termination of an insurance contract limits the obligations of the parties thereto. Insurance contracts may come to an end or terminate in the following ways:
1. Payment of the sum assured or total indemnity when risk attaches – in property insurance, total indemnity discharges the contract while in non-
indemnity contracts, payment of the sum assured when risk attaches or on maturity discharges the contract. Reinstatement fro partial loss does not
terminate the contract.
2. Agreement or mutual consent – parties by mutual consent may at any time agree to cancel the policy thereby terminating the contract. The parties’
mind must be at Idem.

Reyner Vs Hall
[1813] 4 Lloyds Rep. 12
In life insurance the insured is entitled to the surrender value of the policy. Under section 89 of the Insurance Act, if an insured surrenders a policy to
the insurer, he is entitled to a partial reimbursement of up to 2/3 of the total premiums paid inclusive of interest and bonuses payable provided he has
been a bona fide insured fro at least 3 years.

In indemnity contracts, surrender of the policy before the end of the year, entitles the insured to its surrender value.

3. Breach of warranty [conditions]- an insurer may apply to the court for cancellation of an insurance policy for breach of a condition or warranty by the
insured e.g. non-disclosure of material facts or misrepresentation of facts. In Jubilee Insurance Co Vs John Sematengo [1965] EA 233 The plaintiff
Insurance Co. filed an action against the defendant for a declaration that the co. was entitled to avoid a motor insurance policy on the ground that the
same had been obtained by non-disclosure of material facts and misrepresentation of facts.

The insured had inter alia failed to disclose the fact that the subject matter of the insurance had been involved in an accident the day before it was insured and that
it had a major mechanical defect.

It was held that the insurance co. was entitled to avid the contract. In the words of Sir Udo Udoma
“The plaintiff co. is entitled to the declaration sought because it has satisfactorily discharged the onus which is upon it of establishing by a preponderance of
evidence that the insurance policy and the certificate were obtained by the defendant by the non-disclosure of material facts or by misrepresentation of facts which
was false in some particular.”

1. The Motor Union Insurance Co. Ltd Vs. A.K. Ddamba [1963] EA 271

4. Operation of Law- an insurance contract terminates if circumstances render its sustainability impossible e.g. Liquidation or winding up of the insurer
fro indemnity contract or sale or transfer of the subject matter. In;
Kinyanjui Vs South India Insurance Co. Ltd
[1968] EA 160
The plaintiff had obtained judgment under the Fatal Accidents Act, Cap 32 Law s of Kenya, against the driver and alleged owner of the bus. The insurance co
disclaimed liability on the ground that though the alleged owner had taken out a policy, the bus was being operated by a company to which it had been transferred
and hence the alleged owner had no insurance interest. It was held that since the company owned and operated the bus and had engaged its own driver, the

8
company alone had an insurable interest in the bus. The transfer of the bus to the company terminated the insurance cover hence there was no cover at the time of
the accident.

Peters Vs General Accident and Life Assurance Co. Ltd [1937] 4 ALL ER 628
5. Lapse [Effluxion of time] – indemnity contracts run for a year and on expiry of their duration unless renewed by mutual consent.

Classification of Insurance Contracts

Insurance contracts may be placed or classified into broad categories.
1. By nature of event by which the sum becomes payable – this classification places the insurance contracts into categories such as Marine, Fire, Life etc.
it places emphasis on the homogeneity of the group.
2. Nature of the interest affected – this classification places insurance contracts into three broad categories namely;
 Personal insurance e.g. life, accident, fidelity etc.
 Property insurance e.g. fire, marine, motor, solvency. Crop, hypothecation etc.
 Liability insurance where policies are taken out in compliance with statutory provisions e.g. the compulsory third party motor
insurance, workman’s Compensation, NSSF, NHIF
3. Nature of contract of insurance – a contract of insurance may be an indemnity or non-indemnity. An indemnity contract is a contract of insurance
where the insured pays a premium on the understanding that in the event of loss, he will be indemnified for the actual loss sustained. He must be
restored to the position he was before the loss.
Dalby Vs India and London Assurance Co.
[1854] 15 CB 361.
It was observed that policies of insurance under fire and Marine risks are properly speaking indemnity contracts i.e. the insurer engages to
make good within limited amounts, the losses sustained by the insured and nothing else.

