SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I - STRESS AND STRAIN – SCIA1301

 STRESS & STRAIN - HOOKE’S LAW
STRESS:
The force of resistance per unit area offered by a body against deformation is
known as stress.
Stress is "force per unit area" - the ratio of applied force P to cross section area.
σ= P
A
Where, σ is stress in N/mm2.
P is load in N.
A is area in mm2.
UNITS :
The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International system) are N/m2 (or) Pa.
MPa = 106 Pa, GPa = 109 Pa, KPa = 103 Pa
Sometimes N/mm2 units are also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa.
TYPES OF STRESSES:
Tensile Stress:
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pulls.
Stress that tends to stretch or lengthen the material - acts normal to the stressed
area.
Compressive Stress:
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes.
Stress that tends to compress or shorten the material - acts normal to the stressed
area.
Shearing Stress:
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite forces
which are acting tangentially across the resisting section.
Stress that tends to shear the material - acts in plane to the stressed area at right-
angles to compressive or tensile stress.
 Figure No: 1
STRAIN:
It is defined as the ratio of change in dimension to the original dimension.
It is represented by ‘e’
It has no unit.
TYPES OF STRAIN:
Linear Or Longitudinal Strain:
It is defined as the ratio of change in linear dimensions (length) to the original dimensions
(length).
It is represented by eL.
eL = δL
L
Linear Tensile Strain:
It is defined as the ratio of change in increase in length to the original length.
It is represented by eL.
eL = δL
L
Linear Compressive Strain:
It is defined as the ratio of change in decrease in length to the original length.
It is represented by eL.
eL = δL
L
 It has no unit.
Lateral Strain:
It is defined as the ratio of change in lateral dimensions to the original lateral dimensions.
It is represented by eb, ed, et, eh.
𝑒𝑏 = 𝛿𝑏 / 𝑏
Shear Strain:
It is defined as the ratio of transverse displacement to the distance from the lower face. It
is represented by ‘∅’.
∅ = 𝛿𝑙 / h
Volumetric Strain:
It is defined as the ratio of change in lateral dimensions to the original lateral dimensions.
It is represented by ev.
ev = 𝛿v / v
ELASTICITY:
The property of material by virtue of which it returns to its original shape and size upon
removal of load is known as elasticity.
ELASTIC LIMIT:
The maximum extent to which a solid may be stretched without permanent alteration of
size or shape.
HOOKE’S LAW:
It states that within elastic limit stress is proportional to strain.
Stress α Strain (or) Stress/ Strain = a Constant ( E )
Mathematically, E= Stress/ Strain N/mm2.
FACTOR OF SAFETY:
It is defined as the ratio of ultimate stress to the working or permissible stress.
Factor of safety = ultimate stress / working stress

ELASTIC CONSTANTS
ELASTIC CONSTANTS OF A MATERIAL:
Young’s modulus
Bulk modulus
Shear modulus
Poisson’s ratio.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (OR) YOUNG’S MODULUS:
Young’s modulus is defined as the ratio of stress to strain within elastic limit.
It is represented by ‘E’. Its units are N/mm2.
Mathematically, E= σ/ e
MODULUS OF RIGIDITY (OR) SHEAR MODULUS:
It is the ratio of shear stress (τ) to shear strain (∅).
It is represented by ‘C’, ‘N’ or ‘G’.
Its unit is N/mm2.
C, N or G = τ/ ∅
BULK MODULUS:
It is defined as the ratio of applied pressure to volumetric strain.
It is represented by ‘K’.
Its unit is N/mm2.
K = σ /ev
POISSON’S RATIO:
The ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain produced by a single stress is known as
Poisson’s ratio.
It is represented by µ or 1/m.
The value of ‘µ’ varies from 0.25 to 0.50 depending upon the material.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ELASTIC CONSTANTS
Relation between E and C:
E = 2C [1+ µ]
Relation between E and K:
E = 3K (1-2µ)
Relation between E, C and K:
E=9KC/ (3K+C)
UNIT CONVERSIONS:
1 m = 103 mm
1 m2 = 106 mm2
1 m3 = 109 mm3
1 KN = 103 N
1 MN = 106 N
1 GN = 109 N
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 Mpa = 1 X 106 / 106 N/ mm2
1 Mpa = 1 N/ mm2
PROBLEMS
1.A steel rod 1 m long and 20 mm X 20 mm in cross section is subjected to a tensile force
of 40 KN. Determine the elongation of the rod, if modulus of elasticity for the rod material
is 200 GPa.
Given Data:
Length, L = 1 m = 1 X 103 mm.
Size of rod = 20 mm x 20 mm = 400 mm2.(A)
Tensile Force, P = 40 KN = 40 X 103 N.
Modulus of Elasticity,E = 200 GPa = 200 X 109 N/m2 = 200 X 109/ 106 mm2
= 200 X 103 N/mm2
To Find:
Elongation of the rod
Solution:
1. Elongation of the rod,
δL = PL = 40 X 103 X 1 X 103 = 0.5 mm.
AE 400 X 200 X 103
2. A steel specimen of 13 mm diameter was found to extend to elongate 0.2 mm in a 200
mm gauge length when it was subjected to a tensile force of 26.8 KN. If the specimen was
tested within the elastic range, what is the value of Young’s modulus for the steel
specimen?
Given Data:
Length, L = 200 mm.
Diameter, d = 13 mm.
Elongation, δL = 0.2 mm.
Tensile Force, P = 26.8 KN = 26.8 X 103 N.
To Find:
Young’s modulus.
Solution:
1.Young’s modulus,
δL = PL
AE
E= PL = 26.8 X 103 X 200 A = π X d2
A x δL 132.73 X 0.2 4
E = 2.019 X 105 N/mm2. = 132.73 mm2.
3. A steel bar 2 m long, 40 mm wide and 20 mm thick is subjected to an axial pull of 160
KN in the direction of its length. Find the changes in length, width and thickness of the
bar. Take E = 200 GPa. and poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
Given Data:
Length, L = 2 m = 2 X 103 mm.
Width, b = 40 mm.
Thick, t = 20 mm.
Axial pull, P = 160 KN = 160 X 103 N.
E = 200 GPa = 2 X 105 N/mm2.
poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
To Find:
change in length.
change in width.
change in thickness.
1. Change in length,
δL = PL = 160 X 103 X 2 X 103
AE 40 X 20 X 2 X 105
δL = 2 mm.
2. Change in width,
 µ = eb eL = δL = 2 = 0.001
el L 2 X 103

eb = el X µ = 0.001 X 0.3
 = 0.0003
eb = δb
b
δb = eb X b = 0.0003 X 40
δb = 0.012 mm.
3.Change in thickness,
et = δt
t
δt = et X t = 0.0003 X 20
δt = 0.006 mm.
4. A bar of 30 mm diameter is subjected to a pull of 60 KN. The measured extension on
gauge length of 200 mm is 0.09 mm and the change in diameter is 0.0039 mm. Calculate
the poisson’s ratio and the values of the three moduli.
Given Data:
Diameter, d = 30 mm.
Length, L = 200 mm.
Change in length, δL = 0.09 mm.
change in diameter, δd = 0.0039 mm
Axial pull, P = 60 KN = 60 X 103 N.
To Find:
Poisson’s ratio
Three moduli. (E, C and K)
Solution:
1.Poisson’s ratio,
µ = ed
eL
ed = δd = 0.0039
d 30
= 0.00013
 eL = δL = 0.09
L 200
 µ = 0.00013
0.00045
µ = 0.28
2.Young’s modulus,
δL = PL
AE
E= PL = 60 X 103 X 200 A = π X d2 /4
A X δL 706.9 X 0.09 = 706.9 mm2.
E = 1.88 X 105 N/mm2.
3. Shear modulus,
E = 2C [1+ µ]
C= E = 1.88 X 105
2 [1+ µ] 2 ( 1 + 0.28 )
C = 73.3 X 103 N/mm2.
4.Bulk Modulus,
E = 3K (1-2µ)
K= E = 1.88 X 105 = 149.2 X 103 N/mm2.
3 (1-2µ) 3 ( 1 – 2 X 0.28 )
5. A rod 150 cm long and of diameter 2 cm is subjected to an axial pull of 20 KN. If the
modulus of elasticity of the material of the rod is 2 X 105 N/mm2.Determine the stress,
strain and the elongation of the rod.
Given Data:
Diameter, d = 2 cm = 20 mm.
Length, L = 150 cm = 1500 mm.
Axial pull, P = 20 KN = 20 X 103 N.
E = 2 X 105 N/mm2.
A = π X d2 /4 = 314. 15 mm2
1. Stress,
σ= P = 20 X 103
A 314.15
 σ = 63.66 N/mm2.
2. Strain,
E= σ
e
e = σ = 63.66
E 2 X 105
e = 0.000318
3. Elongation,
δL = PL = 20 X 103 X 1500 δL = 0.477 mm.
AE 314. 15 X 2 X 105
6. The safe stress for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of 2.1 X 103 KN is
125 MN/m2. If the external diameter of the column is 30 cm, determine the internal
diameter.
Given Data:
External diameter, D = 30 cm = 300 mm.
Axial load, P = 2.1 X 103 KN = 2.1 X 106 N.
σ = 125 MN/m2 = 125 N/mm2.
Solution:
1. Internal diameter,
σ= P = 2.1 X 106
A π (D2 – d2)/4
125 = 2.1 X 106
π (3002 – d2 )/4
(3002 – d2 ) = 2.1 X 106 X 4
125 X π
d = 261.9 mm.
7. The ultimate stress for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of 1.9 MN is
480 N/mm2. If the external diameter of the column is 200 mm, determine the internal
diameter. Take the factor of safety as 4.
Given Data:
External diameter, D = 200 mm.
Axial load, P = 1.9 MN = 1.9 X 106 N.
ultimate stress = 480 N/mm2.
Factor of safety = 4.
Solution:
1. Internal diameter,
Factor of safety = ultimate stress / working stress
4 = 480 / working stress
working stress = 480 / 4
σ = 120 N/mm2.
σ= P = 1.9 X 106
A π (2002 – d2)/4
d = 140.85 mm.

