Rock Cut Architecture

During Harappan Civilization

Dholavira is an archaeological site in Kutch District, in the state
of Gujarat in western India, which has taken its name from a modern-day
village 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) south of it. This village is 165 km (103 mi)
from Radhanpur. Also known locally as Kotada timba, the site contains ruins
of an ancient Indus Valley Civilization/Harappan city. It is one of the five
largest Harappan sites and most prominent archaeological sites in India
belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. It is also considered as having
been the grandest of cities of its time. It is located on Khadir bet island in
the Kutch Desert Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great Rann of Kutch. The
quadrangular city lay between two seasonal streams, the Mansar in the
north and Manhar in the south. The site was occupied from c.2650 BCE,
declining slowly after about 2100 BCE. It was briefly abandoned then
reoccupied until c.1450 BCE.
The site was discovered in 1967-68 by J. P. Joshi, of the Archaeological
Survey of India (ASI), and is the fifth largest of eight major Harappan
sites. It has been under excavation since 1990 by the ASI, which opinedd
that Dholavira has indeed added new dimensions to personality of Indus
Valley Civilisation. The other major Harappan sites discovered so far
are Harappa, Mohenjo-
daro, Ganeriwala, Rakhigarhi, Kalibangan, Rupnagar and Lothal.
Reservoirs:
R S Bisht, who retired as the Joint Director-General of the ASI, said,
"The kind of efficient system of Harappans of Dholavira, developed for
conservation, harvesting and storage of water speaks eloquently about
their advanced hydraulic engineering, given the state of technology in the
third millennium BCE." One of the unique features of Dholavira is the
sophisticated water conservation system of channels and reservoirs, the
earliest found anywhere in the world, built completely of stone. The city
had massive reservoirs, three of which are exposed. They were used for
storing fresh water brought by rains or to store water diverted from two
nearby rivulets. This clearly came in response to the desert climate and
conditions of Kutch, where several years may pass without rainfall. A
seasonal stream which runs in a north-south direction near the site was
dammed at several points to collect water. In 1998, another reservoir was
discovered in the site.
The inhabitants of Dholavira created sixteen or more reservoirs of varying size during
Stage III. Some of these took advantage of the slope of the ground within the large
settlement, a drop of 13 metres (43 ft) from northeast to northwest. Other reservoirs
were excavated, some into living rock. Recent work has revealed two large reservoirs,
one to the east of the castle and one to its south, near the Annexe.
The reservoirs are cut through stone vertically, and are about 7 m (23 ft) deep and 79 m
(259 ft) long. They skirt the city, while the citadel and bath are centrally located on
raised ground. There is also a large well with a stone-cut through connecting it to a
drain meant for conducting water to a storage tank. The bathing tank had steps
descending inwards.
In October 2014, excavation began on a rectangular stepwell which measured 73.4 m
(241 ft) long, 29.3 m (96 ft) wide, and 10 m (33 ft) deep, making it three times bigger
than the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro.
 Mauryan Caves

Barabar Caves
* Lomas Rishi Cave
* Sudama Cave
*Karan Chaupar Cave
* Visvakarma Cave

Nagarjuni Cave
*Gopi Cave
*Vadithika Cave
*Vapiyaka Cave
Lomas Rishi cave has an arch-like shape
facade that imitates contemporary timber
architecture. On the doorway, a row of
elephants proceed towards stupa emblems,
along the curved architrave.
Lomas
Rishi
Cave
Plan of
Lomas Rishi
Assembly Hall
32’9”x19’9”x12’3”

