CONTACT

PART I: GRAMMAR ……………………………………………………………………………………… 1

Common Nouns & Proper Nouns………………………………………………………………….2
Masculine, Feminine & Neutral Nouns …………………………………………………………3
Singular & Plural Nouns ……………………………………………………………………………….5
Gerunds……………………………………………………………………………………………………….7
Collective Nouns………………………………………………………………………………………….8
Concrete & Abstract Nouns………………………………………………………………………….9
Countable and Uncountable Nouns …………………………………………………………….10
Determiners……………………………………………………………………………………………….11
Pronouns …………………………………………………………………………………………………….16
Prepositions…………………………………………………………………………………………………18
Conjunctions ……………………………………………………………………………………………….21
Adjectives ……………………………………………………………………………………………………22
Verbs And Tenses ……………………………………………………………………………………….27
The Present Tense ………………………………………………………………………………………29
The Past Tense ………………………………………………………………………………………….32
The Future tense ……………………………………………………………………………………….34
Imperatives ……………………………………………………………………………………………….36
Auxiliary Verbs ………………………………………………………………………………………….37
Model Verbs ………………………………………………………………………………………………38
Phrasal Verbs …………………………………………………………………………………………….41
Adverbs …………………………………………………………………………………………………….44
Active Voice & Passive Voice …………………………………………………………………….47
Direct & Indirect Speech ……………………………………………………………………………50
Negative Sentences ………………………………………………………………………………….54
Questions ……………………………………………………………………………………………….56
Prefixes And Suffixes ……………………………………………………………………………….62
Homonyms, Homographs & Homophones ……………………………………………….66
Conditionals …………………………………………………………………………………………….69
Collocations ……………………………………….…………………………………………………….71
Interjections …………………………………….….……………………………………………………74
Discourse Markers …………………………………………………………………………………….76
Punctuation ……………………………………………………………………………………………….79
 GERUNDS Page no 7 to 9

When we add ‘ing’ to a verb in the continuous tense (present, past & or future),
we treat it as a verb.
Example:
I am listening to the radio.
Mom was washing dishes.
We will be making Biryani tonight.
However, outside the continuous tense when we add ‘ing’ to certain verbs they
become nouns, such words are called Gerunds.
Examples:
Swimming is a good exercise.
Dr Ayman Likes reading magazines in her spare time.
We will go fishing on the weekend.
Let’s go for shopping after lunch.
Mike fell on the track at the beginning of the race.
Rita Scolded Maria for calling her so late.
I go for jogging in the evenings.
Janet enjoys cooking on Sundays.
I prefer traveling by road than by air.
Peter doesn’t mind making everyone’s breakfast in the morning.

COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Collective nouns are used to describe a group of persons, animals, or things.
Example:
A team of players A flock of birds
A fleet of ships A herd of elephants
A litter of kittens A school of fish
A swarm of bees A bed of flowers
A Pack of wolves A gang of thieves
 A cast of a actors A crowd of people
A bunch of grapes A band of musicians
A flight of stairs A string of pearls
A cluster of stars A pride of lions
A gaggle of geese A stack of books
A batch of cookies A troop of monkeys
A Pair of glasses A choir of singers
A brood of hens A panel of experts
Use in Sentences:
 The wood cutter is collecting a bundle of sticks to light a fire.
 The circus is travelling towards the city on a caravan of camels.
 The picnickers were attacked by an army of ants at the park.

CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT NOUNS

Concrete Nouns
Concrete nouns are nouns that can be seen, heard, smelt, tasted, or touched.
Examples:
House Car perfume sandwich magazine
Abstract Nouns
Abstract nouns are nouns that cannot be seen, smelt, heard, tasted, touched, or
counted. They are emotions, ideas, qualities, or events, etc.
Examples:
Joy Comfort Love Humor Knowledge
Wisdom Fear Hunger Delight Hope
Courage Beauty Sorrow Despair Talent
Pain pleasure trust laughter greed
 CONJUNCTIONS Page no 21 to

