Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

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Journal of Geochemical Exploration

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/gexplo

Chemostratigraphic constraints on the nature and origin of felsic schist units T

hosting stratabound and orogenic vein gold on Lone Star Ridge, Klondike
Gold District, Yukon
J.K. Mortensena, , T. Livertonb,1, K. Doddb,2
⁎

a
University of British Columbia, 2020-2207 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
b
Klondike Gold Corporation, 3123 - 595 Burrard St., Vancouver, British Columbia V7X 1J1, Canada

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Felsic schist units in the Lone Star Ridge area of the northern Klondike Gold District, Yukon, Canada, host both
Klondike locally gold-bearing orogenic quartz veins and much more extensive zones of disseminated gold mineralization
Yukon that is stratabound within specific schist units and is interpreted to be syngenetic in origin. Scarcity of outcrop
Orogenic gold and the difficulty in distinguishing between subtly different schist units has hampered correlation between
Lithogeochemistry
surface exposures and drill core, and production of a detailed geological map of the area. Lithogeochemistry
Chemostratigraphy
offers an alternative, unbiased way to map and interpret the various subunits of the felsic schist package that
host disseminated gold mineralization and gold-bearing veins in parts of the Klondike, and that can potentially
form the basis for correlations between various drill holes, and between drill holes and surface exposures. A
detailed investigation of 4590 multi-element geochemical analyses (by 4-acid digestion) from a set of 27 dia-
mond drill holes in the vicinity of the Boulder Lode open cut (Lone Star gold occurrence) on Lone Star Ridge has
revealed several lithogeochemical signatures that correlate closely with gold content and to some extent with
lithological units distinguished during initial logging of the drill core. Research quality geochemical analyses for
a suite of representative rock units selected from the 2005 drill holes have been used to verify the multi-element
geochemical analyses, and to determine the petrochemical character of some of the individual rock units. Results
of this study demonstrate that it is possible to construct a chemostratigraphic framework for the felsic schist units
in the vicinity of the Boulder Lode. Distinctive rock units can be broken out that have very consistent geo-
chemical signatures, and elevated gold values related to the presence of disseminated gold appear to be con-
sistently associated with specific rock units. These chemostratigraphic marker units have been utilized to con-
strain the geology and structure of the immediate study area, and in particular to define the geometry of the
schist units that contain disseminated gold. The same approach has also been applied to a very extensive set of
geochemical data (comprising nearly 34,000 individual samples) from chip samples, diamond drill core, reverse
circulation drill samples, and conventional soil samples obtained during other historical and more recent ex-
ploration programs, to better resolve the geological interpretation of entire Lone Star Ridge area.

1. Introduction that are interpreted to have been the source of much of the estimated
10 Moz of placer gold mined from Eldorado and Bonanza creeks in the
The Klondike Gold District in western Yukon, northwest Canada northern Klondike (Fig. 1; Chapman et al., 2010). MacKenzie et al.
(Fig. 1), is a small (< 1200 km2) but very rich placer gold district, (2008a) noted that numerous felsic schist intervals intersected by dia-
which has produced at least 20 million ounces (Moz) of placer gold mond drilling in the vicinity of the old Lone Star gold mine on Lone Star
(Burke et al., 2005) but only a negligible amount of gold from lode Ridge (locality 2 in Fig. 1) contain significant gold contents, despite
sources. Felsic schists on Lone Star Ridge in the north-central part of the being devoid of visible quartz veins, and subsequent detailed re-sam-
Klondike District (Fig. 1) host a number of gold-bearing quartz veins pling of the core confirmed the presence of fine grained, disseminated

⁎
Corresponding author at: Camino Geoscience Incorporated, 136 Margaret Ave., Salt Spring Island, BC V8K 1H4, Canada.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.K. Mortensen), [email protected] (T. Liverton).
1
Current address: Box 393, Watson Lake, Yukon Y0A 1C0, Canada.
2
Current address: 403 - 876 W 14th Ave., Vancouver, BC V5Z 1R1, Canada.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.05.011
Received 23 July 2018; Received in revised form 7 May 2019; Accepted 28 May 2019
Available online 01 June 2019
0375-6742/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Klondike District, showing locations of the main lode gold occurrences. Inset map shows the location of the Klondike District
in northwest Canada. Dashed box shows location of the Lone Star Ridge area. Abbreviations: MD, Midnight Dome; MB, Mount Bronson; KSD, King Solomon Dome;
DM, Dominion Mountain.

gold at significant levels (up to several grams/tonne) in many of the package, and is not obviously associated with either veins or sig-
schist intersections, over hundreds of meters of strike length. This dis- nificantly elevated levels of As. A distinctive, locally developed style of
seminated gold is too fine grained to have been recovered by local alteration that comprises “spots” of carbonate, chlorite and pyrite that
placer mining operations (Chapman et al., 2010); however, it may re- appear to overgrow the metamorphic foliation in the schists is spatially
present a more economically viable exploration target than the gold- associated with the disseminated gold mineralization in some areas.
bearing veins in the area, which locally contain high gold grades, but Two possible explanations for the disseminated gold occurrences were
are typically of limited areal extent. MacKenzie et al. (2008a) identified suggested by MacKenzie et al. (2008a); either the disseminated gold
two distinct styles of gold occurrence on Lone Star Ridge. One has was part of a diffuse epigenetic alteration (along with the carbonate
variably elevated As contents, and is specifically associated with spa- “spotting”) that is related to the gold-bearing, discordant quartz veins,
tially restricted discordant sets of quartz veins. The second style occurs or it was syngenetic within the schists, possibly related to minor vol-
as pervasive disseminations within certain portions of the felsic schist canogenic base metal massive sulphide occurrences that occur locally

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J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