and
Sudama
Cave
Assembly Hall
32’9”x19’6”x12’3”
Sudama cave was dedicated
by Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka in 261 BCE.
The arches of Sudama cave have bow shape.
The caves consist of a circular vaulted
chamber with a rectangular mandapa.
Façade of Sudama Cave
Karan Chaupar (Karna Chaupar) consists of single
rectangular room with polished surfaces, contains
inscription which could be dated to 245 BCE.
Karan Chaupar, also known as Karna Chaupar, is on the
northern side of the Barabar granite hill. It consists of a single
rectangular room with polished surfaces, 10.2x4.27m in
dimensions. It contains an inscription of Ashoka dating from
the 19th year of his reign, about 250 BCE, located outside,
immediately to the right of the entrance.
Visva karma cave, reachable by Ashoka steps hewn in the
cliff, consists of two rectangular rooms.
The Visvakarma cave, also called Viswa Mitra, is accessible by the "steps
of Ashoka" carved into the cliff. It is a hundred meters and a little east of
the main granite hill. It consists of a rectangular room entirely open to the
outside, a sort of elongated porch, and an unfinished semi-hemispherical
room: the rectangular space measures 4.27x2.54m, and the circular room
is 2.8m in diameter . One goes from the rectangular room to the half-
hemispherical room by a narrow trapezoidal passage. On the floor of the
porch, four holes were made, which are thought to allow the cave to be
closed with a wooden picket fence.
The cave of Visvakarma was offered by Ashoka to the Ajivikas in the year
12 of his reign, about 261 BCE.
 Nagarjuni Cave

The nearby caves of Nagarjuni hill were built few decades later
than the Barabar caves, and consecrated by Dasaratha Maurya,
Ashoka's grandson and successor, each for the Ajivikas sect. They
are 1.6 kilometers east of the Barabar Caves. The three caves are:
Gopi (Gopi-ka-Kubha), on the southside of the hill, excavated by
the king Dasharatha grandson of Ashoka, according to an
inscription. (44’x19’x10’)
Vadithika cave, on the north side of the hill, located in a crevice,
and devoted to Ajivika followers by Dasharatha (c 232 BCE-224 BCE).
Vapiyaka cave, on the north side of the hill, also devoted to Ajivika
followers by Dasharatha.
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are partly natural and
partly artificial caves of archaeological, historical and religious
importance near the city of Bhubaneswar in Odisha, India. The
caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and
Khandagiri, mentioned as Kumari Parvata in the Hathigumpha
inscription. They have a number of finely and ornately carved
caves built during 2nd century BCE. It is believed that most of
these caves were carved out as residential blocks
for Jaina monks during the reign of King Kharavela. Udayagiri
means "Sunrise Hill" and has 19 caves while Khandagiri has
16 caves.
1. Rani Gumpha "Cave of the Queen"
Rani Gumpha is the largest and most popular cave among the caves of Udayagiri
and Khandagiri. This cave is double storeyed. The lower floor has seven entrances
in the middle wing whereas the upper floor has nine columns.
 First Floor, Rani Gumpha

Ground Floor, Rani Gumpha

01, Corridor

01, Pillar Relief with Elephants

2. Vajradhara Gumpha
Vajradhara Gumpha is very simple and small. It has stone bed and pillow and it was
obviously used as the Jain monks' shelter in the ancient times. Apart from the plain
rectangular shaped pillars, there is no other sculpture found in this cave.
3. Chota Hathi Gumpha
Chota Hathi Gumpha is small in size. It has six small elephant figures in the facade.
The word 'chota hathi' means 'small elephant'.
4. Alakapuri or Swargapuri Gumpha
Alakapuri Gumpha has a relief sculpture of a lion holding its prey in its mouth. The
pillars with the human figures (divine beings) with wings are found in this cave. It is
also double storeyed.
5. Jaya Vijaya Gumpha
Jaya Vijaya Gumpha is double storeyed. It has a relief image of Bodhi tree with
umbrella on its top and flanked by people worshipping it.
6. Panasa Gumpha
Panasa Gumpha is very small and simple cave without any significant features.

7. Thakurani Gumpha
Thakurani Gumpha is double storeyd but is very simple in style. It has few tiny
relief sculptures.

8. Patalapuri Gumpha
Patalapuri Gumpha is slightly bigger with a pillared verandah. However, there is no
notable feature in this cave.