Conjunctions are joining words. They help join two different thoughts in a
sentence.
Conjunction help explain the cause, purpose, condition, and time of an action.
Example:
I am sick. I won’t be able to go to school today.
I am sick, so I won’t be able to go to school today.
Conjunctions Examples
And I’m going to the shop to buy milk and eggs.
But Dana doesn’t like to work at the museum, but she has
no other choice at the moment.
Or Please speak up or be quiet.
When Tina wears gloves when she drives.
While Bob cooked dinner while Nina was at work.
So I am very tired, so please don’t make a noise.
If We will go to see the match if it doesn’t rain today.
Although My brother got me a book for my birthday although I
had told him that I wanted a video game.
because Zuni can’t wear high heels because she has a spinal
problem.
Unless I will come to your party unless my relatives come for
dinner.
After Josh passed out after the game.
ADJECTIVES
Adjectives are ‘describing word’. They help describe nouns.
Examples:
Mr. Wendon drives a long car.
Tom’s room is clean.
Your pillow is soft.
Joseph’s baby is cute
We use comparative adjectives when we compare two nouns. Comparative
adjectives end in ‘er’. We use the word ‘than’ with comparative adjectives.
Examples:
Mr. Wendon drives a longer car than Mr. Thompson.
Tom’s room is cleaner than Jim’s.
Your pillow is softer than mine.
Joseph’s baby is cuter than Sam’s.
We use Superlative adjective when we compare more than two nouns.
Superlative adjective end and in ‘est’.
Examples:
Mr. Wendon drives the longest car in the family.
Tom, s room is the cleanest in the house.
Your pillow is the softest.
Joseph’s baby is the cutest.
Example:
ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
Cold Colder Coldest
Old Older Oldest
Short Shorter Shortest
Nice Nicer Nicest
Young Younger Youngest
Dirty Dirtier Dirtiest
Hot Hotter Hottest
Long Longer Longest
Happy Happier Happiest
Clean Cleaner Cleanest
Proud Prouder Proudest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Tasty Tastier Tastiest
Kind Kinder Kindest
High Higher Highest
 Easy Easier Easiest
Wet Wetter Wettest
Sweet Sweeter Sweetest
Hard Harder Hardest
Lazy Lazier Laziest
Silly Sillier Silliest
Cute Cuter Cutest
Soft Softer Softest
Loud Louder Loudest
Healthy Healthier Healthiest
Sad Sadder Saddest
Fast Faster Fastest
Poor Poorer Poorest
Funny Funnier Funniest
Rich Richer Richest
Clever Cleverer Cleverest
Dark Darker Darkest
Wide Wider Widest
Narrow Narrower Narrowest
Light Lighter Lightest
Sharp Sharper Sharpest
There are some comparative and Superlative adjectives that do not end in ‘er’
and ‘est’. Instead, when they transform into comparative and superlative forms
their spelling changes into another word. Such adjective is called irregular
adjectives. There are very few irregulars in the English language.
Examples:
IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
There are some Adjectives that do not change into comparative or superlative
forms at all. For such Adjectives we have to use the words ‘’more’’ & ‘’most’’ to
show their comparative and superlative degrees.
Examples:
ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
Beautiful More Beautiful Most Beautiful
Dangerous More Dangerous Most Dangerous
Worried More Worried Most Worried
Careful More Careful Most Careful
Boring More Boring Most Boring
Difficult More Difficult Most Difficult
Important More Important Most Important
Delicious More Delicious Most Delicious
Powerful More Powerful Most Powerful
Convenient More Convenient Most Convenient
Modern More Modern Most Modern
Graceful More Graceful Most Graceful
Damaged More Damaged Most Damaged
Use of Sentences:
 Ayman’s Computer is more modern than Yours.
 Katherine Hepburn was the Most graceful Actress in Hollywood.
 The road to the lake is more dangerous than the road to the hill.
 Ayman’s Khan makes the most delicious cupcakes in town.

VERBS AND TENSES

Verbs are words that describe action. They tell us what someone or something
is doing.
Examples:
George speaks French.
They ate apples in the evening.
We will hold the torch at the Olympics.
Regular and irregular Verbs:
There are two basic types of verbs – regular and Irregular verbs. Regular verbs
end with ‘ed’ in the simple past & past participle, whereas Irregular verbs
change different spelling patterns when they change into the simple past and
past participles.
Following are a few examples of regular and irregular verbs and their different
forms.