STRESS STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

Figure No.2
 Stress strain curve is a behavior of material when it is subjected to load.
 when a ductile material like mild steel is subjected to tensile test, then it passes
various stages before fracture.
 These stages are;
 Proportional Limit
 Elastic Limit
  Yield Point
 Ultimate Stress Point
 Breaking Point
 PROPORTIONAL LIMIT
 Proportional limit is point on the curve up to which the value of stress and strain
remains proportional.
 From the diagram point A is the called the proportional limit point or it can also
be known as limit of proportionality.
 The stress up to this point can be also be known as proportional limit stress.
 Hook’s law of proportionality from diagram can be defined between point OA. It
is so, because OA is a straight line which shows that Hooke’s law of stress strain is
followed up to point A.
 ELASTIC LIMIT
 Elastic limit is the limiting value of stress up to which the material is perfectly
elastic.
 From the curve, point B is the elastic limit point.
 Material will return back to its original position, if it is unloaded before the
crossing of point B.
 This is so, because material is perfectly elastic up to point B.
 YIELD STRESS POINT
 Yield stress is defined as the stress after which material extension takes place more
quickly with no or little increase in load.
 Point C is the yield point on the graph and stress associated with this point is
known as yield stress.
 MODULUS OF RUPTURE
 Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture and is represented by
point D.
 ULTIMATE STRESS POINT
 Ultimate stress point is the maximum strength that material have to bear stress
before breaking.
 It can also be defined as the ultimate stress corresponding to the peak point on the
stress strain graph.
 On the graph point E is the ultimate stress point.
 After point E material have very minute or zero strength to face further stress.
 BREAKING STRESS (POINT OF RUPTURE)
 Breaking point or breaking stress is point where strength of material breaks.
 The stress associates with this point known as breaking strength or rupture
strength.
 On the stress strain curve, point F is the breaking stress point.
8. A tensile was conducted on a mild steel bar. The following data was obtained
from the test.
Diameter of the steel bar = 3 cm
Gauge length of the bar = 20 cm
Load at elastic limit = 250 KN
Extension at a load of 150 KN = 0.21 mm
Maximum load = 380 KN
Total extension = 60 mm
Diameter of the rod at the failure = 2.25 cm.
Determine the Young’s modulus, stress at the elastic limit, percentage elongation
and percentage decrease in area.
Solution:
1. Young’s modulus,
E= σ A = π X D2 /4 = π X 302 /4
e = 706.85 mm2
σ= P = 150 X 103 = 212.2 N/mm2.
A 706.85
eL = δL = 0.21 = 0.00105
L 200
E = 212.2 = 2.02 X 105 N/mm2.
0.00105
2. Stress at the elastic limit,
Stress = Load at elastic limit / Area
= 250 X 10 = 353.68 N/mm2.
706.85
3. Percentage Elongation,
 Percentage Elongation = Total increase in length X 100
Original length
= 60 X 100 = 30 %.
200
4. Percentage decrease in area,
Percentage decrease = (Original area – area at the failure) X 100
in area Original area

= (π X D2 /4) – (π X d2 /4) X 100

π X D2 /4
= (π X 302 /4) – (π X 22.52 /4) X 100
π X 302 /4
= 43.75 %.

COMPOSITE SECTIONS (OR) COMPOSITE BARS

 A bar made up of two or more different materials joined together is called a
composite bar.
 The bars are joined in such manner that the system extends or contracts as one
unit equally when subject to tension or compression.
 The following two points should always be kept in view while solving the problems.
 Extension or contraction of the bar being equal that is deformation per unit
length is equal.
 The total external load on the bar is equal to the sum of the loads carried
by the different materials.
 Total external load which will be acting over the composite bar will be shared by
each bar of composite bar and hence we can say that total external load on
composite bar will be equal to the addition of the load shared by each bar of
composite bar.
 Let,
A1 and A2 = Area of cross section of bar 1 and bar 2
respectively.
E1 and E2 = Young’s modulus of elasticity for material of bar 1
and material of bar 2 respectively.
P1 and P2 = Load shared by bar 1 and bar 2 respectively.
 σ1 and σ2 = Stress induced in bar 1 and bar 2 respectively.
 As we have already discussed that total external load which will be acting over the
composite bar will be shared by each bar of composite bar and therefore, we will
have following equation.
P = P1 + P2
Stress induced in bar 1, σ1= P1 / A1
Stress induced in bar 1, σ2= P2 / A2
P = σ1A1 + σ2 A2
 We have also discussed above that composite bar will have two or more than two
bars of similar length and these bars will be rigidly fixed with each other and
therefore change in length will be similar for each bar or we can say that strains
will be same for each bar of composite bar.
Strain in bar 1, e1= σ1/ E1
Strain in bar 2, e2 = σ2/ E2
 From above statement that strains will be same for each bar of composite bar, we
will have following equation.
σ1/ E1 = σ2/ E2
MODULAR RATIO:
The ratio of young’s modulus of one material to the young’s modulus of another material
(E1 / E2) is called modular ratio.
9.A steel rod of 3cm diameter is enclosed centrally in a hollow copper tube of external
diameter of 4cm. The composite bar is ten subjected to an axial pull of 45000 N. If the
length of each bar is equal to 15cm, determine the stresses in the rod and tube, and load
carried by each bar. Take E for steel = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2 and for copper = 1.1 x 105 N/mm2.
 Figure No.3
Solution:
1.The stresses in the rod and tube,
Diamater of steel rod = 3cm = 30mm
Area of steel rod, As = π X 302 = 706.85 mm2
4
Area of copper tube, Ac = π ( 502– 402 ) / 4 = 706.85 mm2
Now strain in steel = Strain in copper
σS = σc
Es Ec
σS = Es X σc
Ec
σ S = 2.1 x 105 X σ c
1.1 x 105
σ S = 1.909 σ c ………………………………… ( 1 )
Stress = Load / Area
Load = Stress X Area
Load on steel + load on copper = Total load
 σ S x AS + σ c x Ac = P
1.909 σ c x 706.86 + σ c X 706.86 = 45000
σ c (1.909 x 706.86 + 706.86) = 45000
2056.25 σ c = 45000
σ c = 45000
2056.25
σ c = 21.88 N/mm2
Substituting the value of σ c in equation (1), we get
σ c = 1.909 x 21.88
σ c = 41.77 N/mm2.
2. Load carried by each bar,
Load = Stress x Area
Load carried by steel rod,
Ps = σS x AS = 41.77 x 706.86 = 29525.5 N.
Load Carried by copper tube, P = Ps + Pc
Pc = P - Ps = 45000 – 29525.5 or σc x Ac = 15474.5 N.
10.A load of 2 MN is applied on a short concrete column 500 mm X 500 mm. the
column is reinforced with four steel bars of 10 mm diameter, one in each corner.
Find the stresses in the concrete and steel bars. Take E for steel = 2.1 x 105 N/mm2
and for concrete = 1.4 x 104 N/mm2.
Solution:
1.The stresses in the concrete and steel bars,
Now strain in steel = Strain in concrete
σS = σ conc
Es E conc
σS = E s X σ conc = 2.1 x 105 X σ conc
E conc 1.4 x 104
σS = 15 σ conc ……………….. (1)
Area of column = 500 X 500 = 250000 mm2
Area of 4 steel bars, As = π X 102 X 4= 314.159 mm2
4
Area of concrete = Area of column - Area of 4 steel bars
= 250000 - 314.159 = 249685.841 mm2
Load on steel + load on copper = Total load
σ S x AS + σ conc x A conc = P
15 σ conc X 314.159 + σ conc X 249685.841 = 2000000
σ conc = 7.86 N/mm2.
Substitute the value of σ conc in equ. 1, σ S = 15 σ conc
σ S = 117.92 N/mm2.
11.Three bars made of copper, zinc and aluminium are of equal length and have
cross section 500, 750 and 1000 mm respectively. They are rigidly connected at
their ends. If this compound member is subjected to a longitudinal pull of 250 KN,
estimate the load carried on each rod and the induced stresses. Take E for copper
= 1.3 x 105 N/mm2 , for zinc = 1.0 x 105 N/mm2 and for aluminium = 0.8 x 105
N/mm2.
Solution:
1.The stresses in the copper, zinc and aluminium rods,
Now strain in copper = Strain in zinc = strain in aluminium
σc = σz = σ al
Ec Ez E al
σc=Ec X σ al = 1.3 x 105 X σ al
E al 0.8 x 105
= 1.625 σ al …………… (1)
σz= Ez X σ al = 1.0 x 105 X σ al
E al 0.8 x 105
= 1.25 σ al ……......... (2)
Now,
Total load = Load on copper + load on zinc + Load on aluminium
= σ c X A c + σ z X A z + σ al X A al
250 X 103 = 1.625 σ al X 500 + 1.25 σ al X 750 + σ al X 1000
250 X 103 = 2750 σ al
σ al = 250 X 103
2750
 σ al = 90.9 N/mm2.
Substitute the value of σ al in equ. 1, σ c = 1.625 σ al
= 1.625 X 90.9
σ c = 147.7 N/mm2.
Substitute the value of σ al in equ. 2, σ z = 1.25 σ al
= 1.25 X 90.9
σ z = 113.625 N/mm2.
2. Load carried by each rod,
Load carried by copper rod, Pc = σ c X A c = 147.7 X 500
Pc = 73850 N.
Load carried by zinc rod, Pz = σ z X A z = 113.625 X 750
Pz = 85218 N.
Load carried by aluminium rod, Pal = σ al X A al = 90.9 X 1000
Pal = 90900 N.