9. Manchapuri Gumpha
Manchapuri Gumpha is double storeyed. It has a damaged Jain religious symbol
which was probably used for worship.
There are three inscriptions found in this cave. One inscription talks about the chief
queen of Kharavela.
10. Ganesha Gumpha
Ganesha Gumpha is one of the most important caves in Udayagiri. The cave got this
name due to carved figure of Ganesha on the back of its right cell. Of course, it
would have been carved in the later period and it cannot be the original work. The
cave has two big statues of elephants carrying garlands at the entrance. The carvings
in this cave narrate the story of the elopement of Vasavadatta, Princess of
Ujjayayini, with King Udayana of Kausambi.
11. Jambesvara Gumpha
Jambesvara Gumpha is a very simple and small cave with one column and two pilasters. The
inscription tells that it is the cave of Nayaki, wife of Mahamade.
12. Vyaghra Gumpha
Vyaghra Gumpha is one of the popular caves in Udayagiri. The cave, which is in ruins, has the
entrance carves like a large mouth of a tiger. The inscription found here tells that this cave belongs to
the city judge Sabhuti.
13. Sarpa Gumpha
Sarpa Gumpha is unusually very small cave. There are two inscriptions found in this
cave. The word 'sarpa' means snake.
14. Hathi Gumpha
Hati Gumpha is a natural cavern. On the wall, the inscription erected by Kharavela
is found. It is the main source of history of Kharavela.
15. Dhanaghara Gumpha
Dhanaghara Gumpha is a small cave which has two wide pillars and dwara pala
sculptures carved at the entrance.

16. Haridasa Gumpha

Haridasa Gumpha is a small cave with three entrances and a verandah in the front
side. There is an inscription found here.

17. Jagannatha Gumpha

Jagannatha Gumpha is roughly cut cave with three entrances.

18. Rasui Gumpha

Rasui Gumpha is unusually very small cave.

19. Vaikunthapur Gumpha

It is also very small cave.
Caves of Khandagiri:
There are 15 caves in Khandagiri.

1. Tatowa Gumpha-1
The parrots are carved above the entrance arch and hence it is called as Tatowa
Gumpha. It has two dwarapala figures too.
2. Tatowa Gumpha-2
The cave sharing the same name with the first cave has a veranda with pilasters
containing exquisite carvings.
3. Ananta Gumpha
The cave has sculptures of women, elephants, geese (कॅळ्हं स), etc.
4. Tentuli Gumpha
It is a small rock cut chamber with just one column.
5. Khandagiri Gumpha
It is a roughly cut cell and has double storeyed.
6. Dhyana Gumpha
It is a roughly cut cell.
7. Navamuni Gumpha
Navamuni Gumpha is a roughly cut cell with the sculptures of nine Jain
Tirthankaras and Sasana Devis (Twelve armed deity).
8. Barabhuji Gumpha
Barabhuji Gumpha has two relief images of twelve armed Sasana Devis, hence it is
called as Barabhuji (meaning twelve armed) Gumpha. There are few Tirthankara
sculptures also found in this cave. The Sasana Devis are worshiped as Hindu deity
Durga nowadays. The priests in this shrine claim some Jain Tirthankara sculpture as
Surya.
9. Trusula Gumpha
Trusula Gumpha appears to be reconverted in the medieval times. There are three
sculptures of Rishabha Deva who is found in the standing posture and look
beautiful. Apart from these sculptures there are sculptures of 24 Jain Tirthankaras
which look rough.
10. Ambika Gumpha
Few relief images of Sasana Devis are found here.
11. Lalatendu Keshari Gumpha
The relief images of Mahavira, Parshvanatha and few Jaina Tirthankaras are found
here.

Caves 12, 13, 15 and 16 are unnamed.

Cave 14 is very simple and called as Ekadasi Gumpha.

