International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (IJTSRD)

Volume 6 Issue 4, May-June 2022 Available Online: www.ijtsrd.com e-ISSN: 2456 – 6470

Employee Mentoring and Organizational Effectiveness

Victor Barinua Ph.D; Ibe, Uchenna Mabel

Department of Management, Faculty of Management Science,

Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt Rivers State, Nigeria

ABSTRACT How to cite this paper: Victor Barinua |

This study examines the relationship between mentoring and Ibe, Uchenna Mabel "Employee
organizational effectiveness. Mentoring in the workplace is a Mentoring and Organizational
comprehensive business strategy that utilizes the skills and Effectiveness"
expertise of more experienced employees as resources to those Published in
International Journal
who are new to the company or those who are less experienced in
of Trend in
certain areas within the company. The paper after a critical review Scientific Research
of the available literature revealed a significant relationship and Development
between mentoring and organizational effectiveness. Based on the (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456- IJTSRD49978
above conclusion, the paper recommend that: There should be 6470, Volume-6 |
more organized formal corporate mentoring programs supported Issue-4, June 2022, pp.202-213, URL:
by relevant policies and management will power; Management www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd49978.pdf
should develop a program advisory team on mentoring with
defined objectives, regularly evaluating their performance against Copyright © 2022 by author(s) and
set standards and correcting unhealthy deviations from standards International Journal of Trend in
Scientific Research and Development
where such exist.
Journal. This is an
KEYWORDS: Employee Mentoring, Organizational Effectiveness, Open Access article
Profitability, Productivity, Market Share distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (CC BY 4.0)
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)

INTRODUCTION
Organizations are open systems that interacts with the those who are less experienced in certain areas within
public, (Anslem, 2017). They are comprised of the company. Mentoring according to Newman,
equipment, including various categories of employees (2017) is considered an important development tool
who works together to achieve to achieve set in career development and succession planning. It
objectives (Nwachukwu, 2009). One of the ways helps employees accomplish various business career
through which organizations employees are guided, personal goals. It also assists in the identification of
directed and provided information with which to training and job opportunities through the provision
execute assigned job task is through mentoring. of role models and business friendships.
Mentoring happens in many ways. Sometimes it According to Awujo (2014), mentoring programs
occurs as a direct one-on-one relationship or address various issues related to organizational
involvement, and other times it takes the form of a structure, diversity and experiences. Job satisfaction
philosophy or methodology instilled in an from mentoring directly reduces absenteeism, and
organization (Nwachukwu, 2009).Mentoring is not turnover while increasing loyalty and organizational
new, we have all been a mentor or have been commitment. The long-term health of the
mentored. Mentoring relationships and the positive organization as a social system is enhanced,
influences can be applied to our professional lives. It promoting a desired organizational culture (Galbraith,
is a type of interpersonal relationship that is used to 2016). Mentoring has a strong historical tradition
help employees develop a career, gain competence, throughout the world. As a deliberate strategy it can
build character, and make informed choices (Carr, have a significant impact on helping employees make
2009). Mentoring in the workplace is a a successful transition from school to work and to
comprehensive business strategy that utilizes the improve performance in the workplace (Carr, 2009).
skills and expertise of more experienced employees For instance, Hewlett-Packard e-mail mentoring
as resources to those who are new to the company or program creates one-on-one mentors relationships

