LECTURE NOTES IN LOGIC

IMPORTANCE OF LOGIC
According to Benito Reyes (1947), a pragmatist, there are ten
TYPES OF LOGIC
(10) importance in application of capability of valid and licit
thinking. They are as follows:
1. Based on FORM AND CONCEPT

1. It develops the habit of clear thinking. It teaches us how to

1.1. Formal Logic
think, either we read or hear correctly and logically. It is only
when we think that we commit mistakes and very seldom to
Formal logic is the structure, correctness, sequence that follows
think if it is correct.
the rules. It looks with the given standards. It is therefore that an
argument must be good and not only in form but in content as
2. It is a guide in the process of drawing out conclusions. We
well.
have a lot of experienced things to be considered and often
wrong decisions as well. The process of thinking will instruct us
Example: John Louie is a student.
to understand deeply.

Our concerned is how it is structured or built to create a sound

3. It emphasizes the importance of definition. It tells us the real reasoning. The given example tells us that John Louie is the
and nominal definition that conforms to reality. It denotes clarity
complete subject, is, is the main verb in the third person singular
and precision in the use of terms which is one of the most of the infinitive form of the verb to be, a, is the indefinite article
required principles of the process of thinking.
and the student is the complete or simple predicate in the
sentence.
4. It helps us interpret the facts adequately. Genuine and
accurate fact’s interpretation is very important when it come to 1.2 Material Logic
the conformity of truth. It trains us analyzing, classifying, and
defining facts. Material logic is the subject matter, the content, and the truth. It
is the conformity of the reality.
5. It cultivates the habit of looking for the assumptions
presupposed in reasoning. Some people are often confused by Example: John Deewee is a man.
delicate and unnoticeable arguments because of incorrect
reasoning that puts us in guard against mistake. We may ask from this example that: Is John Deewee really a
man? If that is so, therefore our argument is true. The correct
6. It trains us in the technique of determining implications. It reasoning is formally valid unless one or many of the rules are
provides training to develop the ability to comprehend violated. A good and sound reasoning then is one that is
implications and protect us with technique in determining formally valid and licit and at the same time, materially valid an
assumptions. licit as well.

7. It helps us detect fallacies and avoid self-deceptions. It gives

us an auxiliary to illogical reasoning. Every person has a gift of
common sense, but common sense must be developed to make a 2. Based on PROCESS OF THINKING
progress as an instrument of philosophical reason.
2.1. Deductive Logic
8. It helps us persuade or convince others. No man is an island.
Loving oneself is to acknowledge and share life with others. It Deductive logic is one in which the arguments flow logically
therefore trains us in various methods a good and right decision and correctly into the conclusion. It is also called as FORMAL
in thinking of others. DEDUCTIVE LOGIC. It is therefore, from general to specific or
particular.
9. It stimulates scientific thinking and love of truth. An order
person requires a clear reasoning. Logic is important equipment Example:
to comprehend sciences. The primary goal of logic is truth to All Filipinos are Asians. (General)
simplify the truth statement. It seeks an argument of a perfect But, John Deewee is a Filipino. (Particular)
quality which asserts itself. Therefore, John Deewee is an Asian. (Particular)

10. It familiarizes us with terminology and problems in 2.2 Inductive Logic

Philosophy. This is the question of why, how, and what is in the
reality. The assertive curiosity gives us interpersonal Inductive logic is one in which the statement flows logically
relationship between things and themselves. All of us think from particular to general or universal. It implies the sense of
because it is the right way to Philosophy. probability and closely related to the scientific method of
inquiry which flows from specific to universal.
LECTURE NOTES IN LOGIC
But, Peter is with Joseph.
Example: Therefore, Peter is with Mary
This man talks. This Grandfather…This wife…This son or
daughter... Therefore, all given subjects talk. Furthermore, to have the methodological parallelism in as far as
three divisions of logics are concerned, it relates us on how
THREE MAIN DIVISIONS OF LOGIC
these three divisions explain and emphasize to different
dimensional aspects of other subjects. Therefore, from the point
Even if we sleep, our process of thinking always awakes and it
of view of Philosophy, logic presents SIMPLE
never rests. According to St. Thomas Aquinas in Summa
APPREHENSION (knowledge), JUDGMENT (attitude) AND
Theologiae, It is one of the most complex realities in existence.
REASONING (skill), from the psychological point of view; we
In order to comprehend their nature, it introduces the three of
have KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDE AND SKILL, from the
logic namely: SIMPLE APPREHENSION, JUDGMENT AND
theological point of view, we have PROPHETIC, PRIESTLY
REASONING.
AND KINGLY, from the educational point of view, we have
COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND PSYCHOMOTOR, from the
SIMPLE APPREHENSION
Oriental philosophy we have, MIND (brain), SOUL (energy)
AND BODY (object), from the multiplicity of language, we
Simple denotes an act that cannot be resolved to another form
have INFORMATIVE, EXPRESSIVE AND DIRECTIVE, from
and an act of conceiving an object. Therefore, Simple
the Filipino Christian Living, we have the HEAD, HEART AND
apprehension is the process through which the