ROCK CUT CAVES OF WESTERN INDIA
There are more than 1,500 known rock cut structures in India, out of
which about 1000 were made by Buddhists (mainly between 200 BCE
and 600 CE), 300 by Hindus (from 600 CE to 1200 CE), and 200 by
Jains (from 900 CE to 1200 CE).
In India, caves have long been regarded as places of sanctity. The oldest
rock-cut CAVES in India is found in the Barabar caves in Bihar built
around the 3rd century BCE.
Probably owing to the 2nd century BCE fall of the Mauryan Empire and the
subsequent persecutions of Buddhism under Pushyamitra Sunga, it is thought
that many Buddhists relocated to the Deccan under the protection of
the Satavahana dynasty, thus shifting the cave-building effort to western India:
an enormous effort at creating religious caves (usually Buddhist or Jain)
continued there until the 2nd century CE, culminating with the Karla caves or
the Pandavleni caves.

These caves generally followed an apsidal plan with a stupa in the back for
the chaityas, and a rectangular plan with surrounding cells for the viharas. The Indo-
Scythian dynasty of the Western Kshatraps too sponsored numerous Buddhist caves.

Several simple viharas, chaityas started to be cut in the rock, such as

at Bhaja, Kondane, Pitalakhora, Ajanta, Bedsa, Nasik, Junnar,
Karle and Kanheri which were occupied continuously by Buddhist
monks from 200 BCE to 650 CE.
Bhaja Caves are a group of 22 rock-cut caves dating back to the 2nd
century BCE located in Pune district, near Lonavala, Maharashtra.
The caves are 400 feet above the village of Bhaja, on an important
ancient trade route running from the Arabian Sea eastward into
the Deccan Plateau (the division between North India and South
India). It belongs to the Hinayana Buddhism sect in Maharashtra.

A notable part of the monument is a group of 14 stupas, five inside

and nine outside an irregular excavation. The stupas are relics of
resident monks, who died at Bhaja, and display an inscription with
the names of three monks, Ampinika, Dhammagiri and Sanghdina.
Bhaja-Panaroma View
Wooden Ceiling in Chaityagriha
Façade of Chaitya

Out side Stupa

Bhaja-
Great Chaitya
 Kondane
These Caves are located in the small village of Kondana, 33 km
north of Lonavala and 16 km northwest of Karla Caves. This cave
group has 16 Buddhist caves. The caves were excavated in first
century B.C. The construction on wooden pattern is notable.
Kondane group of caves, first brought to notice in the 19th century
by Vishnu Sastri, and soon after visited by Mr. Law, the then
collector of Thana. So much so indeed that it is now difficult to
determine whether they or the caves at Bhaja Caves are the earliest.
There are 4 caves.
Kondane Chaitya
Kondane Chaitya Dagoba (Stupa)
Veranda of Vihara

Interior of Vihara
 Pitalkhora
The Pitalkhora Caves, in the Shatamala range of the Western
Ghats of Maharashtra, are an ancient Buddhist site consisting of 14 rock-
cut cave monuments which date back to the second century BCE, making
them one of the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India. These
caves are located about 40 kilometers from Ellora and 70 kilometers from
Aurangabad. The caves are cut in a variety of basalt rock, but some of the
caves have crumbled and are damaged.