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between its employees, students and teachers. management orientation has been carefully and
Hewlett-Packard employees motivate and help methodically embraced by the corporate world in
students develop the skills they need to pursue their Europe and America because of its inherent strengths
interests in a professional and successful way. In their and advantages. Mentoring has not only had a proven
wisdom, these western corporations are sponsoring a positive impact on the problems as espoused above,
lot of research work in mentoring so as to compete hut has impacted on the “bottom line” of these
more effectively in a globalized economy. The companies in the long run. It is in an attempt to
essence of employee mentoring is not only to enhance leverage and consolidate on these merits of corporate
employee job knowledge and competence, but also to mentoring that some of these organizations are
enhance the effectiveness of organizations. Bateman delving into college students mentorship programs.
and Snell (2009) defined organizational effectiveness There is nothing new about mentoring in the Nigerian
as the degree to which the organizations outputs society. In fact, a mentor is a trendy word especially
correspond to the needs and wants of the external in the political circles, it is rather the conscious use of
environment. The external environment includes mentoring in Nigerian organizations that this study
groups such as customers, suppliers, competitors, and attempts to probe into. The problems and challenges
regulatory agencies. that pushed most companies in Europe and America
Katz and Kahn (1966) cited in Newman, (2014) used into adopting mentoring as a management orientation
growth, storage, survival and control over is much more pronounced in Nigerian organizations.
environment as criteria for identifying effective Lack of qualified manpower, labor, low productivity,
organizations. To them, effective organizations and job dissatisfaction (Nwachukwu, 2009) to
survive, grow and have control over their mention but a few are the key challenges facing
environment. Yuchtman (2017) supported Katz and Nigerian organizations. Employers are concerned
Kahn (1966) in maintaining that effective more than ever before about the quality of our
organizations successfully acquire scarce and valued graduates. Having benchmarked the practices of other
resources and have control over their environment. successful mentoring programmes and documented
This above definition by Bateman and Snell how mentoring has had a proven positive impact on
emphasizes efficiency and adaptability as criteria for similar problems in Europe and America, it naturally
effectiveness. Etzioni (2014) has it that organizational agitates the mind of the researcher to study whether
effectiveness is the degree to which organization there is a conscious use of mentoring in Nigerian
realizes its goals. This means that the organization organizations in the light of its positive return on
must have achievable goals, the level of achievement investment.
of which determines their effectiveness.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Organizations are established to satisfy the needs and
Theoretical Foundation
wants in the external environment. The focus of this
The System Theory
definition is the satisfaction of needs and wants, The underpinning theory that best explains the subject
although, organizations also have internal needs of of this study is the system theory. Propounded by
satisfying employees and shareholders. Employees Von Bertalanffy in 1956, the systems theory opposes
need to be motivated and developed while reductionism and promotes holism. Rather than
shareholders require good return on their investment. reducing an entity (e.g. the human body) to the
Statement of the Problem properties of its parts or elements (e.g. organs or
Statistical data from the United States’ Centre for cells), systems theory focuses on the arrangement of
Management Development (CMD) raise concerns and relations between the parts which connect the
about the rates of youth unemployment, school system into a whole. It emphasizes interdependences,
dropout rates, employee retention rates, career interconnectedness and openness as opposed to
development and succession planning problems, independence, isolation and closeness. This enables
absenteeism, job dissatisfaction, and other challenges the discovery of emergence, as new attributes of
facing human resources managers. Employers are interacting entities that are generated by their analysis
concerned about the degree to which young graduates as a whole that would not become evident if the parts
are prepared for the work world. These problems arc would be analyzed independently.
directly related to each other. Systems theory acknowledges complexity as an
Mentoring has had a proven impact on all of these attribute of reality and focuses on synergy and the
problems especially in Europe and America, where combination analysis and synthesis. Systems theory
mentoring has been accepted as a management considers organizations as system with relative
orientation and philosophy. Corporate Mentoring as a boundaries which make exchanges with the

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environment and must adapt to environmental expand opportunities for those tradition hampered by
changes in order to survive. They are open systems organizational barriers such as women and minorities
which interact directly with the environment through (Gunn, 2009). Mentoring has been described in so
inputs and outputs. The system theory sees an many different ways, include “a long-term counseling
organization as a whole comprising of all employees relationship”, that it is in danger of losing credibility.
and as such it is only when the organizational True mentoring is the pinnacle of business
member have unity of purpose that goal can be development relationship. Its ethos is based on the
achieved, thus the system theory is of great development of an individual’s learning and how it
significance to this study in that every organization is can be extended to look at the wider horizon. Unlike
a whole and a system comprising of employees of counseling (which considers the impact of past
different background, culture and tradition, these influences) or coaching (which tends to focus on the
employees comes to the workplace to perform their attainment of short-term goals) mentoring is
various duties for which they are employed with concerned with future learning styles (Andrea, 2019).
commensurate reward for their effort. Organizational It is the final piece in the business support jigsaw that
members must perceive a link between their job moves through information provider> advisor>
performance and the training they receive. Thus it is counselor> coach> mentor. A good mentor can
the duty of managers to ensure that employees are identify and move through each of these stages
effectively mentored in order to ensure their building their protégés’ confidence and knowledge as
organization’s effectiveness, this is because they go (Russel, 2016)). Kram (2018) suggested that
mentoring is aimed at enhancing employees mentoring relationships serve two separate, but
motivation, commitment and productivity. Thus interrelated functions: a career-related function and a
employees who are effectively mentored feel psychosocial function. The career-related function
appreciated and gives their best to the job, thereby facilitates career advancement by increasing a
enhancing the performance and effectiveness of their protégé’s visibility in the organization and by
organization as a system. improving the protégé’s knowledge of how to
effectively navigate the corporate world (Wyatt and
Concept of Mentoring
Stone, 2016). The psychosocial function provides
Mentoring is a trendy word, sometimes inaccurately
emotional and psychological support to the protégé,
used as a synonym for coaching or counseling.
and serves to enhance confidence in the protégé’s
Mentoring is a type of interpersonal relationship that
professional role. Kram (2018) argued that mentoring
is used to develop employees (Bierema, 2009).
relationships that facilitate the psychosocial function
Mentoring has been described by Mullen (2008) as
are often characterized by informal exchanges about
one-to-one relationship between an experienced
work-related and non-work-related experiences. To
person (a mentor) and a less experienced person (a
date, the bulk of mentoring research has been
protégé or mentee) that provides a variety of
conducted in an intra-organizational, corporate
developmental function. According to Carden (2005),
environment yet Kram (2018) argued that in order to
mentoring is an intense, professional relationship that
gain a full understanding of the influence of
is mainly devoted to promoting the protége’s career.
mentoring on career success, it must be examined in a
Most mentoring relationships develop informally as a
variety of contexts. Kram’sargument is particularly
result of interests or values shared by the mentor and
relevant in the current climate where career
protégé. Cole, (2015) sees mentoring is a means by
progression is no longer tied to a life-long
which two people can experience growth by sharing
relationship with one organization but, instead,
wisdom, knowledge and insight. It is also a matter of
involves employment with numerous organizations,
communicating useful information openly and
and in a growing number of instances, self-
honestly, and imparting skills to a person who wants
employment (Eby, 2017). He suggested that the
to learn. Mentoring relationships can also develop as
success of future mentoring relationships will,
part of a planned company effort to bring together
arguably, be determined by the capacity of these
successful senior employees with less experienced
mentoring relationships to accommodate and
employees (Harrison, 2011)). Sometimes it occurs as
facilitate non-traditional career paths.
a direct one-to-one relationship or involvement, and
other times it takes the form of a philosophy or History of Mentoring
methodology instilled in an organization. The roots of mentoring can be traced back more than
5000 years to Africa, where guides were provided to
Mentoring is equally a way to help new employees
show young people “the way”. A thousand years later
learn about organizational culture, to facilitate
Homer told the story of Odysseus, the king of Ithaca
personal and career growth and development and to
and a warrior who turned to his trusted friend, Mentor