within the schist package (Mortensen et al., 2006). Mortensen (sub- horizontal to locally steep dip angles. Rare rootless isoclinal fold hinges
mitted) argues, based on an extensive study of Pb isotopic systematics associated with the D2 event are locally observed within the schist
of gold-bearing veins throughout the Klondike, that much of the vein- package. A subsequent D3 deformation event, which is thought to be of
hosted gold in the district has been derived from very local host rocks, Early Jurassic age (MacKenzie et al., 2008b, 2008c), imposed a strong
possibly explaining the close spatial association between disseminated crenulation fabric on the more mica-rich and schistose parts of the
gold in some felsic schist units and gold in discordant quartz veins. Klondike assemblage. D3 produced NE-verging meso-scale folds ac-
The Klondike District is unglaciated, and bedrock exposure in the companied by lower greenschist facies metamorphism, and is inter-
Lone Star Ridge area is generally poor (< 1%), except where enhanced preted to be temporally related to the regional scale, NE-verging thrust
by road construction or surface trenching, and resolving the detailed imbrication of the metamorphic rock units. Gold-bearing quartz veins
geology of the area has been challenging. The felsic schists on Lone Star in the Klondike were emplaced during a later deformation event (D4),
Ridge are compositionally and texturally heterogeneous both in surface which is characterized by NNE and WNW trending zones of localized
exposures and in drill core. Geological mapping thus far, however, has kink folding, high angle reverse faults with locally abundant gouge
not been successful in identifying reliable lithological marker units development, and swarms of quartz veins that cross cut all pre-existing
within the schist package that could be used to confidently trace stra- structural fabrics in the schists (MacKenzie et al., 2008c). The D4 event
tigraphy or constrain the geometry of folds and/or faults in the area. is interpreted to be Late Jurassic in age (Allan et al., 2013; Mortensen,
Previous logging of diamond drill core from Lone Star Ridge has been submitted).
done by many different geologists, and as a result it is commonly dif- A simplified geological map of the portion of Lone Star Ridge in the
ficult to correlate subtly different lithologies with any confidence even vicinity of the “Boulder Lode” open cut of the Lone Star mine is shown
between adjacent drill holes. Similarly surface geological mapping of in Fig. 2 (from O'Shea et al., 2007). This map was prepared by two
trenches and natural outcrops has been done by several different geologists (E. Allen and S. Iles) who had not previously worked in the
people, each of whom may describe the same rock unit in the same area, and who examined all surface exposures (and some diamond drill
outcrop quite differently, again making correlations across the map core) in the area; it therefore represents a relatively unbiased inter-
area very difficult. pretation of the geology. Many aspects of the geological map (and cross
It has become increasingly important to develop a robust litholo- sections derived from it) are speculative because of the generally poor
gical subdivision for the various subunits of the felsic schist package on bedrock exposure and the difficulty in distinguishing between subtly
Lone Star Ridge that is both unbiased and reproducible, in order to different schist compositions; however, the map provides an excellent
constrain the structural geometry of the area (and possible structural starting point for attempting to resolve the detailed pseudostratigraphy
controls on the distribution and orientation of the gold-bearing quartz within the schist package.
veins), and more importantly, to define the spatial distribution and Schist units that underlie the Lone Star Ridge area are mainly in-
extent of specific subunits that contain potentially economic grades of termediate (?) to felsic in composition, and include a variety of quartz-
disseminated gold. In this contribution we discuss detailed and regional muscovite ( ± chlorite, pyrite, carbonate) schist lithologies. These have
studies that we have carried out utilizing historic geochemical datasets been subdivided into three subtly different but locally distinguishable
from the Lone Star Ridge area, acquired by exploration activity during subunits (Fig. 2): 1) QCMS - quartz-chlorite-muscovite schist; 2) QMS -
the period 1985–2012, and including diamond and reverse circulation pyritic quartz-muscovite ( ± carbonate) schist; and 3) MQ – muscovitic
drill samples, chip and hand samples from exploration trenches and quartzite (Fig. 2). These subunits are defined based on the amount of
surface exposures, and conventional and auger soil samples. Results of muscovite (and/or chlorite) and quartz present, on the local presence of
this work are integrated with detailed structural and lithological map- fine quartz eyes and blocky feldspars to 2–3 mm diameter in the QCMS
ping by the authors to construct a new geological map of Lone Star unit, and on weathering color and breaking characteristics (e.g.,
Ridge, and elucidate the geometry of the major structures that have “slabby” and planar for the MQ unit versus schistose and contorted for
affected the schist units. the QMS unit). Some of these characteristics are less obvious in drill
core than in weathered surface outcrop, hindering correlation between
2. Geology of the Lone Star Ridge area surface and subsurface geology. The MQ unit occurs in two separate
northwest-trending bands in the study area, separated by a band of the
The Klondike District is part of the Yukon-Tanana Terrane, which is QMS unit that passes through the old Boulder Lode open cut of the Lone
a regionally developed package of mainly Paleozoic metamorphic rocks Star mine (Fig. 2). Surface mapping could not resolve whether this band
in the northern Cordilleran orogen with an overall continental (peri- of QMS occurred in the core of a synform flanked by MQ on both limbs,
cratonic) affinity. The Klondike is underlain mainly by a structurally or formed a moderately to steeply NE-dipping panel with MQ both
imbricated stack of Late Permian, mafic to felsic metavolcanic rocks above and below the QMS. The QCMS unit that borders the north-
(referred to as the Klondike assemblage; Colpron et al., 2006), together eastern band of MQ on the northeast includes some zones that contain
with their intrusive counterparts (Fig. 1). This Late Permian package fine (2–3 mm) quartz and blocky feldspar grains, and this unit does not
structurally overlies a thick unit of fine grained, variably carbonaceous obviously repeat to the southwest, favoring (but not proving) the NE-
metaclastic rocks of the Late Devonian-Early Mississippian Nasina as- dipping panel interpretation. A separate band of schist that was cor-
semblage. Known lode gold occurrences in the Klondike (Fig. 1) are related with the QMS was also identified within the main QCMS unit to
only found within the Late Permian Klondike assemblage units. Re- the northeast of the Boulder Lode open cut (Fig. 2). Measured or-
gional geochemical studies of metavolcanic and meta-intrusive rocks of ientations of the dominant S2 foliation and compositional layering in
the Klondike assemblage indicate that they have compositions typical of the schists dip moderately to steeply to the NE in much of the map area;
a continental magmatic arc (Piercey et al., 2006). The Klondike as- however, subvertical to steeply SW-dipping orientations are locally
semblage experienced strong and pervasive ductile deformation and observed in the northern and eastern part of the area (Fig. 2). These
recrystallization during two early deformation phases (D1 and D2) in attitudes could be consistent with either a SW-inclined synform with
latest Permian time (Beranek and Mortensen, 2011); this deformation QMS in the core, or steepening in the northeast limb of a NE-verging
was associated with metamorphism at middle to upper greenschist fa- anticline (as was favored by Allen and Stiles).
cies, and largely destroyed most primary textures in the metavolcanic Compositional and textural heterogeneity within the schist units is
and metasedimentary rocks. The dominant S2 recrystallization fabric in very obvious in drill core, and some of this variability is thought to be
the Klondike, and throughout much of the Yukon-Tanana terrane, is primary in origin. One of the schist units (QMS) locally contains
subparallel to compositional layering in the schists, and displays sub- narrow, layer-parallel seams of disseminated to semi-massive pyrite,

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J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Boulder Lode area on Lone Star Ridge. Simplified from surface mapping by E. Allen and S. Iles (in O'Shea et al., 2007). Locations for
diamond drill holes 05-LS-01 to -27 shown by numbered black dots.

galena, sphalerite and minor chalcopyrite which are interpreted to be 3. Geochemical investigations
syngenetic (volcanogenic massive sulphide - VMS) in origin, based on
their nature and Pb isotopic systematics (Mortensen et al., 2006). This The study focused on an area roughly 900 m by 500 m that extends
is taken as additional support for the interpretation that much if not all along geological strike in the felsic schists to the northwest and
of the felsic schist package on Lone Star Ridge was probably derived southeast of the Boulder Lode open cut on Lone Star Ridge (Fig. 2). Gold
from volcaniclastic protoliths. The local presence of base metal VMS occurs in both discordant quartz veins and as disseminations within the
mineralization, along with ubiquitous disseminated pyrite (up to sev- main band of pyritic QMS that passes through the Boulder Lode (Fig. 2).
eral volume percent), especially in the QMS unit, suggests that these This area has been extensively explored over the past 45 years through
volcaniclastic rocks were likely deposited in a submarine environment. surface trenching and numerous reverse circulation and diamond dril-
The felsic schists pass to the southwest in the Eldorado Creek valley ling campaigns, and is presently being actively explored by Klondike
(Fig. 1) into a less schistose rock unit that contains ubiquitous quartz Gold Corporation. Because of the (relatively) good exposure in the
augen up to 5 mm in diameter (locally termed quartz augen schist). The Boulder Lode area, abundance of subsurface diamond drill information,
uniform composition of this unit, plus the presence of abundant quartz and presence of both gold-bearing quartz vein swarms and potentially
and feldspar augen, indicates that it was likely derived from a quartz economic stratabound disseminated gold mineralization, this area is
( ± feldspar)-phyric porphyry. Farther to the southwest the quartz ideal for evaluating the utility of lithogeochemistry for revealing subtle
augen schist unit passes, apparently gradationally, into a weakly to chemostratigraphic relationships within the felsic schist units of the
moderately foliated metaplutonic rock of overall quartz monzonitic Klondike assemblage. For our investigation we utilized samples and an
composition, termed the Sulphur Creek orthogneiss. This unit, together extensive geochemical database from a 2005 diamond drill program
with the quartz augen schist unit, geochemically resembles and yields that was carried out by Klondike Star Mineral Corporation in the vici-
similar U-Pb zircon ages as several samples of the felsic schist nity of the Boulder Lode open cut. The drill program consisted of 27
(Mortensen, 1990; Beranek and Mortensen, 2011; unpublished data), shallow (120–185 m depth) drill holes from throughout the study area,
and these units are interpreted to be the intrusive equivalent of the which totaled approximately 5000 m. All core from each drill hole was
felsic schists. analyzed in 0.5–1.0 m intervals, for a total of 4590 individual analyses.
These data (hereafter referred to as “multi-element data”) were

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J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Table 1
Representative samples for whole rock geochemistry from 2005 drill holes.

