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Principles of Research Design

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Research Methods in Linguistics/ RPI

Assignment No: 1

Research Design Principles

Course Instructor: Dr. Muhammad Ahsan

Submitted By: Imtiaz Ahmad

Roll No: 45

M.Phil. Linguistics (1st)

Ghazi University Dera Ghazi Khan

Research Design Principles:-

Research Design:
The research design refers to the overall strategy that a researcher chooses to integrate
the different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring
you will effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement, and analysis of data.

Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting
the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis. The need for research
design is as follows:

It reduces inaccuracy;
Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;
Eliminates bias and marginal errors;
Minimizes wastage of time;
Helpful for collecting research materials;
Helpful for testing of hypothesis;
Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money,
manpower, time, and efforts;
Provides an overview to other experts;
Guides the research in the right direction.
Purpose of Research Design:
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to
effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible. In
social sciences research, obtaining information relevant to the research problem
generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate
program, or to accurately describe and assess meaning related to an observable
phenomenon.

 A Research Design provides a scientist, or a researcher with a well-structured,

objective plan of study that enables him or her to efficiently assess causes and
effect relationships between various dependent and independent variables such
as the Classic Controlled Experiment.

 Research Design is necessary since it enables the smooth sailing of the varying
research components, thus making your research more reliable, efficient, and
flexible.

Types of Research Design:

The research design is a broad framework that describes how the entire research project
is carried out. Basically, there can be three types of research designs – exploratory
research design, descriptive research design, and experimental (or causal) research
design.

Use of particular research design depends upon type of problem under study. Following
are the different types of research design:

1) Exploratory Research Design

2) Descriptive Research Design
3) Experimental Research Design

I. Exploratory Research:

This type of research design is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which
is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing
problem, but will not provide conclusive results. For such a research, a researcher starts
with a general idea and uses this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the
focus for future research.

An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her
direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight. Such a research is usually
carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is often referred to as
grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer questions like
what, why and how.

Purpose:

 Exploratory research is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in depth,

especially if it hasn’t been done before.

 The goal of such a research is to explore the problem and around it and not
actually derive a conclusion from it.
 Such kind of research will enable a researcher to set a strong foundation for
exploring his ideas, choosing the right research design and finding variables that
actually are important for the analysis.

 Most importantly, such a research can help organizations or researchers save up

a lot of time and resources, as it will enable the researcher to know if it worth
pursuing.

II. Descriptive Research Design:

Descriptive research design is defined as a research method that describes the

characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses
more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.

The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a

demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In
other words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it
happens.

Purpose:

 The goal of descriptive research is to describe a phenomenon and its

characteristics.

 This research is more concerned with what rather than how or why something
has happened.

 Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitative research

designs with the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what
variables are worth testing quantitatively.
  If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more
focused study.

 Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations
in practice.

 Approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.

III. Experimental Research Design:

An experimental research design is a blueprint of the procedure that enables the

researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an
experiment.

In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur.
Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship
(cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always
lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great.

In experimental research design, attempt is made to measure impact of manipulation on

independent variables (like price, products, advertising and selling efforts or marketing
strategies in general) on dependent variables (like sales volume, profits, and brand
image and brand loyalty). It has more practical value in resolving marketing problems.
We can set and test hypotheses by conducting experiments.

Purpose:

 The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control

group.

 The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to

the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent
variable.

 Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more

measurements over longer periods.

 True experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation. An

experimental research design tells us about the following information:
  Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing,
it allows researchers to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?”

 Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between

variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.

 Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative

explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the study.

 Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.

Variables:

A variable in research simply refers to a person, place, thing, or phenomenon that your
trying to measure in some way. During the preparation of a research design, two types of
variables accrued; dependent variables and independent variables.

1. Dependent Variable:

A variable that depends on other factors that are measured. These variables are
expected to change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent
variable or variables. It is the presumed effect.

2. Independent Variable:

The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are trying to
measure. It refers to the condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated
by the investigator. It is the presumed cause.