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(in the guise of the goddess Athena), and asked him Although mentoring can be considered a 5000-year-
to look after his son, Telemachus, while he left to old tradition, the literature on mentoring did not
fight in the Trojan War. Mentor was the counselor, become prevalent until the late 1970s. Articles began
advisor, and teacher of Telemachus. Mentor’s to appear advocating that having a mentor could
influence was pervasive. He was concerned with all provide a significant edge in a business setting.
aspects of Telemachus’ development, not just with his Research studies claimed that business executives
intellectual skills. To the Greeks a mentor was who had been mentored typically rose faster in the
considered a foster parent; a person who was corporate ranks and achieve higher salary levels than
responsible for the physical, social, intellectual, and their non-mentored peers.
spiritual development of young people. Some of the Studies of human development such as the Seasons of
earliest European Universities adopted the model of a Man’s live written by Daniel Levinson, et al. in
mentoring as an essential component of the educated 1978 and Passages by journalist Gail Sheehy,
person. Oxford University for example, established published in 1976, revealed that the experience of
tutors or dons, who acted as mentors, living at the being mentored was essential for successful adult
college with students and instructing them in social, development. Levinson and his colleagues at Yale
academic and personal areas (Mullen, 2008). University found that when men reach a certain stage
Mentoring according to Cleminson, (2016) has been of their own development, they are eager to give back
in continuous use since the era of Greek mythology, if to the young generation what was given to them.
not from when time of humans began. And, whether Receiving and providing mentoring was elevated to a
formal or informal, it remains a human activity. Most national priority in academic circles. Sheehy’s study
readers can remember someone who assume the role participants believed that their connection with a
of mentor for them, although it was probably an mentor was particularly effective in helping them
informal relationship. That person took an interest in make transitions during various life crises. Sheehy
them and in their professional life and did everything concluded that such crises were natural events and
possible to counsel, advise, guide and help them. The that with the help of a mentor, adults were more
individual may have been a teacher, a pro lessor, a likely to make successful transitions to the next level
member of the clergy, an uncle, friend of the family, of development. Both of these books were
or an older member of the employing organization enormously popular and created the impression that
(Margo, 2018). mentors were crucial not only for successful adult
development, but were also essential for career
The number of mentoring programs has grown
advancement.
dramatically in recent years. Its popularity stems in
part from compelling testimonials of people who have Benefits of Mentoring
benefited from the positive influence of an older and What are the benefits of mentoring programmes? Is
more experienced person, one who helped them there likely to be a return on investment? , the answer
overcome academic, social, workplace, career, or of mentoring’s supporters is a resounding “Yes”.
personal problems and challenges (Pollock, 2015). They maintain that well-conceived and expertly
Most mentoring has been and remains informal and managed mentoring programs yield many benefits for
therefore under-utilize. It is only in recent years that the mentors, mentees, organization, and even the
formal mentoring programs have been established in society at large (Baridam, 2008).
corporate America, government agencies, academia,
Benefits to the Mentor
the military services and foreign organizations Mentoring relationships provide opportunities for
(Russel, 2017). In North American society, an mentors to develop their interpersonal skills and
apprenticeship was the most likely place for the use increase their feelings of self-esteem and worth to the
of the term mentor. Artists, painters, actors, organization. In addition, mentoring:
carpenters, silversmiths, and other artisans would
Promotes real growth and development ,
seek out long-term guidance from the master in their
art or craft. Persons wishing to be actors, lawyers, and Creates new challenges for older and plateaued
accountants or engage in other professional work managers.
would typically seek out an association with someone Provides new and fresh ideas.
already practicing in that field. In turn the seekers
would eventually become mentors to new seekers. Allows them more time to devote to critical
Entire schools based on such mentor apprentice issues.
transmission became popular in Europe and North Increases promotion potential by improving their
America (Carr, 2009). managerial skills.