DDH Interval (m) Description Plotting symbol

LS 01 19.2–20.1 Micaceous quartzite with carbonate-chlorite ‘spots’ Open blue square

LS 01 30.8–31.7 Micaceous quartzite Blue square
LS 01 46.3–47.2 Quartz-muscovite schist with carbonate Open blue square
LS 01 73.8–74.7 Quartz-muscovite schist with green mica and carbonate Open blue square
LS 01 103.3–104.2 Pyritic quartz-muscovite schist Pink diamond
LS 01 124.4–125.3 Meta-volcanic Pink diamond
LS 02 69.0–70.0 Homogeneous spotted quartz-muscovite schist Open blue square
LS 04 61.0–62.0 Homogeneous spotted quartz-muscovite schist Open blue square
LS 07 54.0–55.0 Epidote rich quartz-muscovite schist Blue square
LS 07 107.0–108.0 Meta-volcanic Pink diamond
LS 07 109.0–110.0 Green micaceous quartzite (metachert?) Pink diamond
LS 07 114.0–115.0 Green and pink micaceous quartzite (metachert?) Pink diamond
LS 10 112.0–113.0 Heavily carbonate altered schist Open blue square
LS 13 152.0–153.0 Pink micaceous quartzite (metachert?) Pink diamond
LS 16 9.0–10.0 Quartz-muscovite schist with stilpnomelane Blue square
LS 16 106.8–107.9 Chloritized quartz-muscovite schist Red circle
LS 16 122.0–123.2 Carbonate-altered quartz-muscovite schist with stilpnomelane and chlorite Red circle
LS 16 150.0–150.3 Quartz-muscovite schist Blue square
LS 26 120.0–121.0 Pink micaceous quartzite (metachert?) Pink diamond

produced at the ALS Chemex laboratories in North Vancouver, Canada, been used in the following study (the fire assays from these samples
using a conventional, multi-element, 4-acid digestion method followed generally agree reasonably well with the values obtained by the multi-
by ICP-AES analysis. We also obtained high precision, research-quality element analyses).
whole rock geochemical analyses for a suite of samples from the same
drill holes (also produced by the ALS Chemex laboratories) using a li-
thium metaborate flux prior to dissolution, followed by an ICP-MS 4. Petrochemical interpretation of representative schist samples
multi-element analysis (“ICP-MS data”; Tables 1, 2). from the Boulder Lode area
Three separate lines of investigation were undertaken in the study.
First, we examined the primary igneous compositions of the MQ and Twenty-three samples were selected for research quality major,
QMS units, on the basis of 23 research quality (“ICP-MS”) whole rock trace and rare earth element analyses by ICP-MS methods. The samples
geochemical analyses of representative unmineralized samples from the were from below any obvious influence of surface weathering and/or
two units. The purpose of this phase of the study was to determine the alteration, and comprised three distinct lithologies. Twenty-one of the
general composition(s) and petrogenetic affinity of the various units analyses were from the QMS and MQ units in the Boulder Lode area,
present, and to assess the extent of element mobility that has affected and two analyses were from separate narrow intervals of somewhat
the rocks during metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration. We then more chlorite ± carbonate-rich schist within the QMS unit. It was
carried out a detailed analysis of the large multi-element geochemical known that VMS style base metal mineralization was present within the
dataset from all 27 diamond drill holes. Fire assays for gold were also QMS in the vicinity of the Boulder Lode open cut (Mortensen et al.,
available for intervals that yielded highly anomalous gold contents 2006), and we hypothesized that the disseminated gold in this unit
from the multi-element data. Specific goals of this part of the study might also be part of a gold-enriched VMS deposit. We initially
were to determine how well the 4-acid digestion analyses correlate with speculated that at least parts of the quartz-rich MQ unit might comprise
the fusion ICP-MS analyses, and whether there are consistent geo- siliceous exhalite related to the syngenetic mineralization. Some of the
chemical markers within the data that could potentially form the basis samples chosen for analysis were selected specifically to test this hy-
for a chemostratigraphic framework for the area. Finally, chemostrati- pothesis.
graphic constraints derived from phase two of the study were applied to Sample locations and descriptions are listed in Table 1, and geo-
a regional historical dataset comprising nearly 34,000 multi-element chemical analyses are given in Table 2.
analyses of chip samples, drill core, and conventional soil samples from Major element data plotted on a Le Bas et al. (1986) plot of total
the entire Lone Star Ridge area to help constrain the overall surface alkalis vs. SiO2 shows that most of the sampled schist units in the Lone
geology of the area and the geometry of individual rock units in the Star area fall in the dacite and rhyolite fields, with two samples within
subsurface. the QMS unit (LS16-106.8 and -122.0) that were identified as “chlor-
The ICP-MS and multi-element datasets from the 2005 drill core are itized quartz-muscovite schist” or “carbonate altered quartz-muscovite
not directly comparable, because the 4-acid digestion method cannot schist with chlorite” falling in the basalt and basaltic andesite field
guarantee complete dissolution of all mineral phases present (e.g., Hall (Fig. 3A). All but one of the analyses plot in the subalkaline field ac-
and Plant, 1992a). Elements such as Ti, Al, Zr, U, and Th may be partly, cording to the Irvine and Baragar (1971) discriminant. Major elements
or entirely, contained within relatively insoluble minerals such as are commonly mobile in what are presumed to be mainly altered and
zircon, and will therefore likely be under-estimated by the 4-acid di- metamorphosed submarine volcanic and volcaniclastic rock units such
gestion analyses. The lithium metaborate flux method, on the other as this, however, and immobile trace elements are generally considered
hand, ensures complete dissolution of even the most refractory mi- to more reliably record the primary compositions of the rock units (e.g.,
nerals. However, research quality whole rock analyses are much more MacLean and Barrett, 1993; Jenner, 1996).
costly and time-consuming to obtain than conventional multi-element On ratio-ratio immobile trace element plots such as Winchester and
analyses, which are commonly done routinely for drill core assay. Floyd (1977) the data define remarkably consistent groupings in the
Ideally we hoped to extract meaningful geochemical discriminants from rhyolite, dacite/rhyodacite and andesite/basaltic andesite fields
the multi-element data that could be applied directly to interpretation (Fig. 3B). This suggests that the MQ unit, which was interpreted in the
of standard multi-element drill assay data. To that end only the Au field as being a possible siliceous exhalite (“very fine grained and si-
values from the multi-element analyses from the 2005 drill holes have liceous; possibly metachert?”) based on hand sample identification, is
actually rhyolitic in composition and does not appear to contain

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 Table 2
Whole rock geochemistry of samples of felsic schist from the Boulder Lode area, Lone Star Ridge.
J.K. Mortensen, et al.