THERMAL STRESSES
Thermal stresses are the stresses induced in a body due to change in temperature.
Thermal strain, e = δL = αTL =αT
L L
Thermal stress, σ = Thermal strain X E
= α T X E.
Stress & Strain when the supports yield,
If the supports yield by an amount equal to δ, then the actual expansion =
Expansion due to rise in temperature – δ
=αTL-δ
Actual Strain = Actual Expansion / Original Length
= (α T L – δ) / L
Actual Stress = Actual Strain X E = (α T L – δ) / L X E.
11.A rod is 2 m long at a temperature of 10°C. Find the expansion of the rod, when
the temperature is raised to 80°C. If this expansion is prevented, find the stress
induced in the material of the rod. Take E = 1.0 x 105 MN/m2 and α = 0.000012 per
degree centigrade.
Solution:
1. Expansion of the rod, T = 80°C - 10°C = 70°C
Expansion of the rod = α T L = 0.000012 X 70 X 2000
= 1.68 mm.
2. The stress induced in the material of the rod,
Thermal stress, σ = Thermal strain X E
= α T X E = 0.000012 X 70 X 1.0 x 105
σ = 84 N/mm2
12.A steel rod of 3 cm diameter and 5 m long is connected to two grips and the rod
is maintained at a temperature of 95°C. Determine the stress and pull exerted
when the temperature falls to 30°C, if
i) the ends do not yield and
ii) the ends yield by 0.12 cm. Take E = 2.0 x 105 MN/m2 and α = 0.000012 per degree
centigrade.
Solution:
1.Stress and pull when the ends do not yield,
Stress = α T X E = 0.000012 X 65 X 2.0 x 105 T = 95°C - 30°C
σ = 156 N/mm2 = 65°C
Pull in the rod, P = Stress X Area = 156 X 225 X π
P = 110269.9 N
Area of the rod, A = π X d2 / 4 = π X 302 / 4 = 225 π mm2.
2.Stress and pull when the ends yield by 0.12 cm, δ = 0.12 cm
= 1.2 mm
Actual Stress = (α T L – δ) / L X E.
= (0.000012 X 65 X 5000 – 1.2) X 2.0 x 105
5000
σ = 108 N/mm2
Pull in the rod, P = Stress X Area = 108 X 225 X π
P = 76340.7 N
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II - PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRAIN– SCIA1301

 INTRODUCTION
 PRINCIPAL PLANES:
 The planes which have no shear stress are known as principal planes.
 Hence principal planes are the planes of zero shear stress.
 These planes carry only normal stresses.
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES:
 The normal stresses acting on a principal plane are known as principal stresses.
METHODS FOR DETERMINING STRESSES ON OBLIQUE SECTION:
 Analytical Method
 Graphical method
 MAJOR PRINCIPAL STRESS:
 The plane carrying the maximum normal stress is called the major principal
plane and normal stress is called major principal stress.
 MINOR PRINCIPAL STRESS
 The plane carrying the minimum normal stress is known as minor principal
plane and normal stress is called minor principal stress.
ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR DETERMINING STRESSES ON OBLIQUE
SECTION

Figure No.1
 Induced stress is divided into two components which are given as:
 Normal stress
 • Normal Stress on an inclined section.
 Tangential stress
• Shear Stress on an inclined section.
MEMBER SUBJECTED TO A DIRECT STRESS IN ONE PLANE

Figure No.2
MEMBER SUBJECTED TO DIRECT STRESSES IN TWO MUTUALLY
PERPENDICULAR DIRECTIONS
MEMBER SUBJECTED TO A SIMPLE SHEAR STRESS

MEMBER SUBJECTED TO DIRECT STRESSES IN TWO MUTUALLY

PERPENDICULAR DIRECTIONS ACCOMPANIED BY A SIMPLE SHEAR STRESS
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS

OBLIQUITY:
The angle made by the resultant stress with the normal of the oblique plane is known as
Obliquity.
It is denoted by φ.
Mathematically, tan φ = σt / σn
MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS:
( σt )max = σ1 - σ2
2
PROBLEMS:
1.A rectangular bar of cross sectional area 10000 mm2 is subjected to an axial load of 20
KN. Determine the normal and shear stresses on a section which is inclined at an angle
of 30° with normal cross section of the bar.
Solution:
Normal Stress:
 σn = σ cos2 ϴ
σ = P/A = 20 X10 / 10000
σ = 2 N/mm2
σn = σ cos2 ϴ = 2 X cos2 30°
σn = 1.5 N/mm2 .
σt = σ/2 X sin 2ϴ
= 2/2 X sin 2 X 30°
σt = 0.866 N/mm2 .
2.Find the diameter of a circular bar which is subjected to an axial pull of 160 KN, if the
maximum allowable shear stress on any section is 65 N/mm2.
Solution:
Diameter of a circular bar,
Direct stress, σ = P/A = 160000 = 640000
π X d2/4 π X d2
Maximum shear stress = σ /2 = 640000/ π X d2
2
65 = 640000/ π X d2
2
d2 = 1567
d = 39.58 mm.
3. A rectangular bar of cross-sectional area of 11000 mm is subjected to a tensile load P
as shown in fig. The permissible normal and shear stresses on the oblique plane BC are
given as 7 N/mm2 and 3.5 N/mm2 respectively. Determine the safe value of P.

Figure No.3
Solution:
Angle of oblique plane with the axis of the bar = 60°
Angle of oblique plane BC with the normal cross section of the bar,
ϴ = 90° - 60° = 30°
σn = σ cos2 ϴ
7 = σ cos2 ϴ
σ = 7 / cos2 ϴ = 7 / cos2 30°
σ = 9.334 N/mm2 .
σt = σ/2 sin 2ϴ
3.5 = σ/2 X sin 2ϴ
σ = 3.5 X 2 / sin 2ϴ = 3.5 X 2 / sin 2 X 30°
σ = 8.083 N/mm2 .
The safe stress is the least value of the above two, σ = 8.083 N/mm2.
Safe Value of axial pull, P = Safe stress X Area of cross section
P = 8.083 X 11000 = 88913 N
P = 88.913 KN
4.Two wooden pieces 10 cm X 10 cm in cross section are joined together along line AB
as shown in fig. What maximum axial force P can be applied if the allowable shearing
stress along AB is 1.2 N/mm2.
Solution:
Angle of line AB with the axis of axial force = 30°
Angle of line AB with the normal cross-section,
ϴ = 90° - 30° = 60°
Let P – maximum axial force
σt = σ/2 X sin 2ϴ
1.2 = σ/2 X sin 2 X 60°
σ = 1.2 X 2 / sin 2 X 60° = 1.2 X 2 / sin 120°
σ = 2.771 N/mm2 .
P = σ X A = 2.771 X (100 X 100) = 27710 N or 27.710 KN
5. The tensile stresses at a point across two mutually perpendicular planes are 120
N/mm2 and 60 N/mm2. Determine the normal, tangential and resultant stresses on a
plane inclined at 30°to the axis of minor stress.
Solution:
Angle of oblique plane with the axis of minor principal stress, ϴ = 30°

Figure No.4
Normal stress:
σn = 120 + 60 + 120 – 60 cos 2 X 30°
2 2
σn = 105 N/mm2 .
6.The stresses at a point in a bar are 200 N/mm2 (T) and 100 N/mm2(C). Determine the
resultant stress in magnitude and direction on a plane inclined at 60° to the axis of the
major stress. Also determine the intensity of shear stress in the material at the point.
Solution:
Angle of plane with the major principal stress = 60°
Angle of plane with the normal cross-section,
ϴ = 90° - 60° = 30°
1. Normal stress:
σn = 200 + (-100) + 200 – (-100) X cos 2 X 30°
2 2
σn = 125 N/mm2 .
2. Tangential stress:
σt = 200 – (-100) sin 2 X 30°
2
σt = 129.9 N/mm2 .
Figure No.5
 121.655 N/mm2
11. A rectangular block of material is subjected to a tensile stress of 110 N/mm2
on one plane and a tensile stress of 47 N/mm2 on the plane at right angles to the former.
Each of the above stresses is accompanied by a shear stress of 63 N/mm2 and that
associated with the former tensile stress tends to rotate the block anticlockwise. Find the
direction and magnitude of each of the principal stress and
magnitude of the greatest shear stress.
Solution:
13. The normal stress in two mutually perpendicular directions are 600 N/mm2 and 300
N/mm2 both tensile. The complimentary shear stress in these directions are of intensity
450 N/mm2. Find the normal and tangential stresses on the two planes which are equally
inclined to the planes carrying the normal stresses mentioned above.
Solution:
1.Normal stress which is equally inclined to the plane,
The normal and tangential stresses are to be calculated on the two planes which are
equally inclined to the planes of major tensile stress and of minor tensile stress. This
means ϴ = 45° and 135°.
When ϴ = 45°, normal stress is given by
σn = σ1 - σ2 + σ1 – σ2 cos 2 X ϴ + τ sin 2 X ϴ
2 2
σn = 600 + 300 + 600 – 300 cos 2 X 45° + 450 X sin 2 X 45°
2 2
σn = 450 + 150 X 0 + 450 X 1
σn = 900 N/mm2
When ϴ = 135°, normal stress is given by
σn = 600 + 300 + 600 – 300 cos 2 X 135° + 450 X sin 2 X 135°
2 2
σn = 450 + 150 X 0 + 450 X (-1) = 450 - 450
σn = 0
σt = σ1 – σ2 sin 2ϴ - τ cos 2ϴ
2
2. Tangential stress which is equally inclined to the plane,
When ϴ = 45°, tangential stress is given by
σt = 600 – 300 sin 2 x 45° - 450 X cos 2 X 45°
2
= 150 X 1 – 450 X 0
σt = 150 N/mm2
When ϴ = 135°, tangential stress is given by
σt = 600 – 300 sin 2 x 135° - 450 X cos 2 X 135°
2
= 150 X (-1) – 450 X 0
σt = -150 N/mm2
15. At a point in a strained material, on plane BC there are normal and shear stresses
are 560 N/mm2 and 140 N/mm2 respectively. On plane AC, perpendicular to plane BC,
there are normal and shear stresses are 280 N/mm2 and 140 N/mm2 respectively as
shown in fig. Determine the,
 Principal stresses and location of the planes on which they act.
 Maximum shear stress and the plane on which it acts.
MOHR’S CIRCLE
The tensile stresses at a point across two mutually perpendicular planes are 120 N/mm 2
and 60 N/mm2. Determine the normal, tangential and resultant stresses on a plane
inclined at 30°to the axis of minor stress.
The stresses at a point in a bar are 200 N/mm2 ( T ) and 100 N/mm2( C ) . Determine the
resultant stress in magnitude and direction on a plane inclined at 60° to the axis of the
major stress. Also determine the intensity of shear stress in the material at the point.
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III –BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCE – SCIA1301