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Revitalizes their energy, vitality and enthusiasm. Higher level of knowledge: Mentoring gives you
access to high-level knowledge through coaching,
Heightens their power and influence in the
goals setting and advice.
organization.
Saves time and money: Through the proven
Triggers recognition and reward.
experience of a mentor mentees can save time and
Promotes improved job satisfaction. money by avoiding the mistakes he made. This puts
Offers the reward of knowing that he or she has the protégé in a fast track to assuming better positions
contributed to another person’s growth and down the road to career success.
development. The success of a mentor is not Reduces Frustration: Mentoring reduces mentees
essentially defined by what he or she have failure potential and helps them to see already made
achieved but by the achievement of his or her mistakes in a more logical perspective.
protégé.
Increase Commitment and loyalty: Quality of life is
Benefits to the Protégé or Mentee increased for people who are properly mentored in an
A young lawyer, who was having a rough time in his organization. This results in increased loyalty and
private practice, was once invited for a discussion by commitment and reduces high labor turnover because
an older and very successful lawyer who obviously the people are fulfilled.
had more than enough briefs and often turned down
many. Expecting to get a few financially rewarding Increases the level of success and productivity:
Mentoring helps mentees to achieve a higher level of
briefs from this mentor figure, the young man
success than they would have done on their own.
honoured the invitation with high hope.
Unfortunately, the discussion came, offering the Mentoring improves employees’ knowledge of the
young man nothing spectacular. It was just another organization, its climate and culture, power centres,
session of career enhancement tips and lots of and politics.
encouragement to keep on. Mentoring provides immediate feedback on
As the older lawyer stood up to signal end of the performance.
discussion, the young man left the meeting
Benefits of Mentoring to the Organization
disappointed and disgusted by the older lawyer’s Some benefits that mentoring can provide to an
seeming greed, thinking he could have referred at organization are:
least a brief to him that would give him a big break. Having more access to the pool of expertise that
The older lawyer accompanied the young man out of is within the organization.
his office, put his arms around his shoulder and
walked him down the street chatting with him all the Maximizing an organization’s training budget by
way. When the young man got back to his office the providing more knowledge to employees with
next day to continue him business as usual, things little direct cost.
suddenly took a new turn for him. People began to Improves recruitment of new employees with
call in to give him mouth-watering business high potential.
proposals. That morning marked beginning of a new
phase of sweat less success in the young man’s ailing Helps move talented women and minorities, as
career (Adeyemi, 2003). The story of this young well as men into theupper ranks of management.
lawyer simply illustrated one of the benefits of Increases worker flexibility for job assignment.
mentoring, which is credibility. The fact that the older
lawyer publicly identified with the young man by Improves the selection of employees for
walking him down the street was perceived by people advancement to high-level positions.
as a positive affirmation of the young man’s skill and Ultimately, mentoring benefits the organization. Job
character. Other benefits include: satisfaction from mentoring directly reduces
Open doors: Mentoring opens doors and absenteeism and turnover while increasing loyalty
opportunities to meet with people and to develop and organizational commitment. The long-term health
good relationship that rightly positions mentees for of the organization as a social system is enhanced,
success in their chosen career. promoting a desired organizational culture.
Relationships are built across functional boundaries
Enhanced self-esteem: A mentor’s expression of of an organization and can be expanded via mentoring
faith in mentees helps their sense of self-worth. pools to span the larger society.