Drill hole LS 01 LS 02

Interval 19.2–20.1 30.8–31.7 46.3–47.2 73.8–74.7 103.3–104.2 124.4–125.3 69–70 18.3–18.6 37.6–38.0 59.0–59.3 60.7–61.0
(m)

SiO2 68.92 67.59 70.86 64.43 75.48 76.53 68.57 69.1 69.7 65.3 67.2
Al2O3 12.72 12.92 13.19 12.4 11.86 12.44 12.09 11.45 12.7 11.9 13.35
Fe2O3 3.8 4.65 2.98 5.09 1.66 1.41 4.15 4.53 4 4.44 4.37
MgO 1.73 1.85 0.89 2.87 1.45 1 1.87 2.6 1.54 1.8 1.01
CaO 2.67 2.55 1.63 3.91 0.62 0.13 3.27 3.1 2.4 3.67 3.22
Na2O 3.16 0.97 3.99 3.58 1.31 2.17 1.78 1.11 2.71 1.61 2.79
K2 O 2.46 4.12 2.88 1.64 5.16 4.51 2.81 2.91 2.85 2.98 2.94
TiO2 0.59 0.57 0.47 0.59 0.1 0.08 0.56 0.54 0.55 0.54 0.6
P2O5 0.17 0.16 0.13 0.17 0.01 0.02 0.15 0.12 0.08 0.1 0.09
MnO 0.08 0.09 0.05 0.09 0.02 0.01 0.07 0.17 0.16 0.23 0.15
SUM 99.91 99.98 99.68 99.8 99.77 99.8 99.83 101 100.5 101.5 100.5
LOI 3.6 4.5 2.6 5 2.1 1.5 4.5 4.97 3.29 8.69 4.5
total C 0.56 0.53 0.33 0.82 0.14 0.03 0.8 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
total S 0.32 1.48 0.64 1.76 0.06 0.15 0.9 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Ni 15 19 12 23 5 5 11 8 13 11 12
Cu 16.3 20.5 11.3 13.4 4.1 2.6 14.8 15 14 16 13
Pb 13 16.4 14.3 15.3 20.3 30 2.7 7 11 6 9
Zn 76 72 13 76 9 6 52 73 69 74 81
Sc 11 14 9 15 6 4 12 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.

117
Ba 1681 1790 2649 2143 2823 2542 2069 3990 2550 2450 2150
Be 3 3 2 2 3 3 1 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Co 8.8 8.4 6.8 12.8 0.6 0.8 6.5 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
Cs 1.3 8.2 1 1.1 2.1 2.7 1.7 1.81 1.21 2.29 1.89
Ga 16.1 17 16.7 15.8 16.5 14.9 15.4 15.8 18.4 19.4 18.3
Hf 4.2 3.6 4.7 3.6 4.7 4 3.7 3.3 4.4 4.7 7
Nb 9.8 9.3 10.2 9.7 11.2 10.2 9.3 8 12.4 11.4 11.7
Rb 91.8 161.3 85 57.4 134.3 145.4 89.8 126 123 125.5 127.5
Sn 2 1 2 2 3 3 1 2 2 2 2
Sr 72.2 69.2 77.4 136.6 65.5 31.3 150.9 202 72.9 149.5 124
Ta 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.1 1.1 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.8 0.8
Th 9.8 9.1 12.1 9.4 19 18.5 9.9 7.77 11 11.15 10.85
U 3.9 4.6 5.6 4.5 5.9 5.5 3 3.21 3.95 2.72 2.34
V 58 69 45 71 5 <5 61 65 58 70 75
W 2.4 7.7 4.2 1.5 5.8 2.7 4 4 4 6 6
Zr 153 136 153 140 119 103 138 129 167 180 272
Y 26.7 27.2 26.2 25.9 36.8 31.3 21.5 19.3 24.6 24.6 28.3
La 29.4 36.3 34.1 29.4 46.3 37.8 28.3 22.5 33.6 31.5 32.4
Ce 55.9 73 66.6 55.5 91.3 76.3 54.5 42.5 61.9 59 60.3
Pr 6.69 8.58 7.52 6.65 10.37 8.47 6.23 5.17 7.43 7.11 7.24
Nd 26 33.6 30 25.3 37.4 31.9 23.2 19.2 26.2 25.5 25.9
Sm 4.6 6.5 4.9 4.6 6.8 6.1 4.5 3.99 5.39 5.35 5.41
Eu 0.96 1.39 0.96 1.28 0.84 0.66 1.06 0.99 1.15 1.18 1.21
Gd 4.15 5.61 4.5 4.12 5.82 5.5 3.66 3.54 4.35 4.44 4.65
Tb 0.71 0.93 0.78 0.74 0.94 0.83 0.64 0.52 0.69 0.68 0.72
Dy 4.42 4.67 4.35 4.14 6.21 5.27 3.39 3.52 4.45 4.19 4.95
(continued on next page)
Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130
 Table 2 (continued)

Drill hole LS 01 LS 02

Interval 19.2–20.1 30.8–31.7 46.3–47.2 73.8–74.7 103.3–104.2 124.4–125.3 69–70 18.3–18.6 37.6–38.0 59.0–59.3 60.7–61.0
(m)
J.K. Mortensen, et al.

Ho 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.86 1.18 1.01 0.75 0.73 0.9 0.88 1.02
Er 2.58 2.74 2.64 2.46 3.66 2.93 2.03 2.08 2.48 2.45 2.91
Tm 0.39 0.4 0.38 0.36 0.53 0.44 0.29 0.33 0.38 0.37 0.46
Yb 2.34 2.21 2.75 2.25 3.51 2.79 1.88 1.99 2.39 2.27 2.67
Lu 0.34 0.4 0.41 0.35 0.51 0.44 0.33 0.36 0.39 0.38 0.47
Zr/TiO2 0.04 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.20 0.21 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.23 0.21

Drill hole LS 04 LS 07 LS 10 LS 13 LS 16 LS 26

Interval 61.0–62.0 54.0–55.0 107.0–108.0 109.0–110.0 114.0–115.0 112.0–113.0 152.0–153.0 9.0–10.0 106.8–107.9 122.0–123.2 150.0–150.3 120.0–121.0
(m)

SiO2 70.34 71.63 75.16 76.01 75.92 69.86 77.56 71.8 46.2 52.5 65.79 75.35
Al2O3 11.49 12.36 12.96 12.25 12.7 12.89 11.03 13.13 14.24 13.67 13.83 12.69
Fe2O3 4.16 4 1.66 1.41 1.62 3.84 1.36 3.59 9.46 7.89 4.73 1.58
MgO 1.73 1.07 0.86 0.58 1.17 1.38 1.79 1.68 8.61 5.95 2.96 1.18
CaO 2.9 1.52 0.75 0.19 0.8 1.53 0.82 1 6.2 6 2.16 0.81
Na2O 1.43 2.69 2.63 3.08 1.78 3.83 0.41 4.31 1.73 1.7 2.69 2.88
K2O 2.82 2.95 5.05 4.39 4.55 2.38 4.2 2.26 2.3 2.55 3.15 3.16
TiO2 0.52 0.57 0.09 0.09 0.1 0.47 0.08 0.46 1.61 1.23 0.56 0.11
P2O5 0.15 0.15 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.11 0.3 0.22 0.11 0.02
MnO 0.06 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.09 0.01 0.04 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.02