A non-indemnity insurance contract is one in which the insured secures the payment of a fixed sum of money, previously determined as
the value of the subject matter of insurance. There is an assurance that the amount is payable should risk attach e.g. of life policies.
4. By nature of the program of insurance – insurance programs are either private or social. Private insurance is generally optional and voluntary and is
effected on the premise that the insured stands to loose should risk attach.
Social insurance is compulsorily imposed upon the assured by statute to protect the society from a hazard which no single individual can
cushion it. The individual must guard against such risks as well as the activities giving rise to the risk as it is beneficial to the society. Hence
those involved must contribute to cushion those likely to be affected e.g. compulsory third party Insurance.
Social insurance is said to be a device of pooling of risks by their transfer to an organization under an obligation to provide pecuniary
benefits or service to or on behalf of the insured on the occurrence of the event e.g.
 Compulsory third party motor insurance
 N.H.I.F.
 N.S.S.F
 Workman’s compensation.
5. Whether insurance is direct or re-insurance – Re-insurance takes place when an insurer who has already undertaken to indemnify the insured or pay
the sum assured insures himself against the same risk with a re-insurer. Reinsurance is a 2oth century practice which evolved to cushion the insurers
against the insolvency. Re-insurance may be optional or voluntary.

Kenya Re- insurers are bound to insure up to 10 % with PTA Reinsurance and up to 5% with the African Re-insurance Corporation.
However, an insurance co. is free to re- insure up to 100%.
Role of Re-insurance
 Re-insurance assists in the distribution and transfer of economic processes from one company to another which benefits the
economy.
 It also generates the making good of losses in the event of insolvency.
 It also ensures that insurance companies invest part of their accumulated funds locally.
Interpretation of Insurance Contracts.
In the words of Ivam in General Principles of Insurance Law;

“The construction of a policy of insurance is a question for the court, when words in a policy have once been judicially interpreted, they would be construed in the
same way, should their meaning be in a subsequent case, but when words have not been previously interpreted, the court is guided by certain principles of general
application, the size of print, in insurance policies is immaterial.’

1. Application of the doctrine of precedent. – generally where courts have already decided the meaning of words or phrases, used in a policy of
insurance, the doctrine of precedent applies in subsequent similar cases and a similar construction is given. In the words of Parke B in ;
a) Glen Vs Lewis [1853[8 Ex Ch 67
“If a construction has already been put on a phrase or clause in a contract of insurance, the same should be given in subsequent similar cases.”
b) Louden Vs British Merchants Insurance Co Ltd
[1961] 1 Lloyds Rep 155
An assured under a motor insurance policy was killed in an accident. There was no doubt that he was drunk at the time. The insurance co. sought to
avoid liability on the ground that he had died on bodily injury sustained whilst under the influence of drugs of intoxicating liquor, liability for which
was excepted [not covered] under the policy. It was held that since the words were not uncertain as to their meaning and effect, they had to be
interpreted as they were in previous cases and the insurer was not liable.
c) Lawrence Vs Accidental Insurance Co Ltd [1881] 7 QBD 216

However in the words of Atkin L.J. in

d) Re Calf and Sun Insurance Office
[1920] 2 KB 366 at 382

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 “On a question of construction, I protest against one case being treated as an authority in another unless the language and circumstances are
substantially identical”

e) Dino Services Vs Prudential Assurance Co. Ltd

[1989] 1 ALL ER 422

2. Intention of the Parties – it is a fundamental rule of construction that the intentions of the parties prevail. Such intention is discernible from the policy itself
and other documents relied upon by the parties. Courts are discouraged from speculating but reference to surrounding circumstances may be made e.g. a
previous construction.
3. Policy must be interpreted as a whole [ wholistic Rule] – a court of law must interpret an insurance policy in its entirety. All words an phrases must be
interpreted and none must be rendered meaningless without good cause. As a general rule a policy should be interpreted to give all clauses a positive
meaning so as to give effect to the intentions of the parties.
Hamlyn Vs Crown Accidental Insurance Co.
[1893] 1 QB 750
The insured had effected insurance against poultry injury caused by violent, accidental, external and visible means. A clause exempted the insurer from liabilities
in respect of injuries arising from “natural disease or weakness or exhaustion consequent upon disease.’

The insured had stooped to pick up a mango dropped by a child and dislocated and injured cartridge of his knee. The insurer contended that there was no external
or visible means which caused the accident and that it was not liable. It was held that the word ‘external’ was to be contrasted with internal causes of injury such
as disease, mentioned in the clause, hence the injury was caused by external means and the insured would recover.

In the words of Atkin L.J., ‘You must look at the document as a whole’

As a generals rule, similar words or phrases bear the same meaning throughout the policy.