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Planning for Successful Mentoring cases training can also be provided to those
According to Aaron, (2009) for a formal mentoring to persons who will be mentored in order to increase
be successful, three components must be present in their ability to benefit from the mentoring
any initiative: experience.
1. The mentoring approach taken must reflect the 3. Recruiting the right person to be a mentor,
culture of the community or organization within screening accurately, training the person to be
which the people receiving mentoring are able to provide mentoring, pairing the mentor
functioning. Considerable variation exists in how with an appropriate partner, and ensuring that safe
mentoring programs are designed delivered. and responsible mentoring occurs require
Technological advances enable mentors and their continuous review and monitoring. Successful
partners to connect through e-mail and telephone intentional mentoring must be coordinated by a
in addition to or even in place of face-to-face person who has the time and ability to not only
contact. Mentors can also meet with partners in a establish such a program, but also to prevent,
group where the mentor can interact with several resolve and troubleshoot problems, disputes or
partners at the same time. Peer mentoring can conflicts that are bound to arise. Mentors
take place on a one-to-one basis or can take place thcrnse1es need on-going support to help them
in a team setting, where peers take turns manage possible frustrations they experience
mentoring each other. Advocates for mentoring when, among other challenges, they are working
may recommend various techniques or systems, with youth who have little in common with what
but one of the three keys to effectiveness is the they were like when they were young.
degree to which the mentoring approach matches On-going support can also ensure that inevitable
the organization or community cultural norms, problems in the match-up do not lead to the mentor or
values and practice. For example: the partner exiting the mentorship. Successful
In an environment where trust and respect must mentoring meet a clearly defined need, have a
be earned, mentoring must focus on relationship commitment of sufficient resources and senior
building activities. management support, are carefully designed, and arc
In settings where time is a premium, mentoring operated to carry out that design. Employers can
must be perceived as having specific, concrete address these elements on their own, or employer
benefits. organizations can assist them.
In a youth culture where peers are valued,
mentoring must include peer interaction. Dimensions of Mentoring
In an organization where teamwork is valued, An increased attention to the use of mentors in the
mentoring must reflect a more reciprocal or last 20 years has been accompanied by hundreds of
mutual interaction between mentor and partner. published studies, dissertations, theses and reports
about mentoring. Unfortunately the term mentor has
2. Mentors must be able to demonstrate many of the taken on so many meanings and is so often used as a
skills and roles associated with formal mentoring.
synonym for other terms such as teacher, coach and
While informal mentoring relies significantly on counselor, that considerable confusion exists about
task or activity expertise of the mentor, the roles and functions of a mentor. In addition,
effectiveness is in part also determined by the persons in hierarchical positions such as supervisors,
ability of the mentor to: managers, or administrators will at times say they act
Share ideas, experiences and perspectives. as “mentors” to those who work for them. And to
Act as a role model. confuse things even further, one of the previously
Demonstrate skilled listening. accepted definitions of a mentor, namely, an older
Use challenging and feedback skills. more experienced person has been blurred with the
Conduct problem-solving and mediation. recently emerging use of the phrase “peer mentor” or
To ensure that intentional mentors are able to person of similar age mentoring each other. In
demonstrate such skills and to help them work consideration of the above, Cohen, (2015) gave the
with a wider variety of youth, training is typically following dimensions of mentoring;
made available and delivered in a group
workshop format. Training is typically I-2 days in Informal Mentoring
length, depending on the type of mentoring One reason for confusion regarding the roles
required. The success of the training can be associated with mentoring is that there are two major
increased if persons who have acted as mentors approaches to mentorship and all too often no
actually conduct the mentor training. In some distinction is made between the functions and roles of

