International Conference KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANIZATION

Vol. XXI No 1 2015

CULTURE AS SOFT POWER IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Nicolae HANEŞ, Adriana ANDREI

“Decebal” Training Centre for Communications and Information Technology, Sibiu,

[email protected], [email protected]

Abstract: A global approach has almost generalized over the last decades, suggesting that human
security and, related to it – society security- are among the most important themes of contemporary
international relations.
The management of the Yugoslavian crisis, the terrorist attacks of September the 11th, 2001, as well
as the debates over US and its allies’ military interventions in Kosovo, Afghanistan or Iraq, pointed
out, on the one hand, that states are not prepared to deal with the cross-border threats of the 21st
century alone, and, on the other hand, the fact that military interventions (the “hard” approach to
security) do not always represent the optimum solution in managing international security. However,
peace-building and security building (the ”soft” approach) are usually more discreet, do not
attract attention, do not draw the media interest.
In recent studies, the issue of “soft” power and “hard” power has been increasingly discussed.
“Soft” power refers to the power derived mainly from cultural and imagological sources, exercising
its influence more through persuasion or by attracting the weak one to a particular model rather
than by coercion. ”Hard” power consists especially of military and economic means contributing
to enforcing the will of one actor over another actor. These two forms of power do not exclude
each other, but, on the contrary, combining “soft” with “hard” means facilitates greater
efficiency in achieving the main goal.

Keywords: soft power, hard power, mental power, cultural power, national power

Introduction Conceptual Delimitations and

Some authors seemed entitled to state that Characteristics
in the aftermath of the Cold War, a The concept of “soft” power is opposed
fundamental shift of emphasis occurred in to that of “hard” power. The American
the study of international relations from Professor, Joseph Nye, from the Harvard
geopolitics and geostrategy towards University, was the first to develop the
geoeconomy [1] or from “hard” power concept of “soft” power [2] which he
towards “soft” power. summarized as a country’s ability to attract
The national power of a state comprises others through ideas, values and
both the material power as well as the ideologies. This kind of power resembles
mental power that the state owns at one to formless power, such as culture,
time, for its survival and development. ideology and the social system.
Mental power can be named “soft” power, “Soft” power is made up of political
and it comprises “soft” elements such as power, cultural and educational power and
psychology and intelligence. These “soft” diplomatic power. The political power
elements determine the role of “hard” includes the politic system, strategic goals,
power in tangible forms. social stability, national cohesion, the

DOI: 10.1515/kbo-2015-0005
© 2015. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.

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national leadership system and the ability international relations has expanded
to organize and do politics. dramatically and became a hallmark of a
The cultural and educational power state’s national power;
includes the quality and human resource - Spreading: the “soft” power has a
development, investments in education, the strong capacity to spread and to
education system, the quality of teachers compete. With the flow of information
and professors, the quality of those revolution and the development of
working in culture, the media power, Internet society, “soft” power crosses
television, film, books, newspapers, geografic borders, those of national
journals and their influence on the ethnicity, of time and space, to give power
international scene. Diplomatic power to the progress of society and to have a
comprises foreign relations, foreign policy, tremendous impact on the lifestyle and
foreign activity, and the capacity to standard behaviour of human kind. In the
contribute to the international community. international society where more “soft”
The “Soft” power characteristics are the powers interact, competion and rivalry
following: become inevitable, thus leading to conflicts
- Traditionality: every country’s „soft” and disputes. Anyway, in the
power is, in particular, the most important contradictory process of spreading, “soft”
sourse of its cultural power, which powers, at the same time, attract and
becomes a reality after a long-term promote each other. Usually they reach a
historical evolution of its people’s way of collective identity when interacting, they
thinking, of its ideology, cultural tradition, mutually adapt, teach and imitate one
ethnique customs, social system, economic another;
regim, life style, etc. In this process, each - Change: “soft” power is not a static
element of „soft” power always receives entity but a dynamic process. It is a great
the influence of cultural tradition, and each system changing, wherein the formation
culture has its own development path. and the transit of power depends on the
„Soft” power develops in this circulatory contradictory movement of its various
movement, contradictory but progressive, components. National strategy, national
which bears the marks of its own tradition, ethics, diplomatic power, cultural and
specific to every nation; educational power, as well as the quality of
- Temporality: „soft” power is an governance, requires a shorter period of
intangible power, but it is not a mirage. Its time to form, develop and change, in
formation, development and consolidation contrast to another element, such as
is related to the historical background of its nationality. These uncertainty and change
nation, with the domestic and international are higher, therefore, they are easier to
environment, in particular. Only the “soft” adapt to and undergo;
power which complies with the main - Dependency: “soft” power and “hard”
course of history can develop steadily. In power are interdependent. Any country
modern societies, the „soft” power has should develop both its “soft” power and
close links with scientific and technical its “hard” power in order to build a great
development, with the economic national and international power. While
development and the information society. developing its material strength, a country
„Soft” power increases with the discovery should develop its spiritual power as well.
of new means and tools within international One without the other, could not be
relations. The development of information competitive. If the development of “soft”
tehnology has turned the media into a power is overlooked or ignored, then it will
dynamic and influent instrument. With be difficult for “hard” power to maintain
the entry of advanced media in its sustained development. Power requires
international society, its impact on a rich cultural content and plays a mental