4. Ordinary Meaning – Words and phrases in a policy should be given their ordinary or natural meaning while sentences should be accorded their ordinary
grammatical meaning. This rule is justified on the premise that insurance practices and usages evolved.

a) Leo, Rapp Ltd Vs Mc Clure

[1955] 1 Lloyds Rep. 292
Stocks of metal were insured against theft whilst in warehouse anywhere in UK. Some metal was loaded into a lorry parked in an open space in a locked
compound enclosed by a thick wall toped by barbed wire and was stolen. It was held that the loss was not covered by the policy as the compound did not
constitute a warehouse. In the words of Devlin L.J.

“When the court is construing words in an insurance policy, it must give them their ordinary natural meaning.

b) Thompson Vs Equity Fire Insurance Co.

[1910] AC 592, 103 LT 153
The words must be construed in their ordinary meaning. A building which was destroyed by fire had been insured under a policy which exempted the insurance
company from liability for loss while gasoline was stored or kept in it. The fire was caused by a small quantity of gasoline in a stove used for cooking purposes.
No other gasoline was used in the building. It was held by the judicial committee of the Privy Council, that the insurance company was liable. The words “kept or
stored’ must be construed in their ordinary meaning. They implied a considerable amount of gasoline or at least keeping it in stock fro trading purposes.

Lord MaCnaghten at pg 154 said;

“What is the meaning of the words ‘stored or kept’ in collocation and in the connection in which they are found they are common English words with no precise
or exact signification. They have a somewhat kindred meaning and cover very much the same ground. The expression as used in the statutory condition seems to
point to the presence of a quantity not inconsiderable or at any rate not trifling in amount, and to import a notion of warehousing or depositing for safe custody or
keeping in stock fro trading purposes. It is difficult, if not impossible, to give an accurate definition of the meaning, but if one takes a concrete case, it is not very
difficult to say whether a particular thing is ‘stored or kept’ within the meaning of the condition. No one probably would say that a person who had a reasonable
quantity of tea in his house fro domestic use was ‘storing and keeping’ there, or [to take the instance of benzene, which is one of the prescribed articles] no one
would say that a person who had a small bottle of benzene for removing grease spots or cleansing purposes of that sort was ‘storing or keeping’ benzene.
Some meaning must be given to the words ‘stored or kept’. Their Lordships think those words must have their ordinary meaning. So construing them their
Lordships come to the conclusion that the small quantity of gasoline which was in the stove for the purpose of consumption was not being ‘stored or kept’ within
the meaning of the statutory condition at the time when the loss occurred.”
However technical meanings must not be resorted to unless necessary to amplify the ordinary meaning of words or phrases. Nevertheless, technical words or terms
must be accorded their technical meaning while technical legal terms must be given their strict technical meanings.

London and Lancashire Fire Insurance Co Vs Bollands.

[1924] AC 836.
Technical legal words must be given their strict technical meaning.

A burglary policy relating to premises as a bakery excluded the liability of the insurance company if loss or damage resulted from “ a riot”. Four armed men held
up the employees with revolvers and seized money in a cashier’s office. There was no other disturbance at all in the neighborhood. It was held by the House of
Lords that the Word ‘riot’ was used in its technical legal meaning and the action of the armed men constituted “a riot.” Consequently the insured could not
recover under the policy.
Lord Sumner at 648 stated;
“It is true that the uninstructed layman probably does not think under the word ‘ riot ‘, of even such a scene, as described in the cases stated. How he could
describe it I know not, but he probably thinks of something, if not more picturesque, at any rate more noisy. But there is no warrant here for saying that when the

10
proviso uses a word which is emphatically a term of art, it is to be confined, in the interpretation of the policy, to circumstances which are only within the popular
notions on the subject and are not within the technical meaning of the word. That clearly must be so with regard to martial law, that I think, must be so with regard
to acts of foreign enemies; and I see no reason at all why the word ‘riot’ should not include its technical meaning as clearly as burglary or house-breaking do.”

5. Ejusdem Generis Rule – where specifications of particular things belonging to the same genus precede a word of general signification, the latter word is
confined in its meaning to things belonging to the same genus and does not include things belonging to a different genus. This rule is applied in
circumstances in which a policy is not exhaustive.

a) King and Travelers Insurance Association Ltd

[1931] 48 TLR 53

Where specifications of particular things belonging to the same genus precede words of general specification, the latter words are confined in their meanings too
things belonging to the same genus only. This is known as the “ ejusdem generis rule”.