Verb VERB FORMS

Type
Base Simple Present Simple Past
Form Present Participle Past Tense Participle
Tense (Used in (Used in
(Used with Continuous perfect
third Person tense) tense)
Singular)
Regular Play Plays Playing Played Played
Verbs Work Works Working Worked Worked
Study studies Studying Studied Studied
Irregular Throw Throws Throwing Threw Thrown
Verbs Wear Wears Wearing Wore Worn
Steal Steals Stealing Stole Stolen
TENSES
Tenses help us tell the time of an action. The Chart given an overview of all basis
tenses.
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE FUTURE TENSE
Simple Present Simple Past Simple Future
We write Articles. We wrote articles. We will write articles.
Present Continuous Past Continuous Future Continuous
We are writing Articles. We were writing articles.We will be writing
Articles.
Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect
We have Written We had written articles. We will have written
Articles. articles.
Present Perfect Past Perfect Continuous Future perfect
Continuous Continuous
We have Been Writing We had been writing We will have been
articles. articles. writing articles.
 THE PRESENT TENSE
The Simple Present Tense
We use the Simple Present Tense to state a general fact, a habit, or a routine.
We can make sentences in simple present tense by using the base form of the
verb. When using verbs in the simple present tense, we use a plural verb with a
singular noun (or pronoun) & a singular verb with a plural noun (or pronoun).
Example:
Plural Noun / Pronouns Singular Verb
Sam & I (we) Watch cartoons.
Singular Noun / Pronoun Plural verb
Linda (she) bakes cakes.
The present Continuous Tense
We use the present continuous tense when we want to state something that is
happening right now. In the present continuous tense, we use helping verb is
with singular nouns (or pronouns) and are with plural nouns (or pronouns). In
the resent continuous tense, we use the present participle form of the verb by
adding ‘’Ing’ ’at the end.
Example:
Singular Noun/ Pronoun Helping Verb Verb + ing
I Am Washing clothes.
Jack (He) Is Cleaning the window.
Plural Noun/ Pronoun
The children (They) are Playing in the yard.
The Present Prefect Tense
We use the present perfect tense to express an action that has been
completed. It doesn’t matter when that action began or how long ago it ended.
What is important is that it stands completed at this present time. It can be
used to describe an experience or denote change. In the present perfect tense,
we use helping verb has with singular nouns (or pronouns) and have with plural
nouns (or pronouns). In the present perfect tense, we use the past participle
form of the verb.
Example:
Noun/ Pronoun Helping Verb Third form of the verb
I Have Completed my work.
You Have Eaten my Chocolates.
Norman(he) has Gone to Jhang.
Ayman(she) has Cooked Biryani tonight.
The Present Perfect Continuous Tense
We use the present perfect continuous tense to link a past action with the
present. The continuous form stresses on the duration of the action, which
means that the action started some time ago in the past but has not ended yet
& is still going on. In present perfect continuous tense, we use the words has
been with singular nouns (or pronouns) & have been with plural nouns (or
pronouns). In the present perfect continuous tense, we use the present
participle form of the verb by adding ‘ing’ at the end.
Example:
Noun/ Pronoun Helping Verb Verb + ing
I Have been Driving for four hours.
Ayman & I(we) Have been Making posters since
morning
Zuni (She) Has been Painting pots all day.
Dad (he) Has been Watering the plants for
an hour.
THE PAST TENSE
 The Simple Past Tense
We use the simple past tense to state a fact or an action that has already taken
place. we use the simple past tense form of the verb with all nouns and
pronouns.
Examples:
Alex threw the ball at Kim.
We rode horses at the beach.
 The past Continuous Tense
We use the past continuous tense when we want to state something that was
happening in the past (as it was happening). In the past continuous tense, we
use helping verb was with singular nouns (or pronouns) and were with plural
nouns (or pronouns). In the past continuous tense, we also use the present
participle form of verb and add ‘’ing’’ at the end.
Example:
Singular Noun/ Pronoun Helping Verb Verb+ing
Peter(he) Was Drinking lemonade
Plural Noun/ Pronoun
Ron And Bob (They) were Fishing at the lake.
 The Past Perfect Tense
We use the past perfect tense when we want to relate two events which
happened in the past. It emphasizes an action from the past which finished
before another action from the past began. In the past perfect tense, we use
helping verb had with all nouns and pronouns, followed by the past participle
form of the verb.
Examples:
Nouns / Pronoun Helping Verb Third form of the verb
I Had Typed the letter before
Sam came.
You had Left the party by the
time I arrived.
The race(it) had Started by four’ o clock
yesterday.
 The Past Perfect Continuous Tense
We use the past perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in
the past and was still ongoing in the past. In the past perfect continuous tense,
we use the words had been with all nouns and pronouns followed by the
present participle form of the verb by adding ‘ing’ at the end.
Noun/Pronoun Helping verb Verb +ing
I Had been Getting bored before my
friends came over.
Mr. Brown (He) Had been Working on his car for
two months when it got
 stolen.
The Musicians(they) Had been Practicing for months when
the concert was cancelled.

THE FUTURE TENSE

 The Simple future Tense
We use the simple future tense to show our intention or plan for a later time. In
simple we always use the base form of the verb. We also use the helping verb
will before all verbs with all nouns and pronouns.
Examples:
Noun/ Pronoun Helping Verb Verb
Jane & I (We) will Buy bread form the
bakery.
Donna (She) will Stitch the dress at home.
 The Future Continuous Tense
We use the future continuous tense to express an action that will be going on
at a certain time in the future. In the future continuous tense, we use the words
will be with all nouns and pronouns. In the future continuous tense, we also
use present participle form of the verb and ‘ing’ at the end.
Noun/Pronoun Will be Verb + ing
Ayman & I(we) Will be Going on a picnic tomorrow.
Cathy(she) Will be Cooking her famous dish tonight.
The actors (they) Will be Performing at the play next week.
 The Future Perfect Tense
We use the future perfect tense to talk about an action that will be completed
in the future before the beginning of another event in the future. We used to
word will have in the future perfect tense with all nouns and pronouns.
Followed by form of the past participle the verb.
Noun/ Pronoun Helping Verb Third form of the verb
Aunt Gina (She) Will have Reaches New York by
next week.
Rodney Will have Bought the new car by
tomorrow afternoon.
The teachers (they) Will have Checked the papers by
tonight.