Out of the 13, five are chaityas (one housing votive stupas, one
apsidal and single-cell) and the rest are viharas. Among 13 caves, 9
are one side and 4 are other side on the hillock. All the caves belong
to the Hinayana period, but the reasonably well preserved paintings
are of the Mahayana period. It is believed that Pitalkhora can be
identified with Ptolemy’s "Petrigala" as well as the "Pitangalya"
of Mahamayuri, a Buddhist chronicle. The inscriptions date from c.
250 BCE to the 3rd and 4th centuries CE.
The chaitya hall, cave 3 of Pitalkhora, represents an
important marker in the chronology of the chaitya hall
design in western India. It measures 86 feet and 35 feet.
There were 37 octagonal pillars but only 12 are remaining.
The width of pradikshnapath was 4 feet 11 inches.
Cave 4 is vihara. The entrance is 5 feet 4 inches high with 2
feet 6 inches width. Cave no. 5 – 9 are also viharas. Among
these, cave 9 is largest.
Cave no. 10 – 13 are chaityas. Cave no. 13 comprised
circular mandapa. It measures 27’10”X15’X15’.
 Ajanta
The Ajanta Caves are 29 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments which
date from the 2nd century BCE to about 650 CE. Of these 29 caves,
4 are chaitya-griha and 25 are viharas. Since 1983, the Ajanta Caves
have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is about 6 kilometres
from Fardapur, 59 kilometres from the city
of Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India, 104 kilometres from the city
of Aurangabad, and 350 kilometres east-northeast
from Mumbai. It is 100 kilometres from the Ellora Caves. On 28
April 1819, a British officer named John Smith, of the 28th Cavalry,
while hunting tigers, "discovered" the entrance to Cave No. 10
when a local shepherd boy guided him to the location and the door.
The caves are carved out of flood basalt rock of a cliff, part of
the Deccan Traps formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the
end of the Cretaceous geological period. The rock is layered
horizontally, and somewhat variable in quality.
Ajanta Caves
Cave - 9
Cave - 10
Cave - 19
Cave - 26
Cave - 16
 Bedsa
These Caves also known as Bedse Caves are a group
of Buddhist rock-cut monuments situated in Pune
District of Maharashtra. The history of the caves can be
traced back to the Satavahana period in the 1st century
BCE. They are some 9 km from the Bhaja Caves.
There are two main caves. The best known cave is
the chaitya (prayer hall - Cave 7) with a comparatively
large stupa, the other cave is the monastery
or vihara (Cave 11). They are marked by a profusion of
decorative gavaksha or chaitya arch motifs.
General view Cave 7- Chaitya
Inside Verandah
Pipal Leaf Gavaksha
Stupa
inside
Chaitya
Vihara – Cave 11
 Nasik
The Nasik caves, or sometimes Pandavleni Caves (or Pandu
Lena, Pandu Caves or Trirashmi Leni, Trirashmi being the name
of the hills in which the caves are located, Leni being
a Marathi word for caves), are a group of 24 caves carved
between the 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE, though
additional sculptures were added up to about the 6th century,
reflecting changes in Buddhist devotional practices. They are a
significant group of early examples of Indian rock-cut
architecture initially representing the Hinayana tradition. Most
of the caves are viharas except for Cave 18 which is a chaitya of
the 1st century BCE.
Cave – 18
Chaitya
Cave – 10,
Nahapana Vihara, 120 CE
Cave – 3, Gautamiputra Vihara, 150 CE
 Junnar
Junnar is a city with thousands of years of history in the Pune district of
the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is situated 72 kilometers to the north
of Pune. The Indo-Scythian Western Satraps ruled at Junnar during the
2nd century CE as shown by their cave inscriptions in the area of
Junnar, at Manmodi caves. "Yavana" (Greeks) also left donative
inscriptions in the 2nd century CE at Lenyadri and Manmodi caves.
Total 150 caves. Thirty are important. Of these 10 are chaityagriha and
rest are viharas.
 Karle
The Karla Caves, Karli Caves, Karle Caves or Karla Cells, are a
complex of ancient Buddhist Indian rock-cut
caves at Karli near Lonavala, Maharashtra. It is just 10.9
Kilometers away from Lonavala and 60 kilometers from Pune. The
shrines were developed over the period – from the 2nd century BCE
to the 5th century CE. The oldest of the cave shrines is believed to
date back to 160 BCE.
The group at Karla is one of the older and smaller of the many
rock-cut Buddhist sites in Maharashtra, but is one of the best-
known because of the famous "Grand Chaitya" (Cave 8), which is
"the largest and most completely preserved" chaitya hall of the
period, as well as containing unusual quantities of fine sculpture,
much of it on a large scale.
There are altogether 16 caves in the group, with 3 of them
being Mahayana caves. Most of the caves are lenas, with
the major exception being the Great Chaitya, Cave No. 8.
The main cave, called the Great Chaitya cave, or Cave
No.8, features a large, intricately carved chaitya, or prayer
hall, dating back to 120 CE. This is the largest rock-cut
chaitya in India, measuring 45 metres long and up to 14
metres high. The hall features sculptures of both males and
females, as well as animals such as lions and elephants.
This Great Chaitya cave, the largest in South Asia, was
constructed and dedicated in 120 CE by the Western
Kshatraps ruler Nahapana.
Cave - 8
Karle Inscription on pillar (5th pillar,
right row, donation by a Yavana named
Vitasamghata).
Ceiling of Cave 8
 Kanheri
The Kanheri Caves (Kānherī-guhāḥ) are a group of caves and rock-
cut monuments cut into a massive basalt outcrop in the forests of
the Sanjay Gandhi National Park in Mumbai, India. They
contain Buddhist sculptures and relief carvings, paintings and
inscriptions, dating from the 1st century BCE to the 10th century
CE. Kanheri comes from the Sanskrit Krishnagiri, which
means black mountain. Most of the caves were Buddhist viharas,
meant for living, studying, and meditating. The larger caves, which
functioned as chaityas, or halls for congregational worship, are
lined with intricately carved Buddhist sculptures, reliefs, pillars and
rock-cut stupas. Buddhist caves at Kanheri, a few miles
from Thana, in which are about 109 separate caves, mostly small,
however, and architecturally unimportant.
Cave 3 Cave 2 Cave 1
Cave 1,
Vihara
Cave 2, Vihara
Stupa in Cave 2
 Cave 3, Chaitya-griha