The Principles of Research Design:

The principles of research design are basically the important decisions that a researcher
makes when he needs a problem and what steps he takes to solve that problem. Then a
research design is developed based on these principles which is very important for any
research. These are the following decisions:

 What the study is about?

 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
  What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed? o In what style will the report be prepared?

Here I will provide a detailed note on these principles. So, let’s start to see these rules;

1) What the study is about?

First of all, before conducting a research design, it is necessary for a researcher to
identify the research problem. Identification of research problem refers to the sense of
awareness of a prevalent social problem, a social phenomenon or a concept that is worth
study – as it requires to be investigated to understand it. The researcher identifies such
a research problem through his observation, knowledge, wisdom and skills.

A research problem refers to the title or topic of the required study. It is also a
phenomenon that a researcher intends to explore.
A research problem also refers to a concept that the researcher wants to know.

The sources for identification of a research problem are as follows:

 Subject area of the researcher

 Knowledge of the current social trends – issues and situations
 Knowledge of political and economic trends – issues and situations.
 On-going Programs and Initiatives – evaluation of their effectiveness etc.
 Deep observation – careful study
 Cause-effect relationship of phenomena
 Awareness of the social surrounding
 Reading research articles in journals
 Personal experience – situations faced by the researcher

Identification of a research problem is the first basic principle of a research design. Its
importance lies in that fact the whole research revolves around this process of selecting
a problem.

In short, we can say that identifying a research problem is the gist of any research
process, because if a researcher cannot identify a problem in an accurate way then
his/her research design will be considered invalid.

2) Why is the study is being made?

After the selection of a research problem, now a researcher makes hypothesis; he talks
about the purpose and main objectives of his/her research project. Research objectives
describe concisely what the research is trying to achieve. They summarize the
accomplishments a researcher wishes to achieve through the project and provides
direction to the study.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a statement that introduces a research question and
proposes an expected result. It is an integral part of the scientific method that forms the
basis of scientific experiments. Therefore, you need to be careful and thorough when
building your hypothesis. A minor flaw in the construction of your hypothesis could
have an adverse effect on your experiment. For example:

If someone performing experiments on plant growth might report this hypothesis: "If I
give a plant an unlimited amount of sunlight, then the plant will grow to its largest
possible size." Hypotheses cannot be proven correct from the data obtained in the
experiment, instead hypotheses are either supported by the data collected or refuted by
the data collected.

There are some important things to consider when building a research

hypothesis:

State the problem that you are trying to solve; make sure that the hypothesis
clearly defines the topic and the focus of the experiment.

Try to write the hypothesis as an if- then statement; if a specific action is taken,
then a certain outcome is expected.

Define the variables; in scientific experiments, a hypothesis proposes and

examines the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent
variable.

The effect on the dependent variable (the idea being tested) depends on or is
determined by what happens when you change the independent variable (the
factor being changed).

These are the key questions for investigating any research study. It is very important for
a researcher to give answer the following questions in a proper way, if a researcher
cannot answer these questions then his/her research design is not good and even it will
be considered bias.

3) Where will the study be carried out?

In this step, a researcher carefully selects the area of his/her investigation; means which
area of study is suitable for this research project? And how he/she can finalize area of
study?
Selecting a research area is the very important step in writing your research design. It is
important for you to choose research area that is interesting to you professionally, as
well as, personally. When deciding on a topic, there are a few things that you will need to
do:

 Brainstorming for ideas choose a topic that will enable you to read and
understand the literature
 Ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available ✓ make a list
of key words
 Be flexible
 Define your topic as a focused research question ✓ research and read more about
your topic
 Formulate a thesis statement.

Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and focused
enough to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information. Before
selecting your topic, make sure you know what your final project should look like.

Suppose, if we want to know about the ideas and views of Ghazi University’s students
about the university cafeteria’s atmosphere. Then we decide which department is best
suitable for this investigation? Then, further we narrow down this choice that which
class is perfectly suitable for our study. In short, in this step a researcher finalizes
his/her area of study.