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each type. The first type of mentoring is called competence, building character and making informed
informal mentoring. This type of mentoring can also choices (Gaibraith & Cohen, 2015).
be called traditional, unintentional, real or unplanned Mentors are often recruited or selected because of
mentoring. A natural mentor is typically an older, their specific experience and successful
experienced person from outside the family who accomplishments in their profession, career, vocation,
plays an empowering role to help us achieve our life or life work. Examples include: Professional women
goals and dreams, explore alternatives and deals with as mentors to female students to help then in non-
life challenges (Drennan, 2017). Informal mentoring traditional career choices; Aboriginal elders
often has no identifiable starting point, no specific mentoring youth to assist them to benefit from
direction nor specified outcomes or expectations, Aboriginal customs and traditions; Scientists who
continues to evolve over time, and may even have no mentor students to help them consider science as a
ending point (Bertuglia, 2015). career option; Employees from corporations
Natural mentoring is often characterized by a kind of mentoring students at risk of dropping out of school;
bond, personal chemistry, or attraction that keeps the Experienced members of a work place mentoring
pair together. This bond is only curtailed when the individuals who want to start their own top leadership
mentor is no longer available or when the person roles; Entrepreneurs mentoring individuals who want
being mentored assert his or her independence and to start their own businesses; Senior citizens
either surpasses the mentor or seeks to attain equal mentoring individuals who need to gain relationship
status (Drath, 2014). Typically the influence of the and life skills; An auto mechanic mentoring a person
mentor is perceived by the partner as having a life- who wants to learn how to build a model car; A
long effect. According to Burns (2011) individuals wheelchair athlete mentoring a young person with a
who receive this kind of mentoring often report their spinal cord injury; An agro business person
connection with several mentors in their lives, and mentoring a youth in soil conservation; and a high
while such mentoring may focus on a specific area, school student mentoring a junior student about drug
the mentors are perceived as having a comprehensive safety. (Benardson, 2014)
relationship which spans the personal and Formal mentors are generally volunteers and may
professional life of the person being mentored. The independently establish a connection with a person
literature on mentoring is filled with first-hand reports seeking a mentor. More typically, however, formal
about the power and value of informal mentoring. volunteer mentors are recruited by a third party such
Many published articles are written as tribute to as a mentor coordinator who then uses some type of
mentors and biographies and autobiographies often matching system to connect the volunteer with the
include passages describing and acknowledging person in need of a mentor. Recruiting of volunteers
persons who acted as mentors. Informal mentoring in this manner normally is achieved by identifying
require no recruiting of mentors, no mentor screening, potential with certain skills, characteristics, and
no matching of mentors with those in need of a experiences that would contribute to accomplishing
mentor, and no monitoring of the mentor relationship the mentoring goals. Formal mentoring often has
(Hunt and Michael, 2013). specified time limits which can range from a one-hour
Formal Mentoring sessions to many interactions over a longer time
The significant outcomes associated with informal period. However, there are no predetermined
mentoring have led to the conclusion that a mentoring formulas or methods to determine the optimum length
relationship would be beneficial for the career for a successful mentoring experience. Often the
development and personal growth of employees and content and amount of time to be devoted to
the stability of the organization through employee mentoring is identified ahead of time or may even be
retention, succession planning and the development negotiated by the mentor and partner. One of the
of leadership, rather than wait for an informal mentor advantages of this type of mentoring is that it allows
relationship to occur, what is needed is a second type volunteers to have clear expectations about their role,
of mentoring approach, called formal mentoring identify and use concrete interaction activities, and be
(Almond 2013).In this type of mentoring, a mentor is able to predict with some reliability the amount of
recruited, screened, trained and then matched with a time needed to participate in such mentoring. Another
person to mentor. Formal mentoring is most often advantage typically accrues to the mentee or protégé
goal, project or activity centred. The purpose of the because of the skills they learn when there is a
formal mentor is to help the partner achieve a training component associated with the mentoring
specific, identifiable outcome in one or more of four (Mullen, 2016).
areas namely; Developing a career, gaining

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Peer Mentoring organizational effectiveness is determined by
Peer mentoring is a relationship between two individual related variables, group level variables and
individuals equal in abilities and qualifications that organizational level variables.
helps each other develop or refine skills to navigate in
Katz and Kahn (1966) cited in Newman, (2014) used
the work environment (Hillyards, 2008). In a study
growth, storage, survival and control over
based on responses to a 2004 survey of Digital
environment as criteria for identifying effective
Equipment, a United States based company,
organizations. To them, effective organizations
employees who have had experience in peer
survive, grow and have control over their
relationships found that accessibility of training,
environment. Yuchtman (2017) supported Katz and
length of time, and flexibility in schedule are the most
Kahn (1966) in maintaining that effective
important factors when considering training and
organizations successfully acquire scarce and valued
employee development. Peer mentoring relationship
resources and have control over their environment.
respondents place a high value on such aspects as:
This definition emphasizes efficiency and adaptability
opportunity to learn, opportunity to share, and
as criteria for effectiveness. Etzioni (2014) has it that
flexible learning. The Digital study showed that
organizational effectiveness is the degree to which
mentor relationships offer a number of benefits to a
organization realizes its goals. This means that the
workforce that is diverse (Howard, 2017)
organization must have achievable goals, the level of
Peer mentor relationships offer management many achievement of which determines their effectiveness.
advantages but one major drawback is that mentor Bateman and Snell (2009) defined organizational
relationships evolve and cannot be enforced or effectiveness as the degree to which the organizations
regulated. Among the high points of peer mentoring outputs correspond to the needs and wants of the
are: external environment. The external environment
Team Building: As peer relationships develop, includes groups such as customers, suppliers,
team building can provide mutual encouragement competitors, and regulatory agencies. Organizations
to improve performance. are established to satisfy the needs and wants in the
Friendship: Although the benefits of this are not external environment. The focus of this definition is
immediately measurable, friendship can provide a the satisfaction of needs and wants, although,
sense of trust that will encourage employees to try organizations also have internal needs of satisfying
to stretch their limitation. employees and shareholders. Employees need to be
Shared Experiences: Peers can share the learning motivated and developed while shareholders require
experiences of engaging in new behaviors (Carr, good return on their investment.
2017).
Effectiveness is a broad concept and is difficult to
Concept of Organizational Effectiveness measure in organizations (Daft, 2008). It takes into
Cunninghan (2017) maintained that the concept of consideration a range of variables at both
organizational effectiveness is an elusive one, that organizational and departmental level. It evaluates the
there is no single way of defining it. This may be due extent to which the multiple goals of an organization
to the many criteria used and the many definitions are obtained. Evaluating performance on goals that
available for the concept. Georgopoulos and are imprecise and not subject to quantitative
Tannenbaum (2009) have it that for an organization to measurement is difficult for many managers
be effective, it must be productive, flexible and lack (Blenkhorn and laber, 2015). However, performance
organizational strain. This view is supported by measurement that is tied to strategy execution can
Caplow (2014), who perceived effective organization help organizations reach their goals (Rose, 2013).
as one that has stability, integration, voluntarism and Daft (2008) has identified two major approaches to
achievement. For him, an effective organization is not measurement of organization effectiveness the
only stable but achieves goals. Lawler (1972) cited in traditional and temporary approaches. The traditional
Nwachukwu (2009) in his comprehensive model approaches include the goal approach, the system
believed that “effective organizations are built on resource approach and the internal process approach.
effective individuals who work effectively in groups”. The goal approach to organizational effectiveness is
This view is supported by (Vroom, 1964, Haire, concerned with the output side whether the
Ghiselli and Porter (1966) and Lawler and Porter organization achieves its goals in terms of desired
(1967) cited in (Dede, 2011). They are of the option level of outputs. This approach is based on the fact
that since the individuals make up the groups which that organizations have goals they are expected to
make the organization, if they are effective, the achieve. Hall and Clarke, (2011) argue that the
organization will also be effective. For them, important goals to consider are the operative goals