A policy of insurance against accidental loss of baggage contained a clause stating “jewelry, watches, field glasses, cameras and other fragile or specially valuable
articles must be separately declared and valued”. The insured claimed for the loss of a Persian lamb fur coat which had not been separately declared and valued.. It
was held by the King Bench that the fur coat was not a fragile and a specially valuable article requiring to be separately declared and valued and that the ejusdem
generis rule applied.

Rowlatt J stated that Furs are commonplace articles of dress in the case of nearly every woman of any sort of comfortable means at all. The circumstance that
they afford a great scope for extravagance and vanity, so that you can get furs of fantastic price, does not mind, show that being commonplace articles of dress
they are specially valuable in the same sort of way that jewelry, watches, field glasses and cameras are.”

b) Mair Vs Railway Passengers Association Co Ltd

[1877] L.T.R. 356.
A Clause in life policy excluded the insurer from liability if the insured met his death as a result of a wide variety of causes and different from those provided by
caariages or entering or leaving a carriage in motion or riding races or stipple chases or generally by his willful exposing himself to any unnecessary danger or
peril.
The insured accosted a woman in the street and was knocked down by the man in whose company she was and died as a result of injuries inflicted upon him. It
was held that the insurance company could not rely on the exclusion clause as what happened could not be considered to be ejusdem generis with the perils
enumerated in the clause.

6. Contra Proferentem Rule – this rule is generally applied to interpret standard form contracts if the words, phrases or sentences in a policy are vague or
ambiguous, they should be interpreted, contra-proferentes i.e. restrictively against the party relying on them. It has been observed that’

“It is a well known principle of insurance law that if the language of a warranty in a policy is ambiguous it must be construed against the underwriter who has
drawn the policy and has inserted the warranty for his own protection”
Houghton Vs Trafalgar Insurance Co. Ltd
[1953] Lloyds Rep. 503, [1953] 2 ALL ER 1409, [1953] 3 WLR 985 or [1954] 1 QB 247

A motor insurance cover not excluded “loss, damage and or liability caused or arising whilst the car is conveying any load in excess of that for which it was
constructed”. The vehicle was carrying a driver and 5 passengers. The insurer contended that it was not liable in that the car was conveying a load “in excess of
that which it was constructed.” It was held that the company was liable. In the words of Somervell LJ,

“If there is any ambiguity, it is the company’s clause and the ambiguity would be resolved in favor of the assured”

a) English Vs Western
[1942] KB
Where a policy contains conflicting words; phrases or sentences, the court must reconcile them so as to give the policy a positive legal meaning. Where the
conflicts re irreconcilable then written words if any must prevail over printed ones. This is illustrated by;

b) Yorkshire Insurance Co. Vs Campbell

[1917] AC 218.
Express terms override implied terms with which it is inconsistent. Where all terms are printed, the latter terms are given more effect than the former as they may
have been intended to qualify the former. Where contractual terms are written, the general rule, parole evidence is inadmissible to vary, change or explain such
terms. However, such evidence may be admissible to show the circumstances in which the contract was entered into or demonstrate that the contract was subject
to a particular trade usage or custom.

c) Robertson Vs French
[1803] 4 East 130
Where there is conflict between the printed and written clauses of a policy, greater consideration will be paid to the written clauses.

Lord Ellen borough CJ at pg 136 said’

“The only difference between policies of insurance, and other instruments in this respect, is, that the greater part of the printed instruments of them, being
invariable and uniform, has acquired from use and practice a known and definite meaning, and that the words superadded in writing [subject indeed always to be
governed in point of construction by the language and terms with which they are accompanied) are entitled nevertheless, if there should be any reasonable doubt
upon the sense and meaning of the whole, to have a greater effect attributed to them than to the printed words, in as much as the written words are the immediate

11
language and terms selected by the parties themselves for the expression of their meaning, and the printed words are a general formula adapted equally to their
case and that of all other contracting parties upon similar occasions and subjects.”
29th November 2004

