Llr1i: Table 4.1 - 3 Classification of Defense Mechanisms

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4.

1 Sigmund Freud: Founder of Classic Psychoanalysis 1 61

llr1I Table 4.1 -3


[__J Classification of Defense Mechanisms
Narcissistic-Psychotic Defenses
These defenses are usually found as part of a psychotic process, but may also occur in young children and adult dreams or fantasies.
They share the common note of avoiding, negating, or distorting real ity.
Projection Perceiving and reacting to unacceptable inner impulses and their derivatives as though they were outside the
self. On a psychotic level, this takes the form of frank delusions about external real ity, usually persecutory,
incl udes both perception of one's own feelings and those of another with subsequent acting on the perception
(psychotic paranoid delusions). Impulses may derive from id or superego (hallucinated recriminations).
Denial Psychotic denial of external reality, u n l i ke repression, affects perception of external real ity more than perception
of i nternal reality. Seeing, but refusing to acknowledge what one sees, or hearing and negating what is actually
heard are examples of denial and exempl ify the close relationship of denial to sensory experience. Not all
denial, however, is necessarily psychotic. Like projection, denial may function in the service of more neurotic
or even adaptive objectives. Denial avoids becoming aware of some pai nfu l aspect of real ity. At the psychotic
level, the denied real ity may be replaced by a fantasy or del usion.
Distortion Grossly reshaping the experience of external reality to suit inner needs, including unreal istic megalomanic
beliefs, hallucinations, wish-fu lfi ll ing delusions, and employing sustained feelings of delusional grandiosity,
superiority, or entitlement.
Immature Defenses
These mechanisms are fairly common in preadolescent years and in adult character disorders. They are often mobilized by anxieties
related to inti macy or its loss. Although they are regarded as socially awkward and undesirable, they often moderate with
improvement in interpersonal relationsh ips or with increased personal maturity.
Acting out The direct expression of an unconscious wish or impulse in action to avoid being conscious of the
accompanying affect. The unconscious fantasy, involving objects, is l ived out and impulsively enacted in
behavior, thus gratifying the impulse more than the prohibition against it. On a chronic level, acting out
i nvolves giving i n to impu lses to avoid the tension that would result from postponement of their expression.
Blocking An inhibition, usually temporary in nature, of affects especially, but possibly also thinking and impulses. It is
close to repression in its effects but has a component of tension arising from the inh ibition of the impulse,
affect, or thought.
Hypochondriasis Transformation of reproach toward others arising from bereavement, lonel iness, or unacceptable aggressive
i mpu lses, into self-reproach in the form of somatic complaints of pain, i l lness, and so forth. Real i l lness may
also be overemphasized or exaggerated for its evasive and regressive possibilities. Thus, responsibility may be
avoided, gu ilt may be circumvented, and i nstinctual impulses may be warded off.
lntrojection In addition to the developmental functions of the process of introjection, it also can serve specific defensive
functions. The introjection of a loved object i nvolves the internal ization of characteristics of the object with the
goal of ensuring closeness to and constant presence of the object. Anxiety consequent to separation or tension
arising out of ambivalence toward the object is th us diminished. If the object i s lost, introjection nullifies or
negates the loss by taking on characteristics of the object, thus in a sense internally preserving the object. Even
if the object is not lost, the internalization usually involves a shift of cathexis reflecting a significant alteration
i n the object relationship. lntrojection of a feared object serves to avoid anxiety through i nternalizing the
aggressive characteristic of the object, thereby putting the aggression under one's own control. The aggression
is no longer felt as coming from outside, but is taken with i n and util ized defensively, thus turning the subject's
weak, passive position into an active, strong one. The classic example is "identification with the aggressor."
lntrojection can also take place out of a sense of gu ilt in which the self-punishing introject is attributable to the
hosti le-destructive component of an ambivalent tie to an object. Thus, the self-punitive qual ities of the object
are taken over and establ ished within one's self as a symptom or character trait, which effectively represents
both the destruction and the preservation of the object. This is also cal led identification with the victim.
Passive-aggressive Aggression toward an object expressed indirectly and ineffectively through passivity, masochism, and turning
behavior against the self.
Projection On a nonpsychotic level, projection i nvolves attributing one's own unacknowledged feelings to others; it
incl udes severe prejudice, rejection of i ntimacy through suspiciousness, hypervigilance to external danger, and
i njustice col lecting. Projection operates correlatively to i ntrojection, such that the material of the projection
derives from the internal ized but usually unconscious configuration of the subject's introjects. At h igher levels
of function, projection may take the form of m isattributing or misinterpreting motives, attitudes, feelings, or
i ntentions of others.
Regression A return to a previous stage of development or functioning to avoid the anxieties or hosti lities involved in later
stages. A return to earlier points of fixation embodying modes of behavior previously given up. This is often the
result of a disruption of equi librium at a later phase of development. This reflects a basic tendency to ach ieve
i nstinctual gratification or to escape instinctual tension by returning to earlier modes and levels of gratification
when later and more differentiated modes fail or i nvolve intolerable conflict.
Sch izoid fantasy The tendency to use fantasy and to indulge in autistic retreat for the purpose of conflict resolution and
gratification.
Somatization The defensive conversion of psych ic derivatives i nto bodily symptoms; tendency to react with somatic rather than
psych ic manifestations. Infantile somatic responses are replaced by thought and affect during development
(desomatization); regression to earl ier somatic forms or response (resomatization) may result from unresolved
conflicts and may play an important role in psychophysiological and psychosomatic reactions.
(continued)