 BEAM
• Beams are horizontal structural elements that withstand vertical loads, shear
forces, and bending moments.
• They transfer loads that imposed along their length to their endpoints such as
walls, columns, foundations, etc.
TYPES OF BEAMS
 Simply Supported Beam.
 Fixed Beam.
 Cantilever Beam.
 Continuous Beam.
 Overhanging Beam
 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM:
 A beam supported or resting freely on the supports at its both ends is
known as simply supported beam.
 FIXED BEAM:
 A beam whose both ends are fixed or built-in walls is known as fixed beam.
 Fixed beam is also known as a built-in or encasted beam.
 CANTILEVER BEAM:
 A beam which is fixed at one end and free at the other end is known as
cantilever beam.
 CONTINUOUS BEAM:
 A beam which is provided more than two supports is known as continuous
beam.
 OVERHANGING BEAM:
 If the end portion of a beam is extended beyond the support, such beam is
known as overhanging beam.
 Figure No.1
TYPES OF SUPPORTS
 Fixed Support
 Simple Support
 Pinned Support
 Roller Support
FIXED SUPPORT:
 A fixed support is the most rigid type of support or connection.
 It constrains the member in all translations and rotations (i.e. it cannot move or
rotate in any direction).
 The easiest example of a fixed support would be a pole or column in concrete.
SIMPLE SUPPORT:
 Simple support is just a support on which structural member rests.
PINNED SUPPORT:
 A pinned support can resist both vertical and horizontal forces but not a moment.
 A pinned support is a very common type of support.
 A pinned support is same as hinged support.
ROLLER SUPPORT:
 Roller supports are free to rotate and translate along the surface upon which
the roller rests.
 Roller supports are commonly located at one end of long bridges in the form of
bearing pads.
 Figure No.2
TYPES OF LOADS
 Point load or concentrated load:
 It is one which is considered to act at a point.
 The load is expressed as W N.
 Uniformly distributed load:
 It is one which is spread over a beam in such a manner that rate of loading
w is uniform along the length. The rate of loading is expressed as w N/m.
 Uniformly varying load:
 It is one which is spread over a beam in such a manner that rate of loading
varies from point to point along the length.

Figure No.3
SHEAR FROCE AND BENDING MOMENT:

SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT:

Figure No.4
 Figure No.5
SAGGING BENDING MOMENT:
 The moment that makes beam to concave upward is called sagging moment.
 It is generally taken as positive moment.
 In this moment, the upward of beam compresses and downward of the beam
extends. So, stresses are developed called bending stress.
HOGGING BENDING MOMENT:
 The moment that makes beam to concave downward is called Hogging moment.
 It is taken as negative moment.
 The upward point is under tension and below point is at tension.
RULES FOR DRAWING SFD & BMD
 Consider the left or right portion of section.
 If the left portion of section is choosen, a force on the left portion acting upwards
is +ve and acting downwards is –ve.
 If right portion is choosen, a force on the right portion acting downwards is +ve
and acting upwards is –ve.
 The +ve values of shear force and bending moment are plotted above the base line
and –ve values below the base line.
 The Bending Moment at two supports of a simply supported beam and at the free
end of a cantilever beam are zero.
CANTILEVER BEAM
CANTILEVER WITH POINT LOAD AT THE FREE END:

Figure No.6
SHEAR FORCE:
VB (r) = 0 KN
VB (l) = W KN
Vxx = W KN
VA (r) = W KN
VA (l) = 0 KN
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance
BM at free end B, MB = 0 KN.m
BM at section XX, Mxx = -W X x = -Wx KN.m
BM at fixed end A, MA = -W X L = -WL KN.m
CANTILEVER WITH UDL THROUGHOUT THE LENGTH:

Figure No.7
SHEAR FORCE:
VB = 0 KN
Vxx = wx KN
VA (r) = wL KN
VA (l) = 0 KN
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance X Distance/2
BM at free end B, MB = 0 KN.m
BM at section XX, Mxx = -W X (x) X (x/2) = -Wx2/2 KN.m
BM at fixed end A, MA = -W X L X L/2= -WL2/2 KN.m
PROBLEMS:
1.A cantilever beam of length 2 m carries the point loads as shown in fig. Draw SFD and
BMD.

Figure No.8
SHEAR FORCE:
VD (r) = 0 KN
VD (l) = 800 N
VC (r) = 800 N
VC (l) = 800 + 500 = 1300 N
VB (r) = 1300 N
VB (l) = 1300 + 300 = 1600 N
VA (r) = 1600 N
VA (l) = 0 KN
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance
BM at the free end, M D = 0 N.m
BM at the point C, MC = -800 X 0.8 – 500 X 0 = -640 N.m
BM at the point B, MB = -800 X 1.5 – 500 X 0.7 = -1550 N.m
BM at the fixed end, M A = -800 X 2 – 500 X 1.2 – 300 X 0.5 = -2350 N.m
2.A cantilever of length 2 m carries a uniformly distributed load of 1 KN/m run over a
length of 1.5 m from the free end. Draw SFD and BMD
SHEAR FORCE:
VB = 0 KN
VC = 1 X 1.5 = 1.5 KN
VA (r) = 1.5 KN
VA (l) = 0 KN

Figure No.9
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance X Distance/2
BM at free end B, MB = 0 KN.m
BM at the point C, MC = -1 X 1.5 X 1.5/2 = -1.125 KN.m
BM at fixed end A, MA = -1 X 1.5 X (1.5/2 + 0.5) = -1.875 KN.m
3.A cantilever of length 2 m carries a uniformly distributed load of 2 KN/m length over
the whole length and a point load of 3 KN at the free end. Draw SFD and BMD.

Figure No.10
SHEAR FORCE:
VB (r) = 0 KN
VB (l) = 3 KN
VA (r) = 3 + 2 X 2 = 7 KN
VA (l) = 0 KN
BENDING MOMENT:
BM at free end B, MB = 0 KN.m
BM at fixed end A, MA = -3 X 2 – 2 X 2 X 2/2 = -10 KN.m
4. A cantilever of length 2 m carries a uniformly distributed load of 1.5 KN/m run over
the whole length and a point load of 2 KN at a distance of 0.5 m from the free end. Draw
SFD and BMD.

Figure No.11
SHEAR FORCE:
VB = 0 KN
VC (r) = 1.5 X 0.5 = 0.75 KN
VC (l) = 0.75 + 2 = 2.75 KN
VA (r) = 2.75 + 1.5 X 1.5 = 5 KN
VA (l) = 0 KN
BENDING MOMENT:
BM at free end B, MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = -1.5 X 0.5 X 0.5/2 = -0.1875 KN.m
BM at fixed end A, MA = -1.5 X 2 X 2/2 – 2 X 1.5 = -6 KN.m
5. A cantilever 1.5 m long is loaded with a uniformly distributed load of 2 KN/m run over
a length of 1.25 m from the free end. It also carries a point load of 3 KN at a distance of
0.25 m from the free end. Draw SFD and BMD.