118
SUM 99.71 99.9 99.8 99.73 99.88 100.01 99.77 100.09 99.72 99.78 100.11 99.59
LOI 4.1 2.9 0.6 1.7 1.2 3.6 2.5 1.7 8.9 7.9 4 1.8
total C 0.57 0.25 0.17 0.04 0.07 0.49 0.18 0.02 1.39 1.31 0.47 0.06
total S 1.07 1.15 0.08 0.14 0.1 2.21 0.13 0.02 0.06 0.22 0.45 0.24
Ni 17 20 5 5 5 16 5 5 59 42 6 5
Cu 13.8 28.2 2.8 3.5 2.7 12.8 2.7 4.3 13.4 18 20.3 3.3
Pb 8.6 8.7 40 22.2 24.9 26.4 19.9 11.3 2.9 14.3 15.6 21.9
Zn 70 42 10 16 7 31 7 32 108 102 67 6
Sc 12 11 6 6 6 9 5 10 32 24 13 6
Ba 2336 1853 2478 2765 2008 1531 2602 1843 1986 1549 2308 2490
Be 3 1 3 3 4 2 3 3 2 2 2 2
Co 7.8 7.1 0.7 0.6 0.7 6.7 < 0.5 6.5 30.7 23.4 7.2 0.6
Cs 2.3 3.5 3.1 2.7 4.8 1.9 6.9 6.7 4 3.3 4.5 4.3
Ga 15.8 15.4 16.5 15.9 17.3 15.1 13.1 16.8 19.2 19.2 17.7 16.4
Hf 3.8 4.1 4.6 4.3 5 4.7 4.1 6.3 2.6 3.8 5.7 5.2
Nb 9.4 10.4 11.8 11.2 11.4 10 9.6 12 4.7 6.9 11 12
Rb 94.2 109.3 199.5 172.5 215.7 85.5 154.5 71.1 81.5 90.8 107.7 129.9
Sn 2 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 1 2 2
Sr 123.4 71.9 65 31 98.2 58.4 42.9 84.7 331.4 356.2 149.3 145.5
Ta 0.8 0.7 1.1 1.1 1 0.8 1 1 0.3 0.4 0.8 1.2
Th 10.2 10 21.5 19.6 19.5 11.8 17.9 12.8 1 5.6 12.9 21.8
U 3.4 3 5.8 4.5 6.4 3.8 5.2 2.9 1.5 6.4 3 7.2
V 62 55 <5 <5 6 43 <5 34 183 130 52 5
W 3.3 3.1 3.3 1.1 3.6 2.6 2 0.9 1.1 7.4 9.8 1
Zr 130 150 125 116 126 152 109 221 95 121 204 135
Y 25.8 25.4 35.2 32.9 35.9 27.8 33.2 26.4 36.4 32.9 25.3 40.1
La 28.3 28.8 44.6 45.3 44.7 36.7 40.3 39.4 7.6 18.8 37.5 51.4
Ce 54.6 58.3 90.9 91.4 91.2 71.5 80.7 81.6 19.7 38.5 71.4 103.7
Pr 6.15 6.65 10.49 10.47 10.51 8.12 9.18 8.72 3.04 4.54 8.02 11.76
(continued on next page)
Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130
J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

excessive amounts of SiO2. These metarhyolites are compositionally

120.0–121.0
distinct from (more evolved than) the more “normal” QMS in the

41.1

6.72
1.05
6.03
1.36
4.05

0.08
0.58
3.27
0.56
7.8
Boulder Lode area, which falls consistently in the rhyodacite and dacite

1
LS 26

fields. Similarly the two chlorite-bearing samples appear to have ori-

ginally been mafic to intermediate in composition, and were possibly
mafic/intermediate dykes or sills that intruded the volcanic section.
150.0–150.3

1.23
The Zr/TiO2 ratio provides a good discriminant between these three
4.16
0.77

0.88

0.05
0.39
2.38
0.33
4.3

2.5
main rock types (Table 2), as has been observed in numerous other
31
6

investigations of the geochemical behaviour of variably altered volcanic

rocks (e.g., Hallberg, 1984; Hall and Plant, 1992b; MacLean and
Barrett, 1993; Jenner, 1996).
122.0–123.2

Plots of various immobile elements and element-element ratios

18.7

1.24
5.03
0.85
5.53
1.12

0.05
3.35
0.47
2.93
0.5 against major elements indicate that only limited mobility of the major
5

elements has affected these rock units despite their complete re-
crystallization during the D1 and D2 deformation events and any sub-
sequent hydrothermal alteration that may have affected them. There is
a substantial spread in SiO2 contents in the QMS samples, possibly
106.8–107.9

suggesting variable, but fairly minor, silicification may have locally

16.2

1.37
5.59
0.89

1.16

0.04
3.59

0.44
4.4

5.9

0.5
3.3

affected this unit.

As discussed above, protoliths of the felsic schists are interpreted to
have been submarine felsic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks, and most
of the locally abundant pyrite within some of the rocks is thought to be
syngenetic in origin. This is consistent with the local presence of narrow
9.0–10.0

31.6

1.19

0.85
4.86

0.20
2.69
0.42
2.71
0.39
6.2

4.7

0.9

conformable layers of fine grained galena and sphalerite within pyritic

LS 16

felsic schist in the vicinity of the Boulder Lode that give Pb isotopic
compositions consistent with being Kuroko-type VMS occurrences
(Mortensen et al., 2006). Submarine volcanic rocks deposited in the
152.0–153.0

vicinity of submarine vents are commonly somewhat enriched in ele-

33.1

0.59
5.22
0.85
5.41
1.05

0.06
3.25
0.49
2.96
0.48
5.9

ments such as Mn. This and other possible hydrothermal alteration

LS 13

overprints on the schist samples were also evaluated using the geo-
chemical dataset.
It was suspected that several of the fine grained MQ (metarhyolite)
112.0–113.0

samples might include a hydrothermal Mn component because they

29.4

1.12
4.65
0.84
4.47
0.96

0.02
2.59
0.43
2.59
0.38
5.7

locally exhibit a pink (or green and pink banded) color (possible pre-
LS 10

sence of piedmontite?). Measured Mn contents for the samples, how-

ever, are all relatively low (Fig. 4A), and in the typical range of Mn
contents for rhyolites in convergent margin settings (e.g., GEOROC
114.0–115.0

database, 2017, http://georoc.mpch-mainz.gwdg.de/georoc/, accessed

38.3

0.84
5.93
1.07
5.79
1.17

0.01
3.59
0.46
3.33
0.46
7.2

07/08/2018), and the more pinkish samples did not display obviously
elevated Mn contents. We therefore conclude that at least on the basis
of this sample suite there is no evidence for significant exhalative Mn
enrichments within any of the felsic schist units. The cause of the pink
109.0–110.0

and green coloration is uncertain, but it probably mainly reflects the

37.2

0.72
5.44
0.96

1.12

0.08
3.47
0.49
3.37
0.46

oxidation state of contained Fe.

7.1

Similarly it was speculated that the bright green color of some of the
muscovite in some of the schists might reflect V-rich compositions
(“roscoelite”); however, there is no indication of any V-enrichment in
the samples (although no samples with abundant bright green musco-
107.0–108.0

vite were analyzed) (Fig. 3B).