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 International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
and not the official goals. The goal approach is used stakeholders as an indication of organization’s
in business organization because, output goals can be performance (Tusi, 2011). From studies, seven
readily measured (Daft, 1998). Business firms tend to stakeholder groups have been identified which
evaluate performance in terms of profitability, include owners, employees, customers, creditors,
growth, market share, and return on investment. suppliers, community and government (Friedlander
However, the two major problems associated with the and Pickle, 2018). This approach shows that
goal approach are issues of multiple goals and effectiveness is a complex multidimensional concept
subjective indicators of goal attainment. Many goals that has no single measure (Cameron, 2014). Recent
cannot be measured objectively, someone has to go research has shown that the assessment of stakeholder
into the organization and learn what the actual goals groups is an accurate reflection of effectiveness
are. It is important for the evaluator of organizational especially with respect to adaptability.
effectiveness using goal approach to be aware of the Four models of effectiveness values have been
problems associated with it, so that allowance can be identified by Qinn (2013) Human relations model,
made for them in the evaluation of effectiveness. open systems model, rational goal model and internal
The systems resource approach to organizational process model. The human relations model reflects a
effectiveness looks at the input side of the combination of internal focus and flexible structure.
transformation process. It assumes organization must Management is concerned with the development of
be successful in obtaining resource input and in human resources. Open system model reflects
maintaining the organization system to be effective., external focus and flexibility. Management’s primary
From the systems view, organizational effectiveness goals are growth and resource acquisition. The
include bargaining position (the ability of the rational model reflects the values of structural control
organization to exploit its environment in the and external focus. Management’s primary goals are
acquisition of scarce and valued resources); productivity, efficiency, and profit. Internal process
maintenance of internal day-to-day organizational model reflects internal focus and structural control.
activities; and ability of the organization to respond to Management’s primary goals are stability and
changes in the environment (Cunningham, 2018). The equilibrium.
system resource approach is useful when other
Measures of Organizational Effectiveness
indicators of performance are difficult to obtain. This There are many ways of measuring the effectiveness
means it is relevant in non-profit organization where of an organization. Campbell (2017) lists over 30
output goals and internal efficiency are difficult to different criteria from productivity, profits, growth,
measure. turnover, stability etc. Different theoretical
In the internal process approach to organization, perspectives can account for the diversity in usage of
effectiveness is measured as internal organizational effectiveness measurements. Rational perspectives
health and efficiency (Cole, 2014). This approach emphasize goal attainment and focus on output
tends to focus on what the organization does with the variables such as quality, productivity and efficiency.
resources it has as reflected in internal health and Natural systems perspectives focus on the support
efficiency. Indicators of an effective organization in goals of the organization such as participant’s
this approach include strong corporate culture and satisfaction, morale, interpersonal skills etc. Open
positive working climate, team spirit, group loyalty system perspectives focus on the exchange with the
and team work; confidence, trust and communication environment this include information processing,
between workers and management, reward to profitability, flexibility and adaptability.
managers for performance, growth, and development Effectiveness criteria also vary with time and often
of subordinates and for creating an effective working sub groups have different effectiveness criteria. Also,
group (Cunningham, 2017). often there are different evaluation criteria applied by
those who assign tasks and those who evaluate
The traditional approach to effectiveness tends to tell
performance Scott (2007). This paper looked at the
only part of the story individually. This led to the
three measures of organizational effectiveness ie
introduction of the recent integrative approach, which
profitability, productivity and market share.
recognizes the fact that organization s do many things
and have many outcomes. It therefore combines Profitability
several indicators of effectiveness into a single Profit has been defined as the money a business earns
framework. These recent approaches to effectiveness above and beyond what it spends for salaries
are known as contemporary effectiveness approaches expenses and other costs (Nickels, 2007). Every
and consist of stakeholders approach. The organization is in business to make profit.
stakeholders approach assesses the satisfaction of Profitability therefore, is a state of producing a profit