PRINCIPLES OF INSURANCE
1. Insurable interest – in the words of John Birds,

“Insurance interest is a basic requirement of any contract of insurance unless it can be and is lawfully waived. At a general level this means that the party to the
insurance contract who is the insured or policy holder must have a particular relationship with the subject matter with the insurance whether that be, “a life or
property or a liability to which he might be exposed”
Every of insurance contract requires an insurable interest to support it, otherwise it is invalid. This was held in;
Anctil Vs Manufacture Life Insurance Co.
[1899] AC 604.
Insurable interest is essentially the pecuniary or proprietary interest which is at stake or in danger should the insured opt not to take out an insurance policy on the
subject matter. It is the interest which the insured stands to loose if the risk attaches. The classical definition of insurance interest was given by Lawrence J in
Lucena Vs Craufourd
[1806] 2 Bos & PNR 269 at 302.
“ A man is interested in a thing to whom advantage may arise or prejudice happen from the circumstances which may attend it… and whom it imported that its
condition as to safety or other quality should continue, interest does not necessarily imply a right to the whole or a part of a thing, nor necessarily and exclusively
that which may be subject of privation, but the having some relation to , or concern in the subject of the insurance, which relation or concern by the happening of
the perils insured against may be so affected as to produce a damage, detriment or prejudice to the person insuring, and where a man is so circumstanced with
respect to matters exposed to certain risks or damages, or to have a moral certainty of advantage or benefit but those risks or dangers, he may be said to be
interested in the safety of the thing.

To be interested in the preservation of a thing is to be so circumstanced with respect to it as to have benefit from its existence, prejudice from its destruction. The
property of a thing and the interest is devisable from it may be very different of the first, the price generally the measure but interest in having every benefit or
advantage arising out of or depending on such thing may be considered as being comprehended”

This definition was partially adopted by the Marine Insurance Act 1906. A person is deemed to have an insurance interest in the subject matter if he is likely to
suffer prejudice in the event of its loss, damage or destruction. Courts of law have abstracted the following rules as the determinants of insurance interest.
a) A direct relationship between the insured and the subject matter.
b) The relationship must have arisen out of a legal or equitable right or interest in the subject matter.
c) The interest bears any loss or liability arising in the event of loss it risk attaches.
d) The insured’s right or interest in the subject matter must be capable of pecuniary estimation or quantification.

As a general rule, insurable interest must have a pecuniary value.

Halford Vs Kymer
[1830] 10 B & C 724.
However it need not be permanent or continuous. A right to a future interest or possession is insurable. The insured’s interest must be kept must be real. It
therefore follows that a mere expectation of acquiring an interest is not insurable.

Stockdale Vs Dunlop
[1840] 6 M & W 224 OR 151 ER 391

Medieval Common Law did not insist on the presence of insurable interest on the part of the insured. Its requirement as a component of insurance contracts is for
the most part statutory e.g. Under Section 4 [1] of the Marine Insurance Act, 1746, insurance interest was made a perquisite of marine insurance. The requirement
was extended to life insurance by the Life Assurance Act 1774 whose Section provides that ‘

“No insurance shall be made by any person or persons on the life or lives whatsoever wherein the person or persons for whose use, benefit or on whose account
such policy or policies shall be made shall have no insurable interest. [Similar to Section 94[1] Insurance Act.]

The requirement of insurance interest was extended to all categories of insurance by the Gaming Act 1845. Section 5[1] of the Marine Insurance Act and Section
94 [1] of the Insurance Act make insurance interest mandatory in contracts of insurance.

Who has Insurance Interest?

Section 6-20 Marine Insurance Act.

Section 94 [2] of the Insuarcne Act.

1. Insurance co Ltd Vs Stimson. [1888] 103 US 25, 471. Where a contractor insured the Hotel after the completion but before handing over to the owner
and building was subsequently destroyed by fire before the policy lapsed. It was held that the contractor was entitled to indemnity as he had an
insurable interest in the building by virtue of the mechanics lien.

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2. In Stockdale Vs Dunlop. The plaintiff had insured the value and the profit of palm oil, he had verbally agreed to buy from a company while two ships
were on the high seas and one went missing. His action fro indemnity failed as he had not insurable interest in the oil.

3. In Macaura Vs Northern Assurance Co [1925]AC 619. The plaintiff had insured the company’s timber in his own name and t was held that he was not
entitled to an indemnity as he had no insurable interest in the timber. Appellant who owned a timber estate assigned the whole of the timber to a
company known as Irish Canadian Sawmills Company Limited for a consideration of £42,000. Payment was effected by the allotment to the Appellant
of 42,000 shares fully paid up in £1 shares in the company. No other shares were ever issued. The company proceeded with the cutting of the timber.
In the course of these operations, the Appellant lent the company some £19,000. Apart from this the company’s debts were minimal.
The Appellant then insured the timber against fire by policies effected in his own name. Then the timber was destroyed by fire. The insurance
company refused to pay any indemnity to the appellant on the ground that he had no insurable interest in the timber at the time of effecting the policy.
The courts held that it was clear that the Appellant had no insurable interest in the timber and though he owned almost all the shares in the company
and the company owed him a good deal of money, nevertheless, neither as creditor or shareholder could he insure the company’s assets. So he lost the
Company.