38.1

0.73
5.79
1.02
5.98
1.19

0.23
3.35
0.52
3.23
0.48
7.2

Carbonate-chlorite “spotting” is quite prominent in some sections of

the QMS unit in drill core, as are some sections that contain relatively
abundant disseminated carbonate, and these carbonate-enriched zones
appear to be spatially associated with drill intersections that contain
54.0–55.0

disseminated gold. The carbonate-bearing samples do yield somewhat

24.7

1.07
4.33
0.68
4.04
0.83

0.05
0.38
2.57
0.38
4.9

2.4

elevated [total C as CO2] values (Fig. 4C; Table 2); however, this
LS 07

parameter appears to be negatively correlated with any of the elements

that might be a proxy for gold mineralization contained in discordant
veins within the schist (e.g., Ag, As). It is therefore uncertain whether
the carbonate is necessarily directly related to the gold.
61.0–62.0

23.9

0.99
4.88
0.66
3.99
0.86

0.21
2.53
0.42
2.09
0.38
4.6

A plot of [total S] vs. As (Fig. 4D) shows two distinct trends. One
LS 04
Table 2 (continued)

shows no correlation between the two elements and may reflect the
presence of pyrite that is not related to gold (possibly metamorphic
pyrite). The other trend shows a strong positive correlation between the
Drill hole

two elements and may reflect the presence of trace amounts of ar-
Zr/TiO2
Interval

senopyrite, and hence represent a weak hydrothermal effect associated

(m)

Tm
Sm
Nd

Ho
Gd

Dy

Yb
Tb
Eu

Lu
Er

with gold mineralization. It is interesting to note that the three samples

119
J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Fig. 3. Major and trace element discriminant plots for schists from Lone Star Ridge (see Table 1 for plotting symbols). Open blue squares are samples of the QMS unit
that contain significant amounts of carbonate. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)

that show this apparent positive correlation are the three QMS samples to demonstrate that the contents of various elements obtained from the
that do not contain notable amounts of carbonate, which supports the multi-element analyses is essentially identical to that obtained by the
contention that the carbonate may not be related to gold. The very ICP-MS method, suggesting that the multi-element data can be used
small number of samples, however, makes this conclusion highly with some confidence to reflect the composition of the host rocks.
speculative. Phosphorus is expected to be contained mainly in apatite, or in re-
The main conclusions from investigation of the ICP-MS data for the crystallized volcanic glass, either of which should have been completely
suite of lithogeochemical samples are as follows: dissolved by the 4-acid digestion, and the pattern of relatively high P in
the QMS and low P in the MQ is consistent (Fig. 5D). Lanthanum is
1. There are at least three distinct rock units present within the felsic commonly reported in multi-element analyses, and in felsic rocks such
schist package in the immediate Boulder Lode area on Lone Star as these would have originally been sited mainly in feldspars and
Ridge. Despite the highly varied appearance of these samples in drill apatite (e.g., Bea, 2015). Other phosphates such as monazite or xeno-
core the three subunits display tightly clustered compositions on time, which can host high concentrations of light rare earth elements,
immobile element ratio plots and indicate that the compositions of would not be expected to be present in these low to medium grade
most of the schists in this area are restricted to rhyolites, rhyoda- meta-igneous rocks. The data shown in Fig. 5E suggests that La is
cites/dacites, and basaltic andesites/andesites. mostly or entirely liberated during the 4-acid digestion process. Ur-
2. With the exception of pyrite, there appears to be no evidence for a anium contents are substantially higher in the ICP-MS data set; this is
significant exhalative component in any of the schist units that were probably because most U would likely have been contained in zircons,
analyzed, even in units that were interpreted in the field and in drill which would not be completely dissolved by the 4-acid method. In-
core to be quartzites (originally speculated to be metacherts; now terestingly, measured Th contents agree quite closely between the two
known to be metarhyolites). methods, although it would have been expected that much (perhaps
3. The “spotted” carbonate texture that is observed in some felsic schist most) of the Th would also be contained mainly in zircons. Elements
samples do contain somewhat elevated CO2 contents (total C as such as Ti and Al are expected to be contained in a variety of silicate
CO2); however, it is unclear whether these anomalous CO2 contents and refractory accessory phases, and show poor agreement between the
are associated with gold. two methods. The conclusion of this assessment is that geochemical
data obtained from 4-acid digestion and standard multi-element ana-
lysis can be used, albeit with some caution, for characterizing litho-
5. Comparison of ICP-MS and multi-element analyses of 2005 drill geochemical differences between lithologies in the immediate Boulder
core Lode area. Note that this may not be the case for other rock types
elsewhere in the Lone Star Ridge area, in which the various elements
Multi-element analyses using 4-acid digestion of 0.5–1.0 m intervals that have been used here might be partially hosted by more refractory
in drill hole 05-LS-01 are compared in Fig. 5 to analyses of 6 samples mineral phases.
from the same drill hole analyzed using lithium metaborate fusion and
ICP-MS analysis. This drill hole was collared in the QMS unit and passed
downwards through a NE-dipping contact into the underlying MQ unit. 6. Assessment of the utility of multi-element analyses for
The multi-element data clearly shows significant variability down the discrimination between sub-units in felsic schist
hole, and there is a distinct break in lithogeochemical composition at
97 m, which corresponds to the position of the observed contact be- Data from two drill holes (LS-02 and LS-09) were investigated in-
tween the QMS unit and the underlying MQ unit. Four of the ICP-MS itially (Fig. 6), in part because these were the holes that had been
analyses are from the QMS (metadacite/rhyodacite) and two are from previously studied by MacKenzie et al. (2008a). Both of these holes
the MQ (metarhyolite). The significance of this geochemical break is were collared in the variably pyritic QMS unit northwest of the Boulder
discussed in detail in the following section. The purpose of this figure is Lode open cut (Fig. 2) that locally displayed the distinctive “spotted”

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J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Fig. 4. Major and trace element plots for evaluating the presence of possible exhalative components and/or hydrothermal alteration effects in schists from Lone Star
Ridge. TOT/C and TOT/S in panels C and D refer to total carbon as CO2 and total sulphur, respectively.

alteration (2–3 mm diameter “spots” of chlorite, carbonate and rare values probably reflect the presence of discordant veins. In plots of
pyrite). This rock unit also consistently contained elevated gold con- log Au vs. As (Fig. 6E and F) for the two drill holes, it is clear that
tents. The lower portion of both drill holes was logged as MQ with although there are some spikes to much higher As values, the vast
minor pyrite, and for the most part yielded only background levels of majority of the samples, including most of the samples with mod-
gold. Various element-element and element-ratio plots for the two drill erate to high Au contents, contain < 5 ppm As (again note the dif-
holes, as well as a series of plots of element concentration and element ference in scale on the As axis). Based on a simple statistical eva-
ratio variation with depth are shown in Fig. 6. Symbols for individual luation of the 4590 As analyses obtained from whole rock samples in
analyses are coded according to the Au content from the multi-element the 2005 drilling the threshold for anomalous As is ≤10 ppm. This
analyses (not fire assay), in the following ranges: < 10 ppb, 10–50 ppb, suggests that most of the anomalous Au samples are not related to
50–100 ppb, 100–500 ppb, 500–1000 ppb, 1000–5000 ppb, and > discordant veins, at least not within the volume of rock that was
5000 ppb. sampled (it is conceivable that As may be contained only within
Several observations are immediately apparent from the plots: veins, and not within altered adjacent wall rocks).
4. Mn is somewhat elevated but variable in the QMS unit with respect
1. On plots of S vs. Fe (Fig. 6A and B) many analyses fall on a line with to the underlying MQ unit, which yields consistently very low Mn
a slope of ~1.16, which is consistent with the Fe being carried contents (Fig. 6G and H).
mainly in pyrite. Most samples with elevated Au contents in the 5. The QMS unit displays consistently elevated P contents and depleted
QMS contain relatively abundant S (and hence are relatively La and Th contents with respect to the lower MQ unit (Fig. 6I–L)
pyritic); however, they also contain a substantial amount of Fe that (the reason for anomalously high P contents in several samples with
is not carried as pyrite. high Au contents in hole LS-09 is unknown). These are elements that
2. Anomalous Au contents are almost entirely restricted to the QMS are most likely to reflect original lithology rather than an epigenetic
unit and only rare, very weakly anomalous Au values have been hydrothermal overprint, and hence may be useful for identifying
obtained from the lower MQ unit (Fig. 6C and D). and characterizing different primary lithologies.
3. As contents are generally very low (as previously pointed out by 6. The geochemical differences between lithologies can be enhanced
MacKenzie et al., 2008a; Fig. 6C and D. Note the different scale of by examining element ratios such as P/La and P/Th (Fig. 6O to R).
the two plots). Gold-bearing discordant veins throughout the Klon- The P/Th plot in particular shows very dramatic differences be-
dike are typically associated with moderately elevated As-in-soil tween the QMS and lower MQ units, although some caution must be
anomalies although arsenopyrite has only been rarely observed in used in applying this discriminant because some of the Th in these
the veins (Craw et al., 2015). It is assumed for this study that ele- rock units might be contained in insoluble zircon grains (see dis-
vated Au values that are associated with strongly anomalous As cussion above).