4) What type of data is required?

Data collection is a systematic process of gathering observations or measurements.
Whether you are performing research for business, governmental or academic purposes,
data collection allows you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your
research problem.

When we are talking about the requirement of data collection, then there are basically
two types of data collection methods;

i. Qualitative Method: This method refers to the quality of something, or some

person. It also deals with the actual behavior and ideas of the people in a society.

There are different types of qualitative research methods including diary

accounts, in-depth interviews, documents, focus groups, case study research, and
ethnography.
 The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people
perceive their social realities, and in consequence, how they act within the social
world.

ii. Quantitative Method: This method deals with the numerical information of
something in a research process.

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing

numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between

variables, make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

While methods and aims may differ between fields, the overall process of data
collection remains largely the same. Before you begin collecting data, you need to
consider:

 The aim of the research

 The type of data that you will collect
 This method and procedure you will use to collect, store, and process the data
 To collect high-quality data that is relevant to your purposes, follow these four
steps.

So, it depends upon the nature the research that which type of research is being
conduct and which method is appropriate and perfect for collecting the required
data?

5) Where can the required data be founded?

After the identification of research problem, making hypothesis, selecting the area of
study, now a researcher decides that from where he can collect the information?

Data may be grouped into four main types based on methods for collection:
observational, experimental, simulation, and derived. The type of research data you
collect may affect the way you manage that data.

For example, data that is hard or impossible to replace (e.g. the recording of an event at
a specific time and place) requires extra backup procedures to reduce the risk of data
loss. Or, if you will need to combine data points from different sources, you will need to
follow best practices to prevent data corruption. Following are the different types of data
required in research process:
i. Observational Data:

Observational data are captured through observation of a behaviour or activity. It is

collected using methods such as human observation, open-ended surveys, or the use of
an instrument or sensor to monitor and record information -- such as the use of sensors
to observe noise levels at the St Paul airport. Because observational data are captured in
real time, it would be very difficult or impossible to re-create if lost.

ii. Experimental Data:

Experimental data are collected through active intervention by the researcher to

produce and measure change or to create difference when a variable is altered.
Experimental data typically allows the researcher to determine a causal relationship and
is typically projectable to a larger population. This type of data is often reproducible, but
it often can be expensive to do so.

iii. Simulation Data:

Simulation data are generated by imitating the operation of a real-world process or

system over time using computer test models. For example, to predict weather
conditions, economic models, chemical reactions, or seismic activity. This method is
used to try to determine what would, or could, happen under certain conditions. The
test model used is often as, or even more, important than the data generated from the
simulation.

iv. Derived / Compiled Data:

Derived data involves using existing data points, often from different data sources, to
create new data through some sort of transformation, such as an arithmetic formula or
aggregation.

Remember previously, as we talk about the selection of study area that which location
is easily available for collecting our required information. We select the Ghazi
University’s students for gaining our information but still there is the question of which
department is perfectly suitable for our study is remained. Now we precisely select the
English department but this department is so big how we can conduct our research? As
a good researcher, further we decide about the selection of specific class and finally
select students of B.S English (1st) morning, and then we can get required information
by using different data collection tools like questionnaire, interviews and surveys.
 6) What will be the sample design?
In research design, population and sampling are two important terms:

Population: A population is a group of individuals that share common

connections.

Sample: A sample is a subset of the population. The sample size is the number of
individuals in a sample. The more representative the sample of the population,
the more confident the researcher can be in the quality of the results.

There are two basic types of sampling:

I. Probability Sampling: It is a method wherein each member of the population

has the same probability of being a part of the sample.

II. Non-probability Sampling: It is a method wherein each member of the

population does not have an equal chance of being selected.

Purpose:

Sampling yields significant research result. However, with the differences that can
be present between a population and a sample, sample errors can occur. Therefore,
it is essential to use the most relevant and useful sampling method. Below are three
of the most common sampling errors.