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role in practice. Therefore, “soft” power competitiveness and influence through
and “hard” power are correlated, they cultural development. Within the
support and are accountable to each other competition for national power, a nation’s
with a strong complementarity. “Soft” “hard” power cannot be improved without
power is required in order to develop and the development of “soft” power. However,
implement national objectives as well as to many people always place more emphasis
mobilize and unify national will. on rivalry in terms of power, neglecting, at
Culture as soft power the same time, the competition of power,
“Soft” power is a kind of mental power viewed as cultural power.
and it is an important component of a Due to the increased influence of “soft”
state’s national power. All the “soft” power in international relations, the world
elements of mental power are contained in powers emphasize the enhancement of
the category of culture. The core of culture “soft” powers. Even since the 1980s, the
are the values. As to the content of culture, Japanese former prime minister Nakasone
broadly speaking, we consider it comprises has proposed a strategic plan for “creating
the materials and spiritual wealth created a culturally developed country”. The
in the history of human society. In a former French president Chirac suggested
narrower sense, we believe that culture is achieving a cultural Europe and
social ideology as well as the systems and establishing a European cultural
the institutions related to this, including community. The Russian president Putin
ideas, political thoughts, legislation, has started implementing the “cultural
morality, art, religion and science. expansion” strategy since he was interim
However, from whatever angle we look at president. In September 1992, the former
it, culture is not a static entity but a American president Bush emphasized the
dynamic process. As “soft” power, culture importance of using American culture as a
is relative to politics, economy and new type of “soft” culture within his
military. agenda entitled “Agenda for America’s
Increased competition regarding current Revival”. In November 2000, another
national power involves: economic power, former American president, Clinton, held
scientific and technological power, defense a seminar on the topic of American culture
power as well as cultural power. and of foreign relations, at the White
A country’s cultural universality and its House, aiming to achieve the 21st century
capacity to determine norms, rules and American foreign cultural strategy. In the
regims to govern international behaviour report concerning the national security
represent the key resources of that strategy, Clinton settled clearly
country’s power. Joseph Nye appreciates “encouraging the development of external
that the intangible power can be democracy”, as being one of the three
estimated based on the cohesion of a pillars of USA’s security strategy and
country, on its global cultural popularity foreign policy. This report states that,
and on its role within international “extending the great family of democratic
institutions. societies and of countries with a free
Without a strong national spirit, a nation market promotes the strategic interests of
cannot cope efficiently with an the United States” [4].
international crisis. Without cultural assets Currently, we consider the following as
and without a global influence by resorting relevant major issues, in terms of “soft”
to culture, a nation cannot have a voice in power competition: the relations between
international activities [3]. human rights and national sovereignty; the
Culture, as “soft” power, is an essential control and influence on international
part of national power. Many countries institutions; the employment of market
have chosen to strenghten international economy to impose culture; rivalry in