Figure No.12
SHEAR FORCE:
VB = 0 KN
VC (r) = 2 X 0.25 = 0.5 KN
VC (l) = 0.5 + 3 = 3.5 KN
VD (r) = 3.5 + 2 X 1 = 5.5 KN
VD (l) = 5.5 KN
VA (r) = 5.5 KN
VA (l) = 0 KN
BENDING MOMENT:
BM at free end B, MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = -2 X 0.25 X 0.25/2 = -0.0625 KN.m
BM at point D, MD = -2 X 1.25 X 1.25/2 - 3 X 1 = -4.563 KN.m
BM at fixed end A, MA = -2 X 1.25 X (1.25/2 + 0.25) – 3 X 1.25 = -5.94 KN.m
6. A cantilever of length of 5 m is loaded as shown in fig. Draw SFD and BMD.
SHEAR FORCE:
VB (r) = 0 KN
VB (l) = 2.5 KN
VC = 2.5 KN
VD = 2.5 + 1 X 2 = 4.5 KN
VE (r) = 4.5 KN
VE (l) = 4.5 + 3 = 7.5 KN
VA (r) = 7.5 KN
VA (l) = 0 KN

Figure No.13
BENDING MOMENT:
BM at free end B, MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = -2.5 X 0.5 = -1.25 KN.m
BM at point D, MD = -2.5 X 2.5 – 1 X 2 X 2/2 = -8.25 KN.m
BM at point E, ME = -2.5 X 4 - 1 X 2 X (2/2 + 1.5) = -15 KN.m
BM at fixed end A, MA = -2.5 X 5 – 1 X 2 X (2/2 + 2.5) – 3 X 1 = -22.5 KN.m

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH MID POINT LOAD

Figure No.14
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = W KN.
RA = RB (symmetrical Loading)
RA + RA = W
2 RA = W
RA = W/2 KN and RB = W - RA = W – W/2 = W/2 KN
SHEAR FORCE:
VA (l) = 0 KN
VA (r) = W/2 KN
Vc (l) = W/2 KN
Vc (r) = W/2 - W = - W/2 KN
VB (l) = - W/2 KN
VB (r) = - W/2 + W/2 = 0 KN
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance
BM at end supports A & B, M A = MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = W/2 X L/2 = WL/4 KN.m
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH UDL THROUGHOUT THE LENGTH:

Figure No.15
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = wL
RA = RB (symmetrical Loading)
RA + RA = wL
2 RA = wL
RA = wL/2 KN and RB = wL - wL/2 = wL/2 KN
SHEAR FORCE:
VA (l) = 0 KN
VA (r) = WL/2 KN
Vc = WL/2 - WL/2 = 0 KN
VB (l) = 0 - wL/2 = - wL/2 KN
VB (r) = - wL/2 + wL/2 = 0 KN
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance X Distance/2
BM at end supports A & B, M A = MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = wL/2 X L/2 – w X L/2 X L/4 = wL2/4 - wL2/8
= wL2/8 KN.m
7. A simply supported beam of length 6 m, carries point loads of 3 KN and 6 KN at
distances of 2 m and 4 m from the left end. Draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams for the beam.
Solution:
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = 9 KN.
Taking moment reactions about A,
RB X 6 – 3 X 2 – 6 X 4 = 0
6 RB - 6 – 24 = 0
6 RB = 30, RB = 30/6 = 5 KN
RA + RB = 9
RA = 9 – 5 = 4 KN
SHEAR FORCE:
VA (l) = 0 KN
VA (r) = 4 KN
VC (l) = 4 KN
VC (r) = 4 – 3 = 1 KN
VD (l) = 1 KN
VD (r) = 1 – 6 = -5 KN
VB (l) = -5 KN
VB (r) = -5 + 5 = 0 KN.
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance
BM at end supports A & B, M A = MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = 4 X 2 = 8 KN.m
BM at point D, MD = 4 X 4 – 3 X 2 = 10 KN.m
 Figure No.16
8. Draw the SFD and BMD for a simply supported beam of length 9 m and carrying a
UDL of 10 KN/m for a distance of 6 m from the left end. Also calculate the maximum BM
on the section.
Solution:
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = 10 X 6 = 60 KN.
Taking moment reactions about A,
RB X 9 – 10 X 6 X 6/2 = 0
9 RB - 180 = 0
RB = 180 / 9 = 20 KN
RA + RB = 60
RA = 60 – 20 = 40 KN
SHEAR FORCE:
VA (l) = 0 KN
VA (r) = 40 KN
VC = 40 – 10 X 6 = -20 KN
VB (l) = -20 KN
VB (r) = -20 + 20 = 0 KN.
The shear force changes its sign from positive to negative between A and C.
Distance, x = S.F / UDL = VA (r) / 10 = 40/10 = 4 m.
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance X Distance/2
BM at end supports A & B, M A = MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = 40 X 6 – 10 X 6 X 6/2 = 60 KN.m
BM at point D or Max. BM, M D or M max. = 40 X 4 – 10 X 4 X 4/2 = 80 KN.m

Figure No.17
9. Draw SFD and BMD for a simply supported beam of length 8 m and carrying a UDL
of 10 KN/m for a distance of 4 m as shown in fig.
Solution:
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = 10 X 4 = 40 KN.
Taking moment reactions about A,
RB X 8 – 10 X 4 X (4/2 + 1) = 0
8 RB - 120 = 0
RB = 120 / 8 = 15 KN
RA + RB = 40
RA = 40 – 15 = 25 KN
SHEAR FORCE:
VA (l) = 0 KN
VA (r) = 25 KN
VC (l) = 25 KN
VC (r) = 25 KN
VD (l) = 25 - 40 = -15 KN
VD (r) = -15 KN
VB (l) = -15 KN
VB (r) = -15 + 15 = 0 KN.
The shear force changes its sign from positive to negative between C and D.
Distance, x = S.F / UDL = VC (r) / UDL = 25/10 = 2.5 m.
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance X Distance/2
BM at end supports A & B, M A = MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = 25 X 1 = 25 KN.m
BM at point D, MD = 25 X 5 – 10 X 4 X 4/2 = 45 KN.m
BM at point E or Max. BM, ME or M max. = 25 X 3.5 – 10 X 2.5 X 2.5/2
= 56.25 KN.m
 Figure No.18
10. Draw SFD and BMD of a simply supported beam of length 7 m carrying uniformly
distributed loads as shown in fig.
Solution:
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = 10 X 3 + 5 x 2 = 40 KN.
Taking moment reactions about A,
RB X 7 – 5 X 2 X (2/2 + 5) – 10 x 3 x 3/2 = 0
RB = 15 KN
RA + RB = 40
RA = 40 – 15 = 25 KN
SHEAR FORCE:
VA (l) = 0 KN
VA (r) = 25 KN
VC = 25 - 10 x 3 = -5 KN
VD (l) = -5 KN
VD (r) = -5 – 5 x 2 = -15 KN
VB (l) = -15 KN
VB (r) = -15 + 15 = 0 KN.
The shear force changes its sign from positive to negative between A and C.
Distance, x = S.F / UDL = VA (r) / UDL = 25/10 = 2.5 m.
BENDING MOMENT:
Bending Moment = Load X Distance X Distance/2
BM at end supports A & B, M A = MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = 25 X 3 – 10 x 3 x 3/2 = 30 KN.m
BM at point D, MD = 25 X 5 – 10 X 3 X (3/2 + 2) = 20 KN.m
BM at point E or Max. BM, ME or M max. = 25 X 2.5 – 10 X 2.5 X 2.5/2
= 31.25 KN.m

Figure No.19
11. A simply supported beam of length 10 m, carries the UDL and two point loads as
shown in fig. Draw SFD and BMD for the beam. Also calculate the maximum bending
moment.
Solution:
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = 50 + 40 + 10 X 4 = 130 KN.
Taking moment reactions about A,
RB X 10 – 50 X 2 – 40 X 6 – 10 X 4 X (4/2 + 2) = 0
10 RB - 500 = 0
RB = 500/10 = 50 KN
RA + RB = 130 KN
RA = 130 – 50 = 80 KN
SHEAR FORCE:
VA (l) = 0 KN
VA (r) = 80 KN
VC (l) = 80 KN
VC (r) = 80 – 50 = 30 KN
VD (l) = 30 – 10 X 4 = -10 KN
VD (r) = - 10 - 40 = - 50 KN
VB (l) = - 50 KN
VB (r) = -50 + 50 = 0 KN.
The shear force changes its sign from positive to negative in between C and D.
Distance, x = S.F / UDL = VC (r) / 10 = 30/10 = 3 m.
BENDING MOMENT:
BM at end supports A & B, M A = MB = 0 KN.m
BM at point C, MC = 80 X 2 = 160 KN.m
BM at point D, MD = 80 X 6 – 50 X 4 – 10 X 4 X 4/2 = 200 KN.m
BM at point E or Max. BM, M E or Mmax. = 80 X 5 – 50 X 3 - 10 X 3 X 3/2 = 205 KN.m
 Figure No.20

POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE

Figure No.21
 Point of contraflexure is the point where bending moment changes its sign i.e,
from positive value to a negative value or vice versa.
 The point of contraflexure occurs where bending is zero.
 It will occur in the overhanging beam.
 It is also known as point of inflexion.

OVERHANGING BEAM
12. Draw SFD and BMD for the overhanging beam carrying UDL of 2 KN/m over the
entire length as shown in fig. Also locate the point of contraflexure.
Solution:
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = 2 x 6 = 12 KN.
Taking moment reactions about A,
RB X 4 – 2 x 6 x 6/2 = 0
4 RB – 36 = 0
RB = 36/4 = 9 KN
RA + RB = 12 KN
RA = 12 – 9 = 3 KN
SHEAR FORCE:
VA (l) = 0 KN
VA (r) = 3 KN
VB (l) = 3 – 2 x 4 = -5 KN
VB (r) = -5 + 9 = 4 KN
VC (l) = 4 – 2 x 2 = 0 KN
VC (r) = 0 KN
The shear force changes its sign from positive to negative in between A and B.
Distance, x = S.F / UDL = VA (r) / 2 = 3/2 = 1.5 m.
BENDING MOMENT:
BM at left end support A, M A = 0 KN.m
BM at free end C, MC = 0 KN.m
BM at support B, MB = 3 X 4 – 2 X 4 X 4/2 = 12 – 16 = -4 KN.m
BM at point D, MD or Mmax. = 3 X 1.5 – 2 X 1.5 X 1.5/2 = 2.25 KN.m
 POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE:
The BM changes its sign from positive to negative in between the sections A and
B.
Let BM is Zero is at a distance of y m from A.
Let point E is at a distance of y m.
ME = 3 X y – 2 X y X y/2 = 0
= 3y – 2y2/2 = 0
= y (3 – y) = 0
=3–y=0
y = 3 m. Hence point of contraflexure will be at a distance of 3 m from A.