 Sampling bias occurs when the sample does not reflect the characteristics of the
population.
 Sample frame errors occur when the wrong sub-population is used to select a
sample. This can be due to gender, race, or economic factors.
 Systematic errors occur when the results from the sample differ significantly
from the results of the population.

Types of Qualitative Sampling:

In Qualitative research, non-numerical data is used to study elements in their natural

setting. This helps to interpret and measure how these elements affect humans. There
are three main types of qualitative sampling:

 Purposive sampling: Pre-selected criteria related to research hypothesis

determines the participants for research, for example, a study on cancer rates
for individuals who live near a nuclear power station.
  Quota sampling: The researcher establishes participant quotas before forming a
sample. Selection of participants that meet certain traits like gender, age,
health, etc.
 Snowball sampling: The participant in the study refer other individuals who
fit the traits required for the study, to the researcher.

Types of Quantitative Sampling:

Quantitative research is used to categorize, rank, and measure numerical data.

Researchers establish general laws of behaviour found in different contexts and
settings. The goal is to test a theory and support or reject it. There are three main types
of quantitative sampling:

 Random sampling: Random sampling is when all individuals in a population

have an equal chance of being selected.

 Stratified sampling: It is when the researcher defines the types of individuals in

the population based on specific criteria for the study. For example, a study on
smoking might need to break down its participants by age, race, or socioeconomic
status.

 Systemic sampling: It is choosing a sample on an orderly basis. To build the

sample, look at the target population and choose every fifth, tenth, or twentieth
name, based upon the needs of the sample size.

So, in the selection of a research sampling it depends upon the research that which
sample is best for conducting his/her research project. A sample design may be different
in every research project.

7) What techniques of data collection will be used?

Data collection techniques/tools refer to the devices/instruments used to collect data,
such as a paper questionnaire or computer-assisted interviewing system. Case Studies,
Checklists, Interviews, Observation sometimes, and Surveys or Questionnaires are all
tools used to collect data.

It is important to decide the tools for data collection because research is carried out in
different ways and for different purposes. The objective behind data collection is to
capture quality evidence that allows analysis to lead to the formulation of convincing
and credible answers to the questions that have been posed.

The following are the top 7 data collection tools for Academic, Opinion-based or product
research. Also discussed in detail is the nature, pros and cons of each one. At the end of
this segment, you will be best informed about which method best suits your research.
 I. Interview:

An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals with the sole

purpose of collecting relevant information to satisfy a research purpose. For collecting
data through interviews, here are a few tools you can use to easily collect data. There are
some tools which are used for conducting a interview.

1. Audio Recorder: An audio recorder is used for recording sound on disc, tape, or
film. Audio information can meet the needs of a wide range of people, as well as
provide alternatives to print data collection tools.

2. Digital Camera: An advantage of a digital camera is that it can be used for

transmitting those images to a monitor screen when the need arises.

3. Camcorder: A camcorder is used for collecting data through interviews. It

provides a combination of both an audio recorder and a video camera. The data
provided is qualitative in nature and allows the respondents to answer questions
asked exhaustively.

II. Questionnaire:

This is the process of collecting data through an instrument consisting of a series of

questions and prompts to receive a response from individuals it is administered to.

Questionnaires are designed to collect data from a group. For clarity, it is important to
note that a questionnaire isn't a survey, rather it forms a part of it.

A survey is a process of data gathering involving a variety of data collection methods,

including a questionnaire.

On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of questions used. They are; fixed-alternative,
scale, and open-ended. With each of the questions tailored to the nature and scope of
the research. Following are the some types of questionnaire:

 Form plus: lets you create powerful forms to help you collect the information you
need. Form plus helps you create the online forms that you like. The Form plus
online questionnaire form template to get actionable trends and measurable
responses. Conduct research, optimize knowledge of your brand or just get to
know an audience with this form template. The form template is fast, free and
fully customizable.

 Paper Questionnaire: A paper questionnaire is a data collection tool consisting of

a series of questions and/or prompts for the purpose of gathering information
 from respondents. Mostly designed for statistical analysis of the responses, they
can also be used as a form of data collection.