Dagoba inside Chaity-griha

Cave 11
Darbar Cave
 Elephanta

Elephanta Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a collection of cave
temples predominantly dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. They are located
on Elephanta Island, or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai
Harbour, 10 kilometres to the east of the city of Mumbai . The island, located
offshore about 2 kilometres west of the Jawaharlal Nehru Port, consists of
five Shaivite caves and a few Buddhist stupa mounds that may be dating to the
2nd century BCE, as well as a small group of two Buddhist caves with water
tanks. The Elephanta Caves contain rock cut stone sculptures that show
syncretism of Hindu and Buddhist ideas and iconography. The caves are hewn
from solid basalt rock. Except for a few exceptions, much of the artwork is
defaced and damaged. The main temple's orientation as well as the relative
location of other temples are placed in a mandala pattern. The carvings narrate
Hindu mythologies, with the large monolithic 20 feet Trimurti Sadashiva
(three-faced Shiva), Nataraja (Lord of dance) and Yogishvara (Lord of Yoga)
being the most celebrated.
Cave – 1 Façade, Main Mandapa with pillars
Cave - 3
Cave - 4
 Ellora
Ellora also called Verul or Elura, is located in
the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. Ellora is a short
name of ancient Elapura. It is 29 kilometres northwest
of Aurangabad, and about 300 kilometres northeast
of Mumbai. This is one of the largest rock-cut monastery-
temple cave complexes in the world, and a UNESCO World
Heritage Site,
featuring Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments, and
artwork, dating from 600-1000 CE.
There are over 100 caves at the site, all from
the basalt cliffs in the Charanandri Hills, 34 of which are
open to public. These consist of 12 Buddhist (caves 1–12),
17 Hindu (caves 13–29) and 5 Jain (caves 30–34) caves.
Cave 16, is in particular, features the largest single
monolithic monument in the world, the Kailasha temple, a
chariot shaped monument dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasha
temple also features sculptures depicting the gods,
goddesses and mythologies found
in Vaishnavism, Shaktism as well as relief panels
summarizing the two major Hindu Epics.
Ellora
Drawing by James Fergusson, 19th Century
Cave 10
Cave 11
Cave 30
Chhota Kailash
Cave 32, Indra Sabha