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terms of human resourses; the fight for a their own values, perspectives, interests,
better position for the media; customs, and hopes. Failing to appreciate
contradictions and collisions caused by these differences will lead to wrong
ethnic and religious issues. There is a misinterpretations and misjudgements.
tendency for competition on national Hence, obviously, cultural systems are
power, focusing on cultural power, to closely linked to international relations.
continue far into the new century. - culture is a “navigation compass” in
Although less developed countries are on decision-making. Diferent states have
a disadvantageous position in the diffferent strategic preferences which have
competion for “soft” power, the power of their roots in the early experiences of the
the weak ones is not to be neglected. This state formation and which are influenced
is another source for intangible power. The up to a point, by the psychological,
competition of a powerfull country can be political, cultural and cognitive
retained due to a weak country, but with a characteristics of the state and of its
better ability to organize and concentrate political leaders. Cultural concepts
[5]. Thus, cultural advantages and strongly influence the way national leaders
disadvantages are relative. In international regard political issues, and often determine
modern society, due to increased overlap the solutions they choose to solve the
of interests, diverse cultures present and issues, both individually and collectively.
learn reciprocally, while being in conflict Thus, cultures are critical for these leaders,
with one another. However, nowadays, as long as they will address these issues in
conflicts between diverse cultures are international relations. Therefore, culture is
limited, partial and will not lead towards a “navigation compass” within
large-scale global conflicts. international relations.
In the evolution of international relations, - culture represents the architect of
the intangible “soft” power represents an international social trust. The
engine that drives the relations between competitiveness of a nation depends on a
states or unions of states. This “soft” unique universal characteristic, and that is
power, of a state, comes from: ideology, social trust. Some countries have a higher
social system, its organizational level of social trust, others have a lower
mechanism, life style, the development level, which will influence the degree of
model, cultural traditions, national values, cooperation in international relations.
ethnic characteristics, religious belives, Culture determines the degree of social
informational resourses, interdependency, trust and influences the nature of the
mutual trust, etc. In this respect, the “soft” cooperation institutions. Culture is a model
power can be named cultural power. In the for structuring the social, economic and
international society of today, the military institutions, exerting a strong
competition concerning national power, influence on the behaviour and outlook of
based on cultural power, is an important the world community.
phenomenon in developing international - culture represents an important power
relations. for international integration. There is a
In our opinion, the impact of cultural strong trend of unification and
power on international relations is that homogenization in the rise and fall of
culture is a knowledge filter. Culture civilizations. This trend reached the
plays an important role in the decision- climax in the industralization era. This is
making process that involves political the thesis of cultural convergence. A
leaders, who make decisions in the light of critical aspect in terms of the convergence
cultural perceptions specific to their own thesis is connected to temporal limitations.
culture. Leaders, states and people are Hundreds of different social structures
affected by cultural differences that reflect were possible, yet the basic features of