121
J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Fig. 5. Comparison of geochemistry of schist samples from drill hole 05-LS-01 using multi-element analyses following 4-acid digestion and ICP-MS analyses following
lithium metaborate fusion and dissolution. Y-axis shows depth from top-of-hole in meters.

122
J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Fig. 6. Plots of multi-element analytical data from drill holes 05-LS-02 and 05-LS-09. Analyses are color-coded according to measured gold content. (For inter-
pretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

123
J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Fig. 6. (continued)

124
J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Fig. 6. (continued)

7. It is interesting that there is some “texture” to the geochemical be readily identified and distinguished in drill holes LS-02 and LS-09 on
signal from the QMS unit. In particular there is a narrow interval in the basis of the multi-element geochemical data. This distinction is
drill hole LS-02 between 77 and 83 m that shows depleted P, slightly apparent in a number of the geochemical criteria shown in Fig. 6;
elevated La and strongly elevated Th contents. The P/Th plot for this however, the breaks in terms of Ni content and P/La and P/Th ratios are
hole shows depletions between 77 and 83 m and also between 47 particularly distinctive and consistent. Subdivisions within the QMS
and 59 m (Fig. 6Q). These intervals were logged as essentially the unit are somewhat more subtle; however, for example the interval from
same lithology as those above and below; however, the geochemical 75 to 85 m in hole LS-02 can be readily distinguished as being geo-
signature suggests that they represent a slightly different lithology. chemically (and presumably lithologically) distinct on the basis of P
The plots of Ni contents, and to a lesser extent Cr contents, for this and Ni content, as well as P/La and P/Th ratios.
hole (Fig. 6S and U) are consistent with this interpretation, and Drill holes 05-LS-02 and 05-LS-09 are 200 m apart, demonstrating
suggest that layers of a slightly more evolved (felsic) lithology are that the geochemical discriminants shown here can be applied at least
contained within the QMS unit in these intervals. on a local scale. It may therefore be possible to construct a chemos-
tratigraphic framework for the felsic schist package in the Boulder Lode
From the observations outlined above, it is clear that the QMS area. Because disseminated gold appears to be associated specifically
(dacite/rhyodacite) unit and in particular the underlying MQ unit can with the QMS unit, such a framework could provide valuable

125
 J.K. Mortensen, et al.

126
Fig. 7. Geochemical plots for drill holes LS-01 and -02 immediately northwest of the Boulder Lode open cut and hole LS-15, approximately 375 m farther to the northwest, demonstrating the readily apparent contact
between the QMS and MQ units, and the presence of disseminated gold only within the QMS unit. Plotting symbols are as in Fig. 5.
Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130
J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

constraints for identifying and tracing particularly favourable rock units 8. Regional application of chemostratigraphic mapping to the
or horizons in drill core throughout the property. Because most of the geology of Lone Star Ridge
elements and element ratios that are being used as discriminants would
be expected to be relatively immobile in surface weathering or hydro- Examination of multi-element data for a large number of chip
thermal alteration environments, the geochemical signatures should samples from surface trenches in the general vicinity of the Boulder
also be applicable for surface samples and potentially for data from Lode showed that the same chemostratigraphic signatures that were
reverse circulation holes. established from the 2005 drill data could also be recognized in the
trench data. Furthermore, these signatures were also apparent in con-
ventional soil samples (although with some dispersion). In order to
7. Application of the chemostratigraphic approach to better resolve the geology of the entire Lone Star Ridge, we have di-
understanding local and property-scale geology on Lone Star gitized all available multi-element data from the entire Lone Star Ridge
Ridge area that were generated in the period 1985–2012. This data was
available in company files and in a large number of publically available
In order to fully evaluate the applicability of this approach, analy- mineral assessment reports, and included ~12,000 samples of drill
tical data for all 27 of the 2005 drill holes by Klondike Star in the vi- core, ~11,000 chip samples from trenches, 750 auger soil samples, and
cinity of the Boulder Lode have been plotted, using measured Ni con- ~10,000 conventional (B-horizon) soil samples. Many of these analyses
tents and calculated P/La and P/Th ratios as primary geochemical were done using a 4-acid digestion as described above; however, some
discriminants (see Supplementary material for complete set of plots). employed an aqua regia digestion instead. The geochemical response of
Most of the 2005 drill holes cross cut the same QMS and MQ units as the 4-acid and aqua regia digestions is expected to be reasonably si-
described above, which can be readily identified on the geochemical milar. We interrogated the entire data set for the key chemostrati-
plots. The MQ unit is particularly distinctive, and the northeast-dipping graphic markers that we had identified in the Boulder Lode area.
QMS/MQ contact can be easily tracked in drill core northwest of the Although the geochemistry of many of the schist subunits were not
Boulder Lode along a strike length of at least 400 m in holes 05-LS-01 to sufficiently distinct to be provide unique fingerprints for specific rock
-18 and 05-LS-26 and -27 to the west of the (Fig. 2; see representative units, the very distinctive signature of the MQ (metarhyolite) unit,
geochemical plots in Fig. 7 for drill holes LS-01 and -02 near the which were clearly identifiable in drill holes and surface exposures in a
Boulder Lode open cut, and hole LS-15, approximately 375 m to the number of localities in the area well removed from the Boulder Lode,
northwest). Measured orientations of compositional layering and the S2 proved to be a particularly critical marker unit. Overlaying the che-
foliation in these two units (Fig. 2), and the position of this contact in mostratigraphic markers onto our detailed structural and lithological
the subsurface, indicate that this contact consistently dips moderately mapping of Lone Star Ridge has facilitated a reinterpretation of the
to the northeast in this part of the Lone Star Ridge. The narrow band of geology of the area. The new geological map, shown in Fig. 9
MQ that lies to the northeast of the main QMS unit was intersected in (Mortensen et al., unpublished mapping) confirms the presence of
drill holes LS-19 to LS-22 in the eastern part of the detailed study area, several NE-verging, NW-trending D3 antiforms and synforms that we
and holes LS-24 and LS-25 in the north-central part of the area (Fig. 2) interpret to repeat the gold-bearing QMS unit in the Boulder Lode area.
were apparently collared in this same MQ unit (contrary to the inter- MQ (metarhyolite) units have been identified at several other structural
pretation of Allen and Stiles shown in Fig. 2). Although no ICP-MS levels in the schist package. Complex interlayering of, and lateral facies
analyses are available from this band of MQ, its geochemical signature changes between, separate but related volcanic/volcaniclastic units
from the multi-element data is identical to that of the main band of MQ would not be unexpected in a proximal volcanic environment such as
to the southwest, and it is assumed to also be a metarhyolite. Five of the this. However, we have observed meter-scale rootless isoclinal D2 fold
holes (LS-19 to -23; Figs. 2, 8) were collared in separate bands of QCMS, structures locally in the area, and we can therefore not preclude the
QMS and MQ to the northeast of the main gold-bearing QMS layer that possibility that the apparently complex schist “stratigraphy” on Lone
passes through the Boulder Lode open cut. The geochemical signature Star Ridge may be in part a result of structural repetition.
of the QMS unit in this area is generally similar to that in the main band
of QMS in the vicinity of the Boulder Lode. Insufficient data is available 9. Conclusions
from the QCMS unit to be able to determine whether it can be con-
fidently distinguished from the QMS unit. Despite their somewhat heterogeneous appearance, most of the
Integration of the chemostratigraphic constraints discussed above variably pyritic felsic schist samples from diamond drill core in the
with the mapped surface geology indicates that the subunits within the immediate vicinity of the Boulder Lode open cut on Lone Star Ridge in
felsic schist package in the study area are located within the NE-dipping the northern Klondike Gold District fall mainly into two tight clusters
limb of a large, NW-trending and NE-verging D3 antiform. Dip angles on immobile element plots, with samples mapped as “quartz-muscovite
steepen to the NE, and locally become overturned. The main band of schist” (QMS) plotting as rhyodacite/dacite, and those mapped as
QMS that passes through the Boulder Lode open cut hosts nearly all of “micaceous quartzite” (MQ) plotting as rhyolite. This information, to-
the disseminated gold in the Boulder Lode area; however, drill holes in gether with petrographic and map data, support the interpretation that
the eastern part of the study area (LS-19 to -23) that intersect the this schist package was derived from a sequence of submarine felsic
structurally higher band of QMS also contain sporadic weakly to volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. Rare schist layers that contain more
moderately anomalous gold values (up to 1 ppm) with low associated abundant chlorite yield andesite and basaltic andesite compositions,
As values (Fig. 7), and syngenetic (?) base metal occurrences have also and may have been intermediate to mafic dykes or sills that intruded
been identified in other structurally higher schists (Mortensen et al., the felsic package. Thin bands of base metal sulphides (galena, spha-
2006). This indicates that disseminated gold is not entirely confined to lerite ± chalcopyrite) within the QMS unit yield Pb isotopic composi-
the main band of QMS. Recent and on-going exploration work on Lone tions that indicate a syngenetic (VMS) origin, and we interpret dis-
Star Ridge by Klondike Gold Corporation has traced the main gold- seminated gold that is present throughout large volumes of the pyritic
bearing band of QMS for > 1 km along strike to the northwest and QMS unit on Lone Star Ridge to possibly also be syngenetic in origin.
southeast of the Boulder Lode open cut. The results of our study suggest Gold in discordant quartz veins in the same area appears to have been
that this exploration work should not be confined to only the main band remobilized from the disseminated gold in the QMS. The underlying
of QMS. MQ unit locally contains discordant quartz veins that were emplaced