III. Reporting:

By definition, data reporting is the process of gathering and submitting data to be

further subjected to analysis. The key aspect of data reporting is reporting accurate data
because of inaccurate data reporting leads to uninformed decision making.

Reporting tools enable you to extract and present data in charts, tables, and other
visualizations so users can find useful information. You could source data for reporting
from Non-governmental Organizations (NGO) reports, newspapers, website articles,
hospital records. Following are the some types of reporting in the process of
investigating a research:

 NGO Reports: Contained in NGO reports is an in-depth and comprehensive

report on the activities carried out by the NGO, covering areas such as business
and human rights. The information contained in these reports are research-
specific and forms an acceptable academic base towards collecting data. NGOs
often focus on development projects which are organized to promote particular
causes.

 Newspapers Reports: Newspaper data are relatively easy to collect and are
sometimes the only continuously available source of event data. Even though
there is a problem of bias in newspaper data, it is still a valid tool in collecting
data for Reporting.

 Website Articles: Gathering and using data contained in website articles is also
another tool for data collection. Collecting data from web articles is a quicker and
less expensive data collection Two major disadvantages of using this data
reporting method are biases inherent in the data collection process and possible
security/confidentiality concerns.

IV. Existing Data:

This is the introduction of new investigative questions in addition to/other than the
ones originally used when the data was initially gathered. It involves adding
measurement to a study or research. An example would be sourcing data from an
archive.
The concept of Existing data means that data is collected from existing sources to
investigate research questions other than those for which the data were originally
gathered. Tools to collect existing data include:

 Research Journals: Unlike newspapers and magazines, research journals are

intended for an academic or technical audience, not general readers. A journal is
a scholarly publication containing articles written by researchers, professors, and
other experts.

 Surveys: A survey is a data collection tool for gathering information from a

sample population, with the intention of generalizing the results to a larger
population. Surveys have a variety of purposes and can be carried out in many
ways depending on the objectives to be achieved.

V. Observation:

This is a data collection method by which information on a phenomenon is gathered

through observation. The nature of the observation could be accomplished either as a
complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer or as a
complete participant. This method is a key base of formulating a hypothesis.

Observation involves the active acquisition of information from a primary source.

Observation can also involve the perception and recording of data via the use of
scientific instruments. The best tools for Observation are:

 Checklists:state specific criteria, allow users to gather information and make

judgments about what they should know in relation to the outcomes. They offer
systematic ways of collecting data about specific behavior, knowledge, and skills.

 Direct Observation: This is an

observational study method of collecting evaluative
information. The evaluator watches the subject in his or her usual environment
without altering that environment.

VI. Focus Group:

The opposite of quantitative research which involves numerical based data, this data
collection method focuses more on qualitative research. It falls under the primary
category for data based on the feelings and opinions of the respondents. This research
involves asking open-ended questions to a group of individuals usually ranging from 6-
10 people, to provide feedback.
A focus group is a data collection method that is tightly facilitated and structured
around a set of questions. The purpose of the meeting is to extract from the participants'
detailed responses to these questions. The best tools for tackling Focus groups are:

 Two-Way: One group watches another group answer the questions posed by the
moderator. After listening to what the other group has to offer, the group that
listens are able to facilitate more discussion and could potentially draw different
conclusions.

 Dueling-Moderator: There are two moderators who play the devil’s advocate. The
main positive of the dueling-moderator focus group is to facilitate new ideas by
introducing new ways of thinking and varying viewpoints.

VII. Combination Research:

This method of data collection encompasses the use of innovative methods to enhance
participation to both individuals and groups. Also, under the primary category, it is a
combination of Interviews and Focus Groups while collecting qualitative data. This
method is key when addressing sensitive subjects.

The Combination Research method involves two or more data collection methods, for
instance, interviews as well as questionnaires or a combination of semi-structured
telephone interviews and focus groups. The best tools for combination research are:

 Online Survey: The two tools combined here are online interviews and the use of
questionnaires. This is a questionnaire that the target audience can complete over
the Internet. It is timely, effective and efficient. Especially since the data to be
collected is quantitative in nature.