Figure No.22
13. Draw SFD and BMD for the overhanging beam carrying UDL of 2 KN/m over the
entire length and a point load of 2 KN as shown in fig. Locate the point of
contraflexure.
Solution:
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = 2 x 6 + 2 = 14 KN.
Taking moment reactions about A,
RB X 4 – 2 x 6 x 6/2 – 2 X 6 = 0
4 RB – 36 - 12 = 0
RB = 48/4 = 12 KN
RA + RB = 14 KN
RA = 14 – 12 = 2 KN
SHEAR FORCE:
VA (l) = 0 KN
VA (r) = 2 KN
VB (l) = 2 – 2 x 4 = -6 KN
VB (r) = -6 + 12 = 6 KN
VC (l) = 6 – 2 x 2 = 2 KN
VC (r) = 2 – 2 = 0 KN
The shear force changes its sign from positive to negative in between A and B.
Distance, x = S.F / UDL = VA (r) / 2 = 2/2 = 1 m.
BENDING MOMENT:
BM at left end support A, M A = 0 KN.m
BM at free end C, MC = 0 KN.m
BM at support B, MB = 2 X 4 – 2 X 4 X 4/2 = 8 – 16 = -8 KN.m
BM at point D, MD or Mmax. = 2 X 1 – 2 X 1 X 1/2 = 1 KN.m
POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE:
The BM changes its sign from positive to negative in between the sections A and
B.
Let BM is Zero is at a distance of y m from A.
Let point E is at a distance of y m.
ME = 2 X y – 2 X y X y/2 = 0
= 2y – 2y2/2 = 0
= y (2 – y) = 0
=2–y=0
y = 2 m. Hence point of contraflexure will be at a distance of 2 m from A.
 Figure No.23
14. A beam of length 12 m is simply supported at two supports which are 8 m apart,
with an overhang of 2 m on each side as shown in fig. The beam carries a
concentrated load of 1000 N at each end. Draw SFD and BMD.
Solution:
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = 1000 + 1000 = 2000 N.
As the loading on the beam is symmetrical,
hence RA = RB = 2000/2 = 1000 N.
SHEAR FORCE:
VC (l) = 0 N
VC (r) = -1000 N
VA (l) = -1000 N
VA (r) = -1000 + 1000 = 0 N
VB (l) = 0 N
VB (r) = 0 + 1000 = 1000 N
VD (l) = 1000 N
VD (r) = 1000 – 1000 = 0 N
 BENDING MOMENT:
BM at the free end C and D, M C and MD = 0 N.m
BM at the left support A, M A = - 1000 X 2 = -2000 N.m
BM at the right support B, M B = - 1000 X 2 = -2000 N.m
POINT OF CONTRAFLEXURE:
No point of contraflexure, because of constant bending moment.

Figure No.24
15. Draw SFD and BMD for the beam which is shown in fig. Determine the points of
contraflexure within the span AB.
Solution:
REACTIONS:
RA + RB = Total Load = 800 + 2000 + 1000 = 3800 N.
Taking moment reactions about A,
RB X 8 – 2000 x 5 – 1000 X 10 + 800 X 3 = 0
8 RB – 10000 – 10000 + 2400 = 0
RB = 17600/4 = 2200 N
RA + 2200 = 3800 N
RA = 3800 – 2200 = 1600 N
SHEAR FORCE:
VC (l) = 0 N
VC (r) = -800 N
VA (l) = -800 N
VA (r) = -800 + 1600 = 800 N
VD (l) = 800 N
VD (r) = 800 - 2000 = -1200 N
VB (l) = -1200 N
VB (r) = -1200 + 2200 = 1000 N
VE (l) = 1000 N
VE (r) = 1000 - 1000 = 0 N
BENDING MOMENT:
BM at the free end C and E, M C and ME = 0 N.m
BM at the left support A, M A = - 800 X 3 = -2400 N.m
BM at the right support B, M B = - 800 X 11 + 1600 X 8 – 2000 x 3 = -2000 N.m
BM at the point D, MD = - 800 X 8 + 1600 X 5 = 1600 N.m
POINTS OF CONTRAFLEXURE:
Here, two points of contraflexure O1 and O2 where the BM becomes zero.
Point O1 lies between A and D and point O2 lies between D and B.
Let point O1 is at a distance of x1 m from A,
M O1 = -800 X (3 + x1) + 1600 X x1 = -2400 – 800 x1 + 1600 x1
x1 = 3 m.
Let point O2 is at a distance of x2 m from B,
M O2 = 1000 X (2 + x2 ) - 2200 X x2 = 2000 + 1000 x2 – 2200 x2
x2 = 1.67 m.
Hence points of contraflexure is at 3 m from A and also 1.67 m from B.
Figure No.25
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV –BENDING & SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION, TORSION - SCIA1301

 INTRODUCTION
 BENDING STRESS:
 When some external load acts on a beam, the shear force and bending moments
are set up at all sections of the beam.
 Due to the shear force and bending moment, the beam undergoes certain
deformation.
 The material of the beam will offer resistance or stresses against these
deformations.
 The stresses introduced by bending moment are known as bending stresses.
PURE BENDING

Figure No.1
PURE BENDING:
 If a length of a beam is subjected to a constant bending moment and no shear
force, then the stresses will be set up in that length of the beam due to bending
moment only and that length of the beam is said to be in pure bending or simple
bending.
 The stresses set up in that length of beam are known as bending stresses.
ASSUMPTIONS IN THE THEORY OF SIMPLE BENDING:
 The material of the beam is homogeneous and isotropic.
 The value of young’s modulus of elasticity is the same in tension and compression.
 The transverse sections which were plane before bending remain plane after
bending also.
 The beam is initially straight and all longitudinal filaments bend into circular arcs
with a common centre of curvature.
 The radius of curvature is large compared with the dimensions of the cross section.
 Each layer of the beam is free to expand or contract, independently of the layer,
above or below it.
 NEUTRAL AXIS:
 It is defined as the line of intersection of the neutral layer with the transverse
section.
 It is denoted by ‘N.A’.
 MOMENT OF RESISTANCE:
 Due to pure bending, the layers above the N.A are subjected to compressive
stresses whereas the layers below the N.A are subjected to tensile stresses.
 Due to these stresses, the forces will be acting on the layers.
 These forces will have moment about the N.A.
 The total moment of these forces about the N.A for a section is known as moment
of resistance of that section.
BENDING EQUATION
M = σ = E
I y R
Where,
M – bending Moment in N.mm
I - moment of inertia in mm4
σ - Bending stress in N/mm2
E – Young’s modulus in N/mm2
R – Radius of curvature in mm.

FLEXURAL RIGIDITY:
 The product of young’s modulus and the moment of inertia is known as
flexural rigidity. (EI)
 SECTION MODULUS:
 It is defined as the ratio of moment of inertia of a section about the neutral axis to
the distance of the outermost layer from the neutral axis.
 It is denoted by Z.
 mathematically, section modulus is given by
Z = I/ymax.
Where, I - moment of inertia in mm4
ymax. - distance of the outermost layer from the neutral axis in mm.
M = σmax
I ymax.
M = I X σmax
ymax.
M = Z X σmax
In the above equation, M is the maximum bending moment.
Hence moment of resistance offered the section is maximum when section modulus
Z is maximum.
Hence section modulus represents the strength of the section.
STRENGTH OF A SECTION:
The strength of a section means the moment of resistance offered by the section
and moment of resistance is given by,
M=ZXσ

SECTION MODULUS FOR VARIOUS SECTIONS

1. A steel plate of width 120 mm and of thickness 20 mm is bent into a circular arc
of radius 10 m. Determine the maximum stress induced and the bending moment
which will produce the maximum stress. Take E = 2 X 105 N/mm2.
Given Data:
b = 120 mm
t = 20 mm
R = 10 m = 10 x 103 mm
E = 2 X 105 N/mm2.
To Find:
σmax & M.
Solution:
1. σmax
σmax = E X ymax. ymax. = t/2 = 20/2 = 10 mm.
R

= 2 X 105 X 10 = 200 N/mm2.

 10 x 103
2. M
M = E I = b X t3/12 = 120 X 203/12 = 8 X 104mm4
I R
M= E X I = 2 X 105 X 8 X 104 = 16 X 105 N.mm
R 10 x 103
2. Calculate the maximum stress induced in a cast iron pipe of external diameter 40
mm, internal diameter 20 mm and of length 4 m when the pipe is supported at its
ends and carries a point load of 80 N at its centre.
Given Data:
D = 40 mm
d = 20 mm
L = 4 m = 4 x 103 mm
W = 80 N.
To Find:
σmax
Solution:
In case of simply supported beam carrying a point load at the centre, the
maximum bending moment is at the centre of the beam.
Maximum Bending Moment, M = WL/4 = 80 X 4 x 103 /4 = 8 X 104N.mm
I = π/64 ( D4 – d4 ) = π/64 ( 404 – 204 ) = 117809.7 mm4
M = σmax
I ymax. ymax. = D/2 = 40/2 = 20 mm.
σmax = ( M/I ) X ymax. = (8 X 104 / 117809.7) X 20 = 13.58 N/mm2.
3. A cantilever of length 2 m fails when a load of 2 KN is applied at the free end. If
the section of the beam is 40 mm X 60 mm, find the stress at the failure.
Given Data:
b = 40 mm
d = 60 mm
L = 2 m = 2 x 103 mm
W = 2 KN.
To Find:
 σmax
Solution:
Maximum bending moment for a cantilever is at the fixed end.
M = W X L = 2000 X 2 x 103 = 4 X 106 N.mm
σmax = M / Z Z = bd2/6 = 40 X 602/6
= 24000 mm3.
σmax = 4 X 106 / 24000 = 166.67 N/mm2.
4. A rectangular beam 200 mm deep and 300 mm wide is simply supported over a
span of 8 m. What uniformly distributed load per metre the beam may carry, if
the bending stress is not to exceed 120 N/mm2.
Given Data:
b = 300 mm
d = 200 mm
L = 8 m = 8 x 103 mm
σmax = 120 N/mm2.
To Find:
w
Solution:
Maximum B.M for a simply supported beam carrying UDL is at the centre of the
beam.
M = w X L2/8 = w X 82/8 = 8w Nm = 8w X 1000 N.mm
M = 8000w N.mm
M = σmax X Z Z = bd 2/6 = 300 X 2002/6
= 2000000 mm3.
8000w = 120 X 2000000
w = 120 X 2000000 = 30 X 1000 N/m = 30 KN/m.
8000
5. A rectangular beam 300 mm deep is simply supported over a span of 4 m.
Determine the uniformly distributed load per metre which the beam may carry, if
the bending stress should not exceed 120 N/mm2.Take I = 8 X 106 mm4.