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J.K. Mortensen, et al. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 204 (2019) 112–130

Fig. 8. Geochemical plots for drill holes LS-19 to -23 in the southeast part of the study area. Drill hole locations are shown in Fig. 2. Plotting symbols are as in Fig. 5.

during the same veining event that formed the locally gold-bearing content and P/La and P/Th ratios are particularly useful in this regard
veins within the QMS unit. None of the veins in the MQ unit are gold- (Ni < 1 ppm for MQ vs. > 4 for other units; P/La < 0.0001 vs. > 0.002
bearing, and this rock unit does not contain disseminated gold. We for other units; P/Th < 0.0001 vs. > 0.005 for other units). These dis-
interpret this as evidence that the remobilization of gold from the dis- criminants apply to multi-element geochemical data obtained from 4-
seminated mineralization into orogenic quartz veins was probably on a acid digestion analyses of diamond drill core, as well as reverse circu-
scale of meters to at most hundreds of meters. lation drill samples, chip samples and hand specimens from surface
Some of the schist units, particularly the MQ unit, yield distinctive trenches, and conventional and auger drill soil samples. We have di-
lithogeochemical signatures that allow them to be readily distinguished gitized whole rock analytical data from nearly 34,000 of these samples
from spatially associated QMS and other felsic schist units. The Ni from historical and recent exploration work over the entire Lone Star

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Fig. 9. Geological map of Lone Star Ridge, based on lithological and structural mapping by Mortensen et al. (unpublished mapping) and constrained by chemos-
tratigraphic markers for specific schist subunits as described in this contribution.

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Ridge and use that information, together with our existing structural Margin of North America, Canadian and Alaskan Cordillera. Geological Association of
and lithological mapping, to generate a new geological map of the area. Canada, Special Paper, vol. 45. pp. 1–23.
Craw, D., Mortensen, J., MacKenzie, D., Pitcairn, I., 2015. Contrasting geochemistry of
This map is the first detailed geological map ever produced for the Lone orogenic gold deposits in Yukon, Canada and Otago, New Zealand. Geochem. Explor.
Star Ridge area, and provides valuable constraints on the surface dis- Environ. Anal. 15, 150–166.
Hall, G.E.M., Plant, J.A., 1992a. Analytical errors in the determination of high field
tribution and subsurface geometry of the gold-bearing felsic schist strength elements and their implications in tectonic interpretation studies. Chem.
units. Geol. 95, 141–156.
Hall, G.E.M., Plant, J.A., 1992b. Application of geochemical discrimination diagrams for
the tectonic interpretation of igneous rocks hosting gold mineralisation in the
Acknowledgments Canadian Shield. Chem. Geol. 95, 157–165.
Hallberg, J.A., 1984. A geochemical aid to igneous rock type identification in deeply
weathered terrain. J. Geochem. Explor. 20, 1–8.
We thank W. Mann from Klondike Star Mineral Corporation for
Irvine, T.N., Baragar, W.R.A., 1971. A guide to the chemical classification of the common
permission to use the 2005 drill results, and E. Rauguth from Klondike volcanic rocks. Can. J. Earth Sci. 8, 523–548.
Gold Corporation for supporting this study and in particular for funding Jenner, G.A., 1996. Trace element geochemistry of igneous rocks: geochemical nomen-
clature and analytical geochemistry. In: Wyman, D.A. (Ed.), Trace Element
the digitizing of the regional geochemical data. Partial funding for the Geochemistry of Volcanic Rocks: Applications for Massive Sulphide Exploration.
research was provided by a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Geological Association of Canada, Short Course Notes 12pp. 51–77.
Council Grant to J.K. Mortensen. We thank D.J. MacKenzie for per- Le Bas, M.J., Le Maitre, R.W., Streckeisen, A., Zanettin, B., 1986. A chemical classification
of volcanic rocks based on the total alkali-silica diagram. J. Petrol. 27, 745–750.
mission to use some of his field data to help constrain the final version MacKenzie, D., Craw, D., Mortensen, J.K., Liverton, T., 2008a. Disseminated gold mi-
of the geological map of Lone Star Ridge. The manuscript was improved neralization associated with orogenic veins in the Klondike Schist, Yukon. In: Emond,
D.S., Blackburn, L.R., Hill, R.P., Weston, L.H. (Eds.), Yukon Exploration and Geology
by critical reviews and comments from D. Lenz and an anonymous re- 2007, Yukon Geological Survey, pp. 215–224.
viewer. MacKenzie, D., Craw, D., Mortensen, J.K., 2008b. Thrust slices and associated deforma-
tion in the Klondike goldfields, Yukon. In: Emond, D.S., Blackburn, L.R., Hill, R.P.,
Weston, L.H. (Eds.), Yukon Exploration and Geology 2007, Yukon Geological Survey,
Appendix A. Supplementary data pp. 199–213.
MacKenzie, D., Craw, D., Mortensen, J.K., 2008c. Structural controls on orogenic gold
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https:// mineralisation in the Klondike goldfield, Canada. Mineral. Deposita 43, 435–448.
MacLean, W.H., Barrett, T.J., 1993. Lithogeochemical techniques using immobile ele-
doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2019.05.011. ments. J. Geochem. Explor. 48, 109–133.
Mortensen, J.K., 1990. Geology and U-Pb geochronology of the Klondike District, west-
central Yukon Territory. Can. J. Earth Sci. 27, 903–914.
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