 Dual-Moderator: The two tools combined here are focus groups and structured
questionnaires. The structured questioners give a direction as to where the
research is headed while two moderators take charge of proceedings.

8) How will the data be analyzed?

Data analysis is defined as a process of cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to
discover useful information for business decision-making. The purpose of Data Analysis
is to extract useful information from data and taking the decision based upon the data
analysis.

Data analysis tools make it easier for users to process and manipulate data, analyze the
relationships and correlations between data sets, and it also helps to identify patterns
and trends for interpretation. Here is a complete list of tools used for data analysis in
research.

There are several types of Data Analysis techniques that exist based on business and
technology. However, the major Data Analysis methods are:

1. Text Analysis:

Text Analysis is also referred to as Data Mining. It is one of the methods of data analysis
to discover a pattern in large data sets using databases or data mining tools. It used to
transform raw data into business information. Business Intelligence tools are present in
the market which is used to take strategic business decisions. Overall, it offers a way to
extract and examine data and deriving patterns and finally interpretation of the data.

2. Statistical Analysis:

It shows "What happen?" by using past data in the form of dashboards. Statistical
Analysis includes collection, Analysis, interpretation, presentation, and modelling of
data. It analyses a set of data or a sample of data. There are two categories of this type of
Analysis - Descriptive Analysis and Inferential Analysis.

3. Descriptive Analysis:

It analyses complete data or a sample of summarized numerical data. It shows mean

and deviation for continuous data whereas percentage and frequency for categorical
data.

4. Inferential Analysis:

It analyses sample from complete data. In this type of Analysis, you can find different
conclusions from the same data by selecting different samples.

5. Diagnostic Analysis:

Diagnostic Analysis shows "Why did it happen?" by finding the cause from the insight
found in Statistical Analysis. This Analysis is useful to identify behaviour patterns of
data. If a new problem arrives in your business process, then you can look into this
Analysis to find similar patterns of that problem. And it may have chances to use similar
prescriptions for the new problems.

6. Predictive Analysis:

Predictive Analysis shows "what is likely to happen" by using previous data. The
simplest data analysis example is like if last year I bought two dresses based on my sngs
and if this year my salary is increasing double then I can buy four dresses. But of course,
it's not easy like this because you have to think about other circumstances like chances
of prices of clothes is increased this year or maybe instead of dresses you want to buy a
new bike, or you need to buy a house!

So here, this Analysis makes predictions about future outcomes based on current or past
data. Forecasting is just an estimate. Its accuracy is based on how much detailed
information you have and how much you dig in it.

7. Prescriptive Analysis:

Prescriptive Analysis combines the insight from all previous Analysis to determine
which action to take in a current problem or decision. Most data-driven companies are
utilizing Prescriptive Analysis because predictive and descriptive Analysis are not
enough to improve data performance. Based on current situations and problems, they
analyze the data and make decisions.

Data Analysis Process:

The Data Analysis Process is nothing but gathering information by using a proper
application or tool which allows you to explore the data and find a pattern in it. Based
on that information and data, you can make decisions, or you can get ultimate
conclusions. Data Analysis consists of the following phases:

• Data Requirement Gathering

• Data Collection

• Data Cleaning

• Data Analysis

• Data Interpretation

• Data Visualization

1. Data Requirement Gathering:

First of all, you have to think about why do you want to do this data analysis? All you
need to find out the purpose or aim of doing the Analysis of data. You have to decide
which type of data analysis you wanted to do! In this phase, you have to decide what to
analyze and how to measure it, you have to understand why you are investigating and
what measures you have to use to do this Analysis

.
 2. Data Collection:

After requirement gathering, you will get a clear idea about what things you have to
measure and what should be your findings. Now it's time to collect your data based on
requirements. Once you collect your data, remember that the collected data must be
processed or organized for Analysis. As you collected data from various sources, you
must have to keep a log with a collection date and source of the data.