4. Thomas Vs Continental Creditors [1976] AC 346 it was held inter alia that a creditor has an insurance interest in the life of the debtor to the extend if the
debt.

5. In Hebdon Vs West [1863] 3 B& S 579. It was held that an employee has an insurance interest in his employees to the extent of the services rendered and
an employee ahs an insurance interest in the life of an employer to the extent of their relationship.

6. In Grifith Vs Fleming [1909] 1 KB 805. [1908-10] ALL ER 760, it was held that a husband has an insurabnle interest imn the life of his wife and vice
versa.

7. In Sat Dev Sjarma Vs The home Insurance Co of New York [1966] EA 8 It was wrongly eld that the plaintiff a proprietor of a private school has no
insurable interest in the life of the assured who were one of the 3 instructors.

8. Harse vs Pearl Life Assurance Co. [1094] 1 KLR 558. An agent honestly believed that the insured had an insurable interest persuaded him to take a policy
in circumstances in which he had no interest but subsequently ascertained the truth and sought to recover the premium. It was held that they were
irrecoverable as he had no interest and the parties were in Pari Delicto .” equally to blame..

However in case of active frauds, premiums a[paid are recoverable as were the case in Hughes Vs Liverpool Victoria Legal Friendly Society [1916] 2 KB
482 where the defendant’ agent fraudulently induced the plaintiff to take out an insurance policy in circumstances in which he had no insurance interest.

The English Court of Appeal held the premiums recoverable as the parties were not in pari delicto.

In the words of Bankes L.J. at 496 he stated;

“The authority seem to mean to be all one way, namely that an innocent plaintiff is entitled to say that he is not in pari delicto with the defendant’s whose
agent by force and fraudulent misrepresentations induced him to belief that the transaction was an innocent one..

Other case includes.

 Newbury International Ltd Vs Reliance National [UK] 1994] 1 Lloyds Rep. 83

 Fuji Finance Incorporation Vs Actir Insurance Co.[ 1997] 1 Ch 173
 Glengate Vs Norwich union insurance Society [1996] Lloyds Rep. 278
 Colonial Mutual General Insurance Vs ANZ [1995] 1 WLR 1140

Section 7-15 of the Marine Insurance Act and Section 94 of the Insurance Act identifies circumstances in which persons are deemed to have an insurable
interest in the subject matter.

Description of Insurable Interest.

It is generally no necessary for the insured to specify the nature and extent of the interest on the subject matter.

Section 26[2] Marine insurance Act provides that the nature and extent of the interest of the assured in the subject matter need not be specified in the
policy. This position is justified on the premise that the property insurance, the insurer’s principal concern is the amount payable under the policy. However
a description of the nature and extent of the interest is necessary where:

1. The proposal form requires or contains an express stipulation or condition to that effect.
2. The subject matter of insurance includes prospective profit or consequential loss e.g. insurance of goods in transit.
3. Precarious losses are involved. These are circumstances in which loss is likely to be greater than expected hence more information is necessary to
enable the insurer appreciate the full extent of the risk.

When must insurable interest exist?

It depends on the contract. The insured must at one stage or another exhibit an insurable interest in the subject matter. In indemnity contracts e.g. fire, marine
etc Insurable interest must exist when risk attaches.

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1. Section 6[1] Marin Insurance Act provides the assured must be interest in the subject matter at the time of the loss. Though he need not be interested
when the insurance is effected [Stockdale Vs Dunlop]

2. In life insurance the proposer must furnish an insurance interest when the policy is effected. Dalty Vs India And London Assurance Co

3. With regard to statutory policies, the insured must furnish the insurable interest at the time stipulated by the statute e.g. in compulsory third party
Motor Vehicle Insurance, the insured must have an interest when risk attaches.

Role of Insurable Interest.

1. It establishes a nexus [link] between the insured and the subject matter by demonstrating that the insured stands to loose should the risk attach. This
discourages the insured from destroying the subject mater.

2. It confers upon the insured a right to sue on the policy. Cosforol Union and Others Vs Poor Law and Local Government Officers Mutual Guarantee
Association Ltd [1901] 103 LT 463.

3. This principle has been used by insurers as a profit maximization devise. Sat Dev Sharma Case, Pearl Life Insurance Case.

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