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all advanced economies are relatively and the military system. The media,
uniform: all have common institutions such economic competition between famous
as central banks, ministries of finances, brands as well as psychological battle
tehnological research centres, schools at within the military system, are all part of
various levels, organizational systems such the competition between cultural powers.
as the military one and dozens of other With the globalization of the world
parallel structures The homogeneity and economy, national interests increasingly
complementarity of world cultures overlap and international interdependence
produce an irresistible ruling power to is expanding. In the process of
international relations. globalization, cultural conflicts that may
- culture is a gene of conflict in occur during interactions will certainly be
international relations. About two decades limited and reduced.
ago, Samuel Huntington proposed the The increase of common interests will
concept of “clash of civilizations”. He encourage mutual learning and integration
wrote that in the post-Cold War world the between different cultures. Since the
dominant source of conflict will be cultural degree of integration of different cultures
in nature. Many agree with Huntington on increases proportionally decreases the
the fact that, cultural differences will lead intensity of cultural conflicts. It is worth
to conflicts, since the source of the conflict mentioning here that there are cultural
is related to the cultural gene. But the clash differences even between cultures sharing
of civilizations should not be exaggerated the same cultural tradition. Even within
or overstated as an absolute sentence. the present European Union, that has made
We appreciate that a nation is a cultural monetary unification, member countries do
system, and international relations are not diminish their various cultural
interactions between cultural systems. The characters.
role of culture, as “soft” power in EU soft power is less observed, although
international relations, can be summarized foreign and international policy analysts
in two aspects: facilitates convergence and appreciate it more and more. And not only
causes conflict. Both positive and negative them. Otherwise one cannot understand EU
effects of culture in international relations attactiveness, especially to its neighbour
are reflected in the contradictory process of countries, apparently stronger than that
convergence and conflict. exercised over the Union’s own citizens.
Culture, as “soft” power, is a deep cause The fundamentals of global power are
of the contemporary international relations changing more and more, as globalization
model development. The transition in is becoming increasingly felt. EU global
terms of configuration and adjustment of power manifests itself more as global
international relations between the great influence, an influence that is growing as
powers is really an adjustment of interest the Union expands its strategic vision. This
relations. Sharing interests is closely influence does not necessarily regard
related to the orientation of values, and the military missions, which are actually quite
orientation of values represents the core shy and limited, but can include anything
of culture. In this respect, the integration from the influence of the European
of different cultures facilitates currency (Euro) to the humanitarian
interdependency of the great powers, missions within various theaters of
increases the probability of pursuing operations or economic aid given to
common interests and consensus. underdeveloped countries.
Culture represents a kind of formless Conclusions
“soft” power and it must play its role in We can conclude by stating that “soft”
international relations by means of some power is an important part of national
tangible media such as politics, economy power. There is still no agreement on its

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definition. To summarize, “soft” power the development of a country’s national
can also be called mental power. “Soft” power, to the increase of “hard” power as
power is a concept opposed to that of well as of the contributions and
“hard” power, whereas mental power is a international influence.
concept opposed to that of physical “Soft” power that revolves around
power, and culture opposes to politics, cultural power plays and will continue to
economy and the military system. It is also play a major enduring role in the transition
formless power, derived from factors such of international relations and in the global
as the spirit (including psychology) and configuration.
intelligence, both belonging to the category In conclusion, our world is rich and
of culture. colorful. The diversity of civilizations is
Competion on national power in the the main feature and simultaneously the
world today is very intense. “Soft” power driving force behind the progress of human
which revolves around cultural power has civilization. In the competition for national
both positive and negative effects on the power, respect should be given to history,
development of national power. Its culture, social system and to the way each
implications on the evolution of country develops. Diversity of the world is
international relations are increasing. a reality that must be recognized. Different
Many contemporary international issues civilizations and social systems should
have deep cultural causes. Countries of the enjoy long-term coexistence. They should
world pay more attention to the use of turn to and benefit from each other
“soft” power in the service of national throughout the competition and achieve
interests. Within the international politics common development while seeking to
of today, “soft” power resources are discover common issues and bridge
becoming increasingly important. The differences.
cultural construct is strategically vital to

References
[1] Dean A. Minix, Sandra M. Hawley, Global Politics, Wadsworth, Belmont, Albany, Bonn
et All, 1998
[2] Joseph S. Nye Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, 1990
[3] Hua Jian et All, The Competition for Soft Power: Trends of Cultural Competition in
the Context of Globalization, Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences Press and
China Higher Education Press, 2001, p.5
[4] Collection of American National Security Strategy Reports, Current Affairs Press, 2001,
p. 276 şi 279
[5] Joseph S. Nye Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power, 1990, p. 196

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