3. Data Cleaning:

Now whatever data is collected may not be useful or irrelevant to your aim of Analysis,
hence it should be cleaned. The data which is collected may contain duplicate records,
white spaces or errors. The data should be cleaned and error free. This phase must be
done before Analysis because based on data cleaning, your output of Analysis will be
closer to your expected outcome.

4. Data Analysis:

Once the data is collected, cleaned, and processed, it is ready for Analysis. As you
manipulate data, you may find you have the exact information you need, or you might
need to collect more data. During this phase, you can use data analysis tools and
software which will help you to understand, interpret, and derive conclusions based on
the requirements.

5. Data Interpretation:

After analyzing your data, it's finally time to interpret your results. You can choose the
way to express or communicate your data analysis either you can use simply in words or
maybe a table or chart. Then use the results of your data analysis process to decide your
best course of action.

6. Data Visualization:

Data visualization is very common in your day-to-day life; they often appear in the form
of charts and graphs. In other words, data shown graphically so that it will be easier for
the human brain to understand and process it. Data visualization often used to discover
unknown facts and trends. By observing relationships and comparing datasets, you can
find a way to find out meaningful information.

9) In which style the report will be written?

Mostly, research work is presented in a written form. The practical utility of research
study depends heavily on the way it is presented to those who are expected to act on the
basis of research findings. Research report is a written document containing key aspects
of research project.
Research report is a medium to communicate research work with relevant people. It is
also a good source of preservation of research work for the future reference. Many times,
research findings are not followed because of improper presentation.

Preparation of research report is not an easy task. It is an art. It requires a good deal of
knowledge, imagination, experience, and expertise. It demands a considerable time and
money.

We can also define the term as:

Research report is the systematic, articulate, and orderly presentation of research

work in a written form.
Research report is a research document that contains basic aspects of the
research project.

Report Presentation:

You will want to present your report in a simple and concise style that is easy to read
and navigate. Readers want to be able to look through a report and get to the
information they need as quickly as possible. That way the report has a greater impact
on the reader.

There are simple formatting styles that can be used throughout your report that will
make it easy to read and look organized and presentable. For example:

 Font: Use just one font in your report. An easy-to-read font such as Arial or Times
New Roman is best for reports. Section headings can be a different font from the
main text if you prefer.
 Lists: Use lists whenever appropriate to break information into easy-to-
understand points. Lists can either be numbered or bulleted.
 Headings and Subheadings: You can use headings and subheadings throughout
your report to identify the various topics and break the text into manageable
chunks. These will help keep the report organized and can be listed in the table of
contents so they can be found quickly.

Report Writing Style:

There are also some writing styles to consider:

 Keep It Simple: Don't try to impress; rather try to communicate. Keep sentences
short and to the point. Do not go into a lot of details unless it is needed. Make
sure every word needs to be there, that it contributes to the purpose of the report.
  Use the Active Voice: Active voice makes the writing move smoothly and easily. It
also uses fewer words than the passive voice and gives impact to the writing by
emphasizing the person or thing responsible for an action. For example: "Bad
customer service decreases repeat business" is more concise and direct than
"Repeat business is decreased by bad customer service."

 Mind Your Grammar: Read the report aloud and have someone proofread it for
you. Remember that the computer cannot catch all the mistakes, especially with
words like "red/read" or "there/their." You may even want to wait a day after you
write it to come back and look at it with fresh eyes.

Conclusion:
To sum up, we can say that during a research process, it is very necessary for a
researcher to make a perfect and valid research design. Research design refers to the
decisions and considerations of a researcher related to a specific topic/issue. In a
research design, every aspect of the topic is analyzed and explain in a very explicit way
for the ease of a sponsor or organization. Researcher first explains his/her required
research problem then he makes an outline of his/her findings about this problem. For
this purpose, he/she used some different research approaches and steps to make their
research design perfect and authentic before an organization. If a researcher is unable to
make a perfect research design then his/her research work will be invalid and biased.

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