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 International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
or the degree to which a business is profitable. management introduced by Taylor that led to
Profitability is the goal of all for profit business management efficiency. They are the sources of
ventures (Amah, 2006). Without profitability, competitive advantage and “time- based competition
business will not survive in the long run. Conversely, (TBC)” (Bateman and Snell, 2009).They aim at
business that is highly profitable has the ability to reducing the total time it takes to deliver a product or
reward its owners with a large return on their service through fast and timely design, execution,
investment. Profitability can be either accounting response and delivery of results. One can therefore
profits or economic profits (Hofstrand, 2007). say, that organizations must respond to market needs
Accounting profits provide an immediate view of the quickly by introducing new products first; quickly of
viability of a business. Economic profits provide time here is the amount of man- hour spent or
long-term perspective of business. It enables business duration taken to accomplish a task. With respect to
owners to know if they can consistently generate a cost minimization, our interest is on monetary
higher level of income by using their money and expenses incurred as a measure of corporate
labour in the business than elsewhere. It is therefore productivity performance. Cost is conceived as
an important parameter for business managers as it expenses incurred on production factors and
shows how well they are performing.. Profitability activities. There is no doubt that every organization
seems to be one of the most important tasks of seeks to minimize its expenses as much as possible in
business managers (Amah 2006). Companies are order to maximize profit
evaluated by their level of profitability. It is measured Several concepts like cost effectiveness and cost
with income and expenses. It may be expressed in reduction have been put in place to achieve profit
terms of net income and earnings per share or return maximization (Baumback, 2013). Cost effectiveness
on investment. It takes a productive firm to be also involves strategic cost. An organization’s
profitable. strategic cost of a product is the cost of the internal
Productivity activities involved in the production of a product
Productivity is basic to organizational effectiveness. relative to that of its rivals. Thus, the issue of strategic
Productivity can be seen in two different ways; Labor cost relate to internal cost, relative Cost and price at
productivity which is simply output divided by the which a product is offered to the customer, which is
numbers of workers, or more often by the number of also cost from the perspective of the customer. For an
hours worked (Nasar, 2002). Amar (2006) defined organization to be effective, it needs to maintain or
productivity as the measure of how efficiently and improve on its market share.
effectively resources (inputs) are brought together and
Market Share
utilized for production of goods and services Market share is the company’s sales as a percentage
(outputs) of the quality needed by society in the long of the sales in its target market (Czinkota, 2017). This
term. This implies that productivity is the means that in strategic management and marketing,
combination of performance and economic use of market share is the percentage or proportion of the
resources. High productivity indicates that resources total available market or market segment that is being
are efficient and effectively utilized and waste is serviced by a company. Market share is the share of
minimized in the organization. High productivity overall market sales for each brand. It can be quoted
provides more profit for investors and promotes the in terms of volume (e.g the brand has a 5% share of
development of the enterprise. It can stimulate the total number of units sold) or in terms of value
improvement and motivation of employees (Czinkota, 2017).The main advantage of using market
(Prokopenko, 2007). Productivity is expressed in share is that it abstracts from industry-wide macro
terms of cost per unit of production; “units produced environmental variables such as the state of the
per employee” or “resources cost per a unit per economy or changes in tax policy.
employee” (Daft, 2016). Productivity improves when
the quantity of output increased relative to the Market share has the potential to increase profits.
quantity of input. Efficiency improves, when the cost Studies have shown that, on average, profitability
of inputs used is reduced relative to the value of rises with increasing market share (Kotler and
output. Efficiency is the accomplishment of goals Armstrong, 2001). Because of these findings, many
with minimum resources or waste. It includes companies have sought to expand market share to
measures such as time minimization, cost improve profitability. Market share is important
minimization and waste minimization. Organization because it helps one to know the strength of the
that achieves these three things are said to be efficient organization whether they are leaders or minor
and productive. Speed and time were essence of time players and also if the organization is still holding,
and motion studies since the days of scientific gaining or losing share of its target market. A strong

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 International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development @ www.ijtsrd.com eISSN: 2456-6470
and adaptive culture is necessary for organizations to attention to the needs, fear and concern of all
maintain and expand their market share and thereby parties in the volunteer connection.
being effective (Mcshare and Glinow, 2013).
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