 The Future Perfect Continuous Tense

We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about continuous action
that will began in the future and continuous up to a certain time in the future.
we use the words will have been with all nouns and pronouns followed by the
present participle form of the verb by adding ‘ing’ at the end.
Example:
Noun/ Pronoun Will have been Verb + ing
I Will have been Studying at Alpine High
School for Eight years
this fall.
Rick(he) Will have been Driving a truck for a year
by December.
The photography(they) Will have been Working at the studio
for ten years by next
August.
Imperatives
Imperatives are verbs that give instructions, directions, orders, advice or make
requests. Imperatives are not changes to plural or any other forms. Imperative
come at the beginning of a sentence.
Examples:
Give me the book.
Stop talking so Lucky.
Wash your hands before you eat.
Do your work quietly.
Open the door.
Examples of someone giving directions using imperatives:
Go straight on pine Street.
Take a U turn from roundabout.
Turn right from the cinema.
Look on your left.
Examples of someone giving instructions for cooking using imperatives:
Cut the vegetables into thin slices.
Put them in the pan.
Add oil & Spices.
Stir till the vegetables are cooked.
Serve while it is still hot.

AUXILIARY VERBS
Auxiliary Verbs are helping Verbs which come before main verbs and help in
determining their mood, tense, and characteristic in a sentence. We make
questions, negative sentences and sentences and sentences in the perfect
tense, continuous tense, and passive voice, etc. with the help of auxiliary verbs.
There are three main auxiliary verbs in English:
Auxiliary Present Past Continuous Perfect
Verb Form form Form Form
Be Is Was being Been
Am Were
Are
Do Do did Doing
Does
Have Have Had Having
Has
Examples:
 I am watching television.
 He is going to the park today.
 They are preparing for the exams.
 The large fish was caught by my cousin.
 The boys were playing football.
 Frank does not like eating beans.
 Where do they work?
 We have seen that film before.
 You had eaten all the cookies.

MODAL VERBS
Modal Verbs help us better understand verb. They appear before main
verbs and express ability, possibility, permission, and obligation in a
sentence.
Modal Verbs remain the same with all nouns and pronouns.
Following are a few modal verbs commonly used in the English Language:
Modal Usage Example Other Usage Example
verb Forms
Can Ability I can Drive Could Past tense She could
a car. of ‘can’ for skate
ability when she
was
young.
Possibility We can go Substitute They
there for ‘can’ in could go
tomorrow. present on their
tense for own.
possibility
Permission You can Request Could You
work on look after
my my cat?
computer.
Request Can you
tell me the
way?
May Wish May you Might Past tense Kate
succeed in of ‘may’ Might
life. (Always have
followed by come
‘have’) over if she
had time.
Permission May I see Permission Might I
this book? (Considered use your
 You may politer than kitchen?
use my ‘may’)
bathroom.

Modal Usage Example Other Usage Example

verb Forms
Possibility I may go to PossibilityIt might
(More Nepal next (less snow
likely) week. likely) tomorrow.
Suggestion It’s chilling
outside.
You might
want to
wear a
coat.
Shall Formal I shall see Should Obligation You should
indication you next respect
of future week. your elder.
action.
suggestion Shall we Advice You should
have wear
desert? rubber
gloves
while
washing
dishes.
Promise I shall Assistance Should I
make sure clean the
you’re safe. table?
Must Strong You must
obligation study hard
for your
exams.
Necessity We must
buy milk
and eggs in
the
 evening for
tomorrow’s
breakfast.

Prohibition You must

not touch
the hair
dryer with
wet
hands.
Persuasion You must
watch that
film.
Following are the negative forms of the above – mentioned modal verbs.
Modal Verb Negative form Important Notes
Can Can’t Can’t is usually used
informally. Whereas
Cannot can’t is used formally.
May May not Although their
contracted forms are
Might Might not may not and might not,
we speak and write
separately in modern
English.
Shall Shall not Contracted as shan’t,
both shall, and its
negative forms are
considered extremely
formal and almost
obsolete.
Should Should not Contracted as
shouldn’t.
Must Must not Contracted as mustn’t
PHRASAL VERBS
 Phrasal verbs are phrases made up of verbs followed by a preposition or
an adverb. Together, phrasal verbs have completely different meanings
that what they mean separately. Some phrasal verbs may have more than
one meaning. Some phrasal verbs are separable while some are
inseparable.
Following are a few examples of common phrasal verbs used in English:
Phrasal Verb Meaning Example
Separable Inseparable
Look after To take care of Will you please
something or look after my
someone. plant while I’m
gone?
Come up To arise I won’t be able to
come today.
Something has
come up.
Break down Out of order The elevator
broke down
during rush hour.
To lose control The Widow broke
emotionally. down into tears at
her husband’s
funeral.
To simplify into I can’t understand
parts. this bill. Will you
please break it
down for me?
Call off To cancel How can we go on
a picnic on a rainy
day? We will have
to call it off.
Do over To do something All your sums are
again wrong please do
them over.
Go through To experience I don’t want to go
something through the same
ordeal again.
Give in To surrender Dad gives in to my
 little sister’s
demands very
easily.
Abide by To comply All students
should abide by
the school’s rules.
Eat out To eat at a Mom has gone to
restaurant or meet grandma, so
somewhere we’ll have to eat
outside the home out tonight.
Account for To give reason or Umar couldn’t
explain something account for the
stash of cash
under his bed.
Bump into To meet by I bumped into an
chance. old friend at the
mall yesterday.
Come across To find by I came across my
accident old watch when I
was cleaning my
closet.
Perception of The new student
someone comes across as
shy.
Deal with To manage or It’s too difficult to
handle someone deal with
or something. contractors these
days.
Get away To escape The burglar got
away before the
police arrived.
Run over To hit someone Our cat was run
with a vehicle by the postman’s
bike.
 DIRECT & INDIRECT SPEECH
PAGE NO 50 TO

Direct speech is the exact words spoken by someone. It is enclosed with in

quotation marks.
Example:
‘’The Ship is sinking, ‘’ said the captain.
Indirect Speech is when we report what someone else has said.
Example:
The captain said that the ship was sinking.
Rules of Direct Speech
1) Since direct speech quotes someone’s exact spoken words, it is enclosed in
quotation marks from both sides to separate it from the rest of the text.
2) The first word of the quotation is capitalized in each new quote, useless a
single quote is divided into two parts, in which case, the second part of the
same quotation begins with a small letter. However, it should be noted
that the second part of the same quotation marks from both ends.
Example:
‘’This Passage, ‘’ our teacher said, has been taken from Tom Sawyer.’’
3) All punctuation marks (full stop, comma, exclamation mark, question
mark, etc.) come at the end of the quotation before the closing quotation
mark.
Example:
‘’is this my plate? ‘’ asked Bob.
4) If the speaker is mentioned before the direct speech, then a comma is
placed before the opening quotation mark. If the speaker is mentioned
after the direct speech, then the comma is placed at the end of the
quotation before the closing quotation mark.
Example:
Umar said,’’ I would like to visit the museum on Tuesday.’’
‘’I would like to visit the museum on Tuesday,’’ said Umar.
 5) If a quotation is a question, then it ends with a quotation mark and if it is
an exclamation, then it ends with an exclamation mark, However, it should
be noted that if a quotation ends with a full stop, an exclamation mark, or
a question mark, then an additional comma is not required after it.
Example:
‘’I want to see him now!’’ shouted Rayyan.
6) Every time a new speaker speaks, their quotation is started from a new
line or paragraph.
Example:
‘’ I think it will rain tonight, ‘’ said Jim.
‘’I don’t think so, ‘’replied Rayyan.
Rules of Indirect Speech
1) Since indirect speech reports what someone else has said, it does not use
quotation marks.
2) Some Pronouns change in direct speech.
I Becomes He/ she
My Becomes His/her
You Becomes Me/us
Me Becomes Him/her
We Becomes They
Our Becomes Their
3) Some auxiliary verbs change to the simple past tense in indirect speech,
unless they are already in simple past tense in direct speech, in which case
they remain the same.
Am/is Becomes Was
Are Becomes were
Can Becomes Could
May Becomes Might
Will Becomes Would
Do/does Becomes Did
Has/have Becomes Had

4) Some demonstrative pronouns and time markers change in indirect speech.

This Becomes That
These Becomes Those
Here Becomes There
now Becomes Then
5) All verbs’ changes to all past participle form in Indirect speech.
Work Becomes Worked
Feel Becomes Felt
Like Becomes Liked
See Becomes Seen
eat Becomes Eaten
Example:
1) Direct Speech: Dua said, ’I live in Faisalabad.’’
Indirect Speech: Dua said,’’ (or told me) that she lived in Faisalabad.’’
2) Direct Speech: ‘’Ayman has made soup,’ said Umar.
Indirect speech: Umar said that Ayman had made soup.
3)Direct Speech: Zuni, watch out for the bird!’’ exclaimed Peter.
Indirect Speech: Peter warned Zuni to watch out for the bird.
4)Direct Speech: ‘’Is your father home? ’Asked Dr. Phil.
Indirect speech: D.Phils. asked if my father was home.
5)Direct Speech: “This summer “. Remarked Josh, “is warmer than the last”.
Indirect Speech: Josh said that that summer was warmer than the last.
6)Direct speech: Kate said, “We are sleeping upstairs.”
Indirect Speech: Kate said that they were sleeping upstairs.
7)Direct speech: Victoria will drop you, “said Barbra.”
Indirect Speech: Barbra said that Victoria would Drop me.
8)Direct Speech:” Our son doesn’t work in the Navy, “said Mrs. Brown.
Indirect Speech: Mrs. Brown said that their son didn’t work in the Navy.
9)Direct Speech: Tony said, “We have eaten the mangoes.”
Indirect Speech: Tony said that they had eaten the mangoes.
10)Direct Speech: “The plants look beautiful,” said Mona,” do you water
them every day?”
Indirect Speech: Mona said that the plants looked beautiful & asked if I
watered them every day.

NEGATIVE SENTENCES
Normal sentences are positive sentences. Sentences that have the word not
in them are negative sentences.
If a positive sentence has the auxiliary verb ‘be’ (am, is, are, was, were,) &
‘have’ (has, had) in it, then we add the word not after it change it into a
negative sentence.
Examples:
Positive: This is a coat.
Negative: This is not a coat.
Positive: We have seen that film.
Negative: We have not seen that film.
However, if a positive sentence has a main verb instead, then we use the
words do not or does not before the main verb to change if into a negative
sentence. In such negative sentences the base from of the verb is always
used.
We use do not with pronouns I, we, you, & they: & we used does not with
pronouns he, she & it.
Example:
Positive: John enjoys horse riding.
Negative: John Doesn’t enjoy horse riding.
Positive: They wash their clothes.
Negative: They don’t wash their clothes.
If the positive sentence with a main verb is in the past tense, then we use the
words did not before it to change it into a negative sentence (with all nouns
and pronouns)
Example:
Positive: He cleaned his room.
Negative: He did not clean his room.
If a positive sentence is in the future tense, then we use the words will not
change it into a negative sentence (with all nouns and pronouns)
Example:
Positive: Ayman will stitch the dress tonight.
Negative: Ayman will not stitch the dress tonight.
If a positive sentence has other modal verbs, such as may, can, should, or
must, then the word ‘not’ is simply added to change it into a negative.
Example:
Positive: You may eat the cake.
Negative: You may not eat the cake.
Positive: He must go now.
Negative: He must not go now.
In negative sentences we can either contract the word not with the auxiliary
verb or with the noun/ pronoun in the sentence.
Examples:
I’m not running in the race.
She won’t come to the party.
Susan’s not wearing earrings today.
Ayman wasn’t paying attention.

CONDITIONALS
Conditionals are sentences that describe a ‘condition’ and thus have an ‘if’
Clause.
Some conditionals that are commonly used in English are explained below.
Condition Form Example
Routine or habit If + simple present, If the weather is nice, I
simple present. go to the Beach.
Future Possibility If + Simple present, If I go to Jhang, I will
Simple future. post the parcel to him.
Hypothetical If + Simple past, would If I had a bigger house, I
+ Infinitive. would invite more
guests.
Not Possible Now If + past perfect, Would If I had passed the
have + past participle. Exam, I would Have
become an engineer by
now.
When a conditional begins with ’if’, a comma usually separates the condition
(first art of the sentence) form the result (second part of the sentence).
However, when the result appears at the beginning and the condition comes
at the end, then a comma is not use at all.
Example:
If nobody Is at home, I play loud music. (With comma)
I play loud music if nobody is at home. (Without comma)
The word ’then’ may or may not be used in conditionals. It is not necessary
and is completely Up to the user’s discretion. It is usually not used in modern
everyday speech & writing.
Example:
If you lend you watch, then I will land you, my shoes.
(with ‘then’)
If you lend me your watch, I will lend You, my shoes.
(Without ‘then’)
Some more examples of conditionals:
 If our teacher is absent, we play in the school ground.
 If dad comes late, we stary the dinner.
 If I get good grades, Mom will buy me a video game.
  If sara goes to the supermarket, she will get me some eggs.
 If plan to stop over at Grandma’s I would let you know.
 If I were bad at my job, I would have given her your message.
 I lock the doors if I am alone.
 We will call you if we have a vacancy.
 If we are near your house, then we will call you.

COLLOCATIONS
Collocations are a pair or group of words that are often used together in
combination in the English Language. Using Collocations in speech or writing
makes the language seem more natural and fluid.
However, native speakers of the English language seem to know and use
collocations naturally and habitually, whereas non-native speakers must be
careful in its usage. The slightest difference in a collocation can change the
sense of the entire sentence. No word in a collocation can be replaced with
another synonyms, or it will modify the meaning and gist of what is being said.
Example:
Correct Collocation Incorrect Collocation
Fast food Quick food
Tall man High man
Great man Big man
Strong tea Powerful tea
Burst into tears Blow up into tears
It should also be remembered that certain collocation is always used in
particular circumstances & not used elsewhere, as they do not seem natural
otherwise.
Example:
Correct Collocation Incorrect Collocation
Excruciating pain Excruciating joy
Feel free Feel bound
Catch a cold Catch a hot
The best way to learn correct collocation is to read & listen to native writers use
them.
Collocations can begin with adverbs, adjectives, nouns, or verbs. Here are some
common everyday collocations that begin with verbs.
Verb Collocations
Make Make a mistake, male a promise,
make a wish, make a difference, make
one’s bed.
Catch Catch a bus, catch a cold, catch a
thief, catch a ball, catch fire, catch
someone’s attention.
Pay Pay attention, pay the price, pay a
visit, pay one’s respects.
Save Save money, save energy, save time.
Take Take a bus (or train, flight, taxi), take a
look, take a break, take a picture.
Keep Keep calm, keep in touch, keep quiet,
keep the change, keep a promise.
Get Get ready, get on, get off, get lost, get
angry, get in, get out.
Do Do the dishes, do the laundry, do
one’s homework, do a favor.
Feel Feel free, feel comfortable, feel happy
(or proud, nervous, sleepy)
Have Have a bath, have faith, have
breakfast (or lunch, dinner), have fun,
have a party, have an excuse.
Here are some common everyday collocations that begin with adjectives.
Adjective Collocation
Deep Deep thought, deep sleep, deep
trouble.
Heavy Heavy rain (or snow), heavy traffic,
heavy smoker, heavy duty.
High (or low) High (or low) cost, self-esteem,
energy, expectations
Strong Strong willed, strong smell, strong
taste, strong tea, (or coffee), strong
feeling.
Tall Tall order, tall building, tall man, tall
 glass.
Care should be taken to always use right collocation in the right situation. If the
collocation is used correctly but out of place, it is going to seem as strange as if
it were used incorrectly.
The use of the right collocation in the right situation can only come from
practice.
Use of a few collocations in sentences:
 I will not give you breakfast until you make your bed.
 Don’t disturb john. He seems to be in a deep thought.
 Please feel free to contact me if you have any further queries.
 He married Sharon against everyone’s advice and now he’s paying the
price.
 I will do the dishes if you do the laundry.

INTERJECTIONS
An interjection is an exclamation, that expresses emotions like happiness, anger,
shock, excitement, desperation, or sorrow, etc.
Interjections usually come at the beginning of a sentence and are followed by
an exclamation mark”!”.
Happy Interjections
 Yes! I passed the exam.
 Congratulations! I wish both of you a long and happy marriage.
 Yum! The cake tastes terrific.
 Hey (or Hello)! How’s it going?
 Happy Birthday! May you have many more.
 Excellent! I am impressed with your work.
 Hurray! We won the match.
 Well done! We’re all very proud of you.
 Thank! I am appreciating your support.
 Superb (or amazing, etc.)! what a fine piece of art.
 Wow! The sunset looks beautiful.
 Bravo! That was a great performance.
 Great! We will all go to the lake for a picnic this weekend then.
Astounding Interjections
(Includes shock, Desperation, anger, sorrow & Excitement)
 Oh no! The ship is sinking.
 Watch out! The falcon is headed your way.
 Stop! You just ran over a cat.
 Oops! I think I’ve dropped Bob’s engagement ring somewhere.
 Ouch! The ball just hit my mouth and broke my tooth.
 Aha! I knew that I would find you hiding here.
 Oh dear! George doesn’t look well at all.
 Help! My hand is stuck in the door.
 Damn! I wish I had the money to go to the concert.
 Be quiet! This is a classroom, not a fish market.
 Come on! Do you really expect me to believe that you only have one pair
of shoes?
 Goodness! Why has this road still not been replied?
 At last! My turn has finally arrived.
 Phew! That was a close call.
 Goodbye! We’ll see you again next summer.

DISCOURSE MARKERS
Discourse markers are ‘word (or phrase) tags’ that are used at the beginning of
sentences (few times they can even be used in the middle) to help them seem
clearer and more understand able. They help join ideas and act as a connection
or link between sentences & paragraphs.
Discourse markers are effective in both speech as well as in writing. They help
give a conversation or a piece of text a proper shape & assist in making it appear
more fluent & logical. They allow the writer or speaker to use them as ‘fillers.
Since they are ‘word tags’ & act only as a link between two thoughts, they are
separated from the main sentence by a comma. Therefore, a sentence still
retains its structure even if the discourse marker is removed from the beginning
of the sentence.
Different discourse markers are used in different situations. It is very important
to use them in the right situation or they will seem completely out of place.
Given below are a few common discourse markers used in everyday English. It is
important to learn their correct usage.
 Discourse Markers
For adding For showing For Sequencing For giving
cause & effect examples
Also, moreover, Therefore, thus, Firstly, at first, For example, for
Furthermore, consequently, first of all, in the instance, such as,
additionally, hence, as a first place, to namely, in other
besides, in result. begin with, in the words.
addition beginning, once
upon a time,
secondly, thirdly,
subsequently,
earlier,
meanwhile, later,
afterwards.
For Comparing For Contrasting For Emphasizing For concluding
Similarly, However, Above all, In conclusion,
Likewise, in the although, specially, in finally, to sum it
same way, whereas, despite particular, up, in the end,
this fact, on one specifically, as a lastly, in short,
hand, on the matter of fact, eventually.
other hand, on more
the contrary, still, importantly.
nonetheless,
instead,
alternatively, in
contrast.
For generalizing For indicating For Repeating
time
On the whole, in In the past, not Again & again,
general, broadly so long ago, over & over,
speaking, as a recently, once again, as
rule, in most stated.
cases
Here is an example of how a few discourse markers can be used in writing:
Once upon a time, there was a boy called Tom. He lived on a hill & picked
berries for a living. He would save some berries for himself & his family & sell
rest to a fruit seller in a nearby town. The fruit seller was very happy with
Tom because he would bring him a wide variety of berries. For instance, he
would bring him strawberries, cherries, raspberries, blackberries, blueberries
& mulberries. Furthermore, he would throw away the rotten once & wash &
clean the good ones before giving them to the fruit seller. Therefore, as a
reward the fruit seller would give Tom one dozen bananas & mangoes each
month for free. As Tom grew older, he grew tired of picking berries. He
wanted to become a woodcutter like his father. However, His father insisted
that Tom continued to do his old work for some time. Tom had two elder
brothers, Jack & Mark. Jack was a cobbler in the town, whereas Mark made
bread in a bakery there. Similarly, Tom’s mother also worked as a seamstress
at the tailoring shop in the town.
Days went by as Tom’s urge to pick up an axe grew stronger. One morning
Tom hid behind his house & waited for his father, mother & brothers to leave
for work. When every one left, he went inside, got his father’s spare axe &
walked into the woods. He came upon a small tree which he thought would
be easy to cut, but just as he swung the axe, it flew from his hands & hit a
bird that was perched on the lower branch of the tree. The bird was badly
injured and started to bleed. Tom froze in shock at what had happened.
Meanwhile, his father, who had forgotten his lunch at home & was walking
back to get it, saw him standing like a statue in the nearby woods. He
approached the scene & quickly assessed what had happened. He took out
his handkerchief, wrapped the bird in it & rushed it to the stable, where the
town veterinarian worked.
When Tom’s father returned home that evening, he was quiet but upset. He
couldn’t believe his son had disobeyed him like this. Nonetheless, he called
Tom before going to bed & explained why he had not allowed him to cut
wood. He told him that he was neither strong enough nor ready for such a
responsibility at that age. He promised that if Tom was patient for just a few
more years, he would teach him to cut wood himself.
In the end, Tom reflected on his actions as he went to sleep that night &
decided that he would rather wait for a while & e his father’s wood cutting
partner than be hasty & hurt his father, as well as the animals in the woods.