Solution:
For a simply supported beam carrying UDL, the bending moment is maximum at
the centre of the beam.
Max.BM = 2w X 2 – w X 2 X 2/2 = 4w – 2w = 2w N.m = 2w X 1000 N.mm
M = 2000w N.mm
M = σmax X Z y max = 300/2 = 150 mm.
Z = I / ymax. = 8 X 106 /150

Figure No.2
M = 120 X (8 X 106 /150)
2000w = 120 X (8 X 106 /150)
w = 120 X 8 X 106 = 3200 N/m.
150 X 2000
6. A square beam 20 mm X 20 mm in section and 2 m long is supported at the ends.
The beam fails when a point load of 400 N is applied at the centre of the beam.
What uniformly distributed load per metre length will break a cantilever of the
same material 40 mm wide, 60 mm deep and 3 m long.

Solution:
In this problem, the maximum stress for the simply supported beam is to be
calculated first. As the material of the cantilever is same as that of simply
supported beam, hence maximum stress for the cantilever will also be same as that
of simply supported beam. [d – 20 mm, b – 20 mm,L – 2 m, W – 400 N]

Figure No.3
Figure No.4

Max. BM for a simply supported beam carrying a point load at the centre is given
by,
M = W X L/4 = (400 X 2 X 103)/4 = 200000 N.mm
M = σmax X Z Z = bd 2/6 = 20 X 202/6
= 4000/3 mm3.
200000 = σmax X 4000/3
σmax = (200000 X 3)/4000 = 150 N/ mm2.
Now let us consider the cantilever. [b – 40 mm, d – 60 mm, L – 3 m]
Let w – UDL per m run.
Maximum stress will be same as in case of simply supported beam.
σmax = 150 N/ mm2.
Z = bd2/6 = 40 X 602/6 = 24000 mm3.
Maximum BM for a cantilever, M = w X L/2 = w X 3/2
= 4.5w N.m = 4.5 X 1000w N.mm
M = σmax X Z
4.5 X 1000w = 150 X 24000
w = 150 X 24000 / (4.5 X 1000)
w = 800 N/m
7. A beam is simply supported and carries a uniformly distributed load of 40 KN/m
run over the whole span. The section of the beam is rectangular having depth as
500 mm. If the maximum stress in the material of the beam is 120 N/mm2and
moment of inertia of the section is 7 X 108 mm4. Find the span of the beam.
Solution:
Max. BM for a simply supported beam carrying a UDL over the span is at the
centre of the beam is given by,
M = w X L2 /8 = (40000 X L2)/8 = 5000 L2 N.m = 5000 L2 X 1000 N.mm
M = σmax X Z ymax = d/2 = 500/2 = 250 mm.
Z = I / ymax. = 7 X 108 /250 = 28 X 105 mm3.
5000 L2 X 1000 = 120 X 28 X 105
L2 = 120 X 28 X 105 / (5000 X 1000)
L = 8.197 m = 8.2 m.
8. A timber beam of rectangular section is to support a load of 20 KN uniformly
distributed over a span of 3.6 m when beam is simply supported. If the depth of
the section is to be twice the breadth and the stress in the timber is not to exceed 7
N/mm2. Find the dimensions of the cross section. How would you modify the cross
section of the beam, if it carries a concentrated load of 20 KN placed at the centre
with the same ratio of breadth to depth?
Solution:
Maximum bending moment, when the simply supported beam carries a UDL over
the entire span, is at the centre of the beam is given by,
M = w X L/8 = W X L/8 = 20000 X 3.6 / 8 = 9000 N.m = 9000 X 1000 N.mm
M = σmax X Z Z = bd 2/6 = b X (2b)2/6 = 2b3/3 mm3
9000 X 1000 = 7 X 2b3/3
b3 = 9000 X 1000 X 3/ (7 X 2)
b = 124.47 mm = 124.5 mm
d = 2b = 2 X 124.5 = 249 mm.
Dimension of the section when the beam carries a point load at the centre.
B.M for simply supported beam carries a point load at the centre will be maximum
and is given by,
M = W X L/4 = 20000 X 3.6/4 = 18000 X 1000 N.mm
M = σmax X Z
18000 X 1000 = 7 X 2b3/3
b3 = 18000 X 1000 X 3 / (7 X 2)
b = 156.82 mm
d = 2b = 2 X 156.82 = 313.64 mm.
9. A rolled steel joist of I section has the dimensions a shown in fig. This beam of I
section carries a UDL of 40 KN/m run on a span of 10 m, calculate the maximum
stress produced due to bending.
Solution:
Moment of inertia about the neutral axis,
= 200 X 4003 – (200-10) X 3603
12 12
= 327946666 mm4.
Maximum B.M is given by,
M = w X L2/8 = 40000 X 102/8 = 500000 N.m = 500000 X 1000 N.mm
Figure No.5
M = σ
I y
σmax = M X ymax
I
σmax = 500000 X 1000 X 200
327946666
σmax = 304.92 N/mm2
10. Two circular beams where one is solid of diameter D and other is a hollow of
outer diameter Do and inner diameter Di are of same length, same material and of
same weight. Find the ratio of section modulus of these circular beams.
Solution:
Let, L – Length of each beam.
W – weight of each beam.
ρ – density of the material of each beam.
Now weight of solid beam = ρ X g X Volume = ρ X g X Area of cross section X L
= ρ X g X (π/4) X D2 X L
weight of hollow beam = ρ X g X Volume = ρ X g X Area of cross section X L
= ρ X g X (π/4) X (Do2 - Di 2) X L
But the weights are same.
ρ X g X (π/4) X D2 X L = ρ X g X (π/4) X (Do2 - Di 2) X L
D2 = Do2 - Di 2 OR Di 2 = Do2 - D2
Now section modulus of solid beam, Z = π X D3/32
section modulus of hollow beam, Z = π/32 DoX (Do4 - Di 4)
= π/32 DoX (Do2 + Di 2) (Do2 - Di 2)
Section modulus of solid beam = π X D3/32
Section modulus of hollow beam π/32 DoX (Do2 + Di 2) (Do2 - Di 2)
D3 X Do = D X D2 X Do
(Do2 + Di 2) (Do2 - Di 2) (Do2 + Di 2) (Do2 - Di 2)
D X Do X (Do2 - Di 2) = D X Do
(Do2 + Di 2) (Do2 - Di 2) (Do2 + Di 2)
Section modulus of solid beam = D X Do = D X Do
Section modulus of hollow beam Do2 + Do2 - D2 (2 Do2 - D2 )
Section modulus of hollow beam = 2 Do2 - D2
Section modulus of solid beam D X Do
2 Do 2 _ D2 = 2 Do _ D
D X Do D X Do D Do
 SHEAR STRESS IN BEAMS
 The shearing stress in beam is defined as the stress that occurs due to the internal
shearing of the beam that results from shear force subjected to the beam.
 It is denoted by the symbol τ and is expressed in the unit of psi or N/mm2.
 τ = F X (A y/I.b)
F – shear force at a section
A – Area of the section
Y – Distance of the C.G of the area A from the neutral axis.
I – Moment of inertia of the section about the neutral axis.
b – Width of the beam.
11. A wooden beam 100 mm wide and 150 mm deep is simply supported over a
span of 4 m. If shear force at a section of the beam is 4500 N, find the shear stress
at a distance of 25 mm above the N.A.
Solution:
b – 100 mm
d – 150 mm
F – 4500 N
Let τ - shear stress at a distance of 25 mm above the N.A.
τ = F X (A y/I.b)
A = Area of the beam above y1 ( Shaded area )
= 100 X 50 = 5000 mm2.
Figure No.6
y = Distance of the C.G of the area A from the neutral axis.
= 25 + 50/2 = 50 mm.
I = M.O.I of the total section.
= bd/12 = 100 X 150 /12 = 28125000 mm4.
b – Actual width of section at a distance y1 from N.A. = 100 mm.
τ = F X (A y/I.b) = 4500 X 5000 X 50 = 0.4 N/mm2
28125000 X 100
SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION FOR DIFFERENT SECTIONS
RECTANGULAR SECTION