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1 62 Chapter 4: Theories of Personal ity and Psychopathology

Table 4.1 -3
Classification of Defense Mechanisms (Continued)
Neurotic Defenses
These are common i n apparently normal and healthy individuals as well as i n neurotic disorders. They function usually in the
al leviation of distressing affects and may be expressed i n neurotic forms of behavior. Depending on circumstances, they can also
have an adaptive or socially acceptable aspect.
Controlling The excessive attempt to manage or regulate events or objects in the environment in the interest of minimizing
anxiety and solving internal confl icts.
Displacement Involves a purposefu l, unconscious shifting of impulses or affective investment from one object to another in the
i nterest of solving a confl ict. Although the object is changed, the instinctual nature of the impulse and its aim
remain unchanged.
Dissociation A temporary but drastic modification of character or sense of personal identity to avoid emotional distress; it
incl udes fugue states and hysterical conversion reactions.
External ization A general term, correlative to internalization, referring to the tendency to perceive in the external world and
in external objects components of one's own personal ity, including i nstinctual impulses, conflicts, moods,
attitudes, and styles of thinking. It is a more general term than projection, which is defined by its derivation
from and correlation with specific introjects.
Inhibition The unconsciously determined l i mitation or renunciation of specific ego functions, singly or i n combination, to
avoid anxiety arisi ng out of confl ict with instinctual impulses, superego, or environmental forces or figures.
Intel lectual ization The control of affects and impulses by way of thinking about them instead of experiencing them. It is a
systematic excess of thinking, deprived of its affect, to defend against anxiety caused by unacceptable
impu lses.
Isolation The i ntrapsychic splitting or separation of affect from content resulting in repression of either idea or affect or the
d isplacement of affect to a different or substitute content.
Rationalization A justification of attitudes, bel iefs, or behavior that might otherwise be unacceptable by an incorrect appl ication
of j ustifying reasons or the invention of a convincing fallacy.
Reaction The management of unacceptable impu lses by permitting expression of the impulse in antithetical form. Th is
formation is equivalently an expression of the impulse in the negative. Where i nstinctual conflict is persistent, reaction
formation can become a character trait on a permanent basis, usually as an aspect of obsessional character.
Repression Consists of the expel l ing and withholding from conscious awareness of an idea or feeling. It may operate either
by excluding from awareness what was once experienced on a conscious level (secondary repression) or it
may curb ideas and feelings before they have reached consciousness (primary repression). The "forgetting"
associated with repression is unique in that it is often accompanied by h ighly symbolic behavior, which
suggests that the repressed is not really forgotten. The important discrimination between repression and the
more general concept of defense has been discussed.
Sexualization The endowing of an object or function with sexual significance that it did not previously have, or possesses to a
lesser degree, to ward off anxieties connected with prohibited impulses.
Mature Defenses
These mechanisms are healthy and adaptive throughout the life cycle. They are socially adaptive and usefu l in the integration of
personal needs and motives, social demands, and i nterpersonal relations. They can underl ie seemingly admirable and virtuous
patterns of behavior.
Altruism The vicarious but constructive and instinctually gratifying service to others, even to the detriment of the self. This
must be distingu ished from altruistic surrender, which involves a masochistic surrender of direct gratification
or of instinctual needs i n favor of fulfi ll ing the needs of others to the detriment of the self, with vicarious
satisfaction only being gained through introjection.
Anticipation The real istic anticipation of or planning for future i nner discomfort: Implies overly concerned planning,
worrying, and anticipation of dire and dreadfu l possible outcomes.
Asceticism The elimination of directly pleasurable affects attributable to an experience. The moral element is impl icit i n
setting values on specific pleasures. Asceticism is di rected against all "base" pleasures perceived consciously,
and gratification is derived from the renunciation.
Humor The overt expression of feeli ngs without personal discomfort or i mmobilization and without unpleasant effect on
others. Humor al lows one to bear, and yet focus on, what is too terrible to be borne, in contrast to wit, which
always involves distraction or displacement away from the affective issue.
Subli mation The gratification of an impulse whose goal i s retai ned but whose aim or object is changed from a socially
objectionable one to a socially val ued one. Libidinal sublimation involves a desexualization of drive
impulses and the placing of a value judgment that substitutes what is valued by the superego or society.
Sublimation of aggressive impulses takes place through pleasurable games and sports. U n l i ke neurotic
defenses, sublimation allows instincts to be channeled rather than dammed up or diverted. Thus, i n
sublimation, feelings are acknowledged, modified, and di rected toward a relatively sign ificant person or goal
so that modest instinctual satisfaction results.
Suppression The conscious or semiconscious decision to postpone attention to a conscious impulse or confl ict.

Adapted from Vai l lant GE. Adaptation to Life. Boston: Little Brown; 1 977; Semrad E. The operation of ego defenses i n object loss. In: Moriarity DM, ed.
The Loss of Loved Ones. Spri ngfield, IL: Charles C Thomas; 1 967; and Bibring GL, Dwyer TF, H untington DS, Valenstein AA. A study of the psychological
principles in pregnancy and of the earliest mother-child relationship: Methodological considerations. Psychoana/ Stud Child. 1 961 ; 1 6:25.

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