PUNCTUATION
Apostrophe
 An apostrophe is a punctuation mark that is used for two purposes.
a. To show Possession
b. To punctuate contractions
a. To show Possession
We use an apostrophe to show possession when we either want to show that
something belongs to someone or want to describe a relation between two
people.
Example:
This is Gino’s hat.
That is Mary’s sister.
The following rules must be kept in mind when using an apostrophe to
show possession.
Rule Example
An apostrophe comes before ‘S’ if the This car’s design seems modern.
noun is singular.
An apostrophe comes after the ‘S’ if The girls’ dresses look nice.
the noun is plural.
An apostrophe comes before the ‘S’ if Let’s go to the children’s nursery.
the noun is an irregular plural.
Some more Examples:
 A giraffe’s neck is very long.
 The bottle’s labels have worn out.
 David’s cousin is my friend.
 The men’s clothes have gotten wet in the rain.
b. To punctuate Contractions
We also use an apostrophe to shorten or contract two words together.
Here are a few examples:
I am Becomes I’m
We are Becomes We’re
You are Becomes You’re
He is Becomes He’s
He has Becomes He’s
She is Becomes She’s
She has Becomes She’s
It is Becomes It’s
It has Becomes It’s
They are Becomes They’re
Is not Becomes Isn’t
Are not Becomes Aren’t
Was not Becomes Wasn’t
We’re not Becomes Weren’t
Let us Becomes Let’s
Must not Becomes Mustn’t
I would Becomes I’d
Will not Becomes Won’t
Would not Becomes Wouldn’t
Does not Becomes Doesn’t
Do not Becomes Don’t
Did not Becomes Didn’t
Can not Becomes Can’t
Could not Becomes Couldn’t
Shall not Becomes Shan’t
Should not Becomes Shouldn’t
Comma
A comma is a punctuation mark that is used in many ways.
Given below are some common uses of a comma.
Use Example
The listing comma Ayman is a kind, patient, responsible
Used to separate adjectives or nouns and caring girl. Please get some eggs,
in a list. bread, milk, and butter from the shop.
The bracketing Comma My wallet, which is brown & made of
These can be used instead of a leather, has been stolen.
bracket in a sentence.
The joining Comma I tried talking to Bob, but he yelled at
It comes before a conjunction and me & told me to leave.
joins two sentences together.
The Introductory Comma Sadly, the picnic turned out to be a
Used at the beginning of a sentence after huge disappointment.
an adverb or a discourse marker to Furthermore, the trip back from the
separate it from the rest of the sentence.
picnic proved to be a nightmare.
The conditional comma If I visit Jhang, I’ll Buy your handbag.
Used with conditionals to separate
the condition from the result.
The Quotation Comma The postman said, “I don’t have any
Used in Direct speech mail for you today”.
“That’s a nice dress you’re wearing,”
said Jack with a smile.
The typographical Comma Betty White, 12 Cougar Lane,
Used in addresses to separate names Manchester, United Kingdom
of buildings, street, cities & countries. Friday, October 29, 2005
Used in dates to separate days, 100,000
months & years. 12,654
Also used in numbers beyond 1000.