Figure No.7
τ = F/2I X (d2/4 - y2)
12. A rectangular beam 100 mm wide and 250 mm deep is subjected to a maximum
shear force of 50 KN. Determine the Average shear stress, Maximum shear stress
and Shear stress at a distance of 25 mm above the neutral axis.
Solution:
Average shear stress,
τmax = F/Area = 50000/ (b X d) = 50000/ (100 X 250)
= 2 N/mm2
Maximum shear stress,
τmax = 1.5 X τavg = 1.5 X 2 = 3 N/mm2
Figure No.8
3. Shear stress at a distance of 25 mm above the neutral axis,
Τ = F/2I X (d2/4 - y2)
= 50000/2I [ 2502/4 – 252 ]
= 50000 X [62500/4 – 625]
2 X bd3/12
= 2.88 N/mm2
13. A timber beam of rectangular section is simply supported at the ends and
carries a point load at the centre of the beam. The maximum bending stress is 12
N/mm2 and maximum shearing stress is 1 N/mm2. Find the ratio of the span to the
depth.
Solution:
Let, b – Width of the beam
d – Depth of the beam
L – Span of the beam
W – Point load at the centre
Maximum shear force, F = W/2
Maximum bending moment, M = W X L/4

Figure No.9

τavg = Shear force = W/2 = W

Area bXd 2bd
τmax = 1.5 X τavg = 1.5 X W
2bd
1 = 1.5 X W
2bd
2 = W
1.5 bd
Using Bending Equation,
σmax = M X ymax
I
σmax = (W X L/4) X (d/2)
bd3/12

= 12 X W.L.d = 1.5 W. L
8 bd3 bd2
12 = 1.5 W. L
bd2
12 = 1.5 X W L
bd d
12 = 1.5 X 2 X L
1.5 d
12/2 = L/d = 6
CIRCULAR SECTION:

Figure No.10
τ = F (R2 – y2)
3I
 τavg. = Shear Force / Area of circular section = F/πR2
τmax. = (4/3) X τavg. = (4/3) X (F/πR2)
14. A circular beam of 100 mm diameter is subjected to a shear force of 5 KN.
Calculate Average shear stress, Maximum shear stress and shear stress at a
distance of 40 mm from N.A.
Solution:
Average shear stress,
τavg. = Shear Force / Area of circular section = F/πR2
= 5000/ π X 502
= 0.6366 N/mm2
Maximum shear stress,
τmax. = (4/3) X τavg. = (4/3) X 0.6366 = 0.8488 N/mm2
Maximum shear stress and shear stress at a distance of 40 mm from N.A.,
τ = F (R2 – y2)
3I
= 5000 ( 502 – 402)
3 X ( πd4/64)
= 5000 ( 502 – 402)
3 X ( π X 1004/64)
τ = 0.3055 N/mm2
I - SECTION

Figure No.11
τmax. = F B (D2 – d2) + bd2
IXb 8 8
15. An I-section beam 350 mm X 150 mm has a web thickness of 10 mm and a
flange thickness of 20 mm. If the shear force acting on the section is 40 KN, find
the maximum shear stress developed in the I-section.
Given Data:
Overall Depth, D = 350 mm
Overall Width, B = 150 mm
Web Thickness = 10 mm
Flange Thickness = 20 mm
Depth of Web = 350 – (2 X 20) = 310 mm.
Shear Force, F = 40 KN = 40000 N.
To Find:
Maximum Shear stress, τmax
Solution:
I = 150 X 3503 - 140 X 3103
12 12
= 188375833.4 mm4.
τmax. = F B (D2 – d2) + bd2
IXb 8 8

= 40000 150 (3502 – 3102) + 10 X 3102

188375833.4 X 10 8 8
= 13.06 N/mm2
 TORSION
 A shaft is said to be in torsion, when equal and opposite torques are applied at the
two ends of the shaft.
 The torque is equal to the product of the force applied and radius of the shaft.
 Due to application of the torques at the two ends, the shaft is subjected to a twisting
moment.
 This causes the shear stresses and shear strains in the material of the shaft.
TORSION EQUATION

SHEAR STRESS IN SHAFT

ASSUMPTIONS MADE IN THE THEORY OF PURE TORSION

MAXIMUM TORQUE TRANSMITTED BY SOLID CIRCULAR SHAFT

 MAXIMUM TORQUE TRANSMITTED BY HOLLOW CIRCULAR SHAFT

Where,
T – Torque transmitted by hollow circular shaft N.mm.
τ - Shear stress in N/mm2.
Do – outer diameter in mm.
Di – Inner diameter in mm.
POWER TRANSMITTED BY SHAFTS
Power, P = 2π N T*/60
Where, N – Speed of the shaft in r.p.m.
T* - Mean Torque in N.m.
POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR SOLID CIRCULAR SHAFT
POLAR MOMENT OF INERTIA FOR HOLLOW CIRCULAR SHAFT
J = π (D4o - D4i)
32
POLAR MODULUS

 STRENGTH OF A SHAFT:
 The strength of a shaft means the maximum torque or maximum power the shaft
can transmit.
 TORSIONAL RIGIDITY:
 It is defined as the product of modulus of rigidity and polar moment of inertia of
the shaft.
 Mathematically, Torsional Rigidity = C X J
 It is also known as stiffness of the shaft.
 Torsional Rigidity is also defined as the torque required to produce a twist of one
radian per unit length of the shaft.
16. A solid shaft of 150 mm diameter is used to transmit torque. Find the maximum
torque transmitted by the shaft if the maximum shear stress induced to the shaft
is 45 N/mm2.
Solution:
T= π X D3 X τ
16
= π X 1503 X 45
16
T = 29820586 N.mm or 29820.586 N.m
17. The shearing stress of a solid shaft is not to exceed 40 N/mm2 , when the torque
transmitted is 20000 N.m. Determine the minimum diameter of the shaft.
Solution:
Let D – Minimum diameter of the shaft in mm.
T = π X D3 X τ
16
D3 = T X 16 = 20000 X 1000 X 16
πXτ π X 40
D= 136.2 mm.
18. In a hollow circular shaft of outer and inner diameters of 20 cm and 10 cm
respectively, the shear stress is not to exceed 40 N/mm2. Find the maximum torque
which the shaft can safely transmit.
Solution:
T=πXτ D4o - D4i
16 Do
T = π X 40 2004- 1004
16 200
T = 58904860 N.mm or 58904.860 N.m
19. A hollow shaft of external diameter 120 mm transmits 300 KW power at 200
r.p.m. Determine the maximum internal diameter if the maximum stress in the
shaft is not to exceed 60 N/mm2.
Solution:
Let Di - Internal diameter of the shaft.
P = 2π N T*/60
300000 = (2π X 200 X T*) /60
T* = 300000 X 60
2π X 200
T* = 14323.9 N.m
T = 14323.9 X 1000 N.mm
T = π X τ X (D4o - D4i)
16 Do
14323.9 X 1000 = π X 60 X (1204 - D4i)
16 120
D4i = 61458000
Di = 88.5 mm.
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V –ANALYSIS OF TRUSSES - SCIA1301

 FRAMES

 A frame is a structure made up of several steel bars which are riveted or welded
together.
 These are made up of angle irons or channel sections and are called members of the
frame or framed structure.
 Although the members are welded or riveted together at their joints, they are
considered as hinged or pin- jointed for the purpose of calculations.
 Determination of forces in a frame is needed in many engineering structures.
 The forces are determined based on the application of the principles of either statics
or graphics.

TYPES OF FRAMES:

1. Perfect frames

2. Imperfect frames

1. PERFECT FRAMES

A perfect frame may be defined as that one which is made up of members just sufficient to
keep the frame in equilibrium, when loaded, without any change in the shape.
The simplest example of a perfect frame is a triangle. It is to be noted that the shape will
not be distorted when the structure is loaded.
Thus, for three jointed frames, there should be three members to prevent distortion.
2. IMPERFECT FRAMES
An Imperfect frame is one which does not satisfy the relation between the numbers of
members and number of joints given by the equation n = 2j – 3.
This means that number of members in an imperfect frame will be either more or less than
(2j-3) It may be a deficient frame or a redundant frame.

ASSUMPTIONS:
Following are the assumptions made in finding the forces in the members of a frame.

1. The frame is a perfect frame

2. The frame is loaded only at the joints
3. All the members of the frame are pin-jointed
4. Self-weight of the members is neglected.
VARIOUS TYPES OF TRUSSES:

The following five criterions may serve as a basis for the classification of trusses:
1) The shape of the upper and lower chords;
2) The type of the web
3) The conditions of the supports
4) The purpose of the structure
5) The level of the floor (lane, road)

Figure No.1
 Figure No.2

VARIOUS TYPES OF ANALYTICAL METHODS:

1. Method of joint

2. Method of sections

3. Tension co-efficient method

METHOD OF JOINTS OR METHOD OF RESOLUTION:

 For a given frame or a truss the support reactions are determined taking moments
of the external forces with respect to the support.
 Then each joint is considered individually as a free body in equilibrium and the
forces on the members at that joint are determined by summing up all the vertical
component of forces to zero and all the horizontal component of forces to zero.
o i.e., ΣV = 0 and ΣH = 0

 Joints should be selected such that forces for only two members are unknown in that joint.
 The force is said to be tensile if it pulls the joint to which it is connected.
METHOD OF SECTIONS OR METHOD OF MOMENTS:

 When forces in a few members of a truss are to be determined then this method is the
 simplest one.
 This method is easy since we do not need the solutions from other joints.
 Here, we pass a section line passing through the members in which the forces are to be
determined.
  The section line should be such that it does not cut more than three members in which the
forces are unknown.
 The truss on one side of the section line is treated as a free body in equilibrium under the
action of external forces.
 The unknown forces are then determined using the equilibrium equations, ΣM = 0, ΣFx = 0
and ΣFy = 0.
 When we get a negative value of force in a member then the assumed direction is not correct
and it has changed.

TRUSS – ASSUMPTIONS:

There are four main assumptions made in the analysis of truss:

Truss members are connected together at their ends only.

Truss are connected together by frictionless pins.
The truss structure is loaded only at the joints.
The weights of the members may be neglected.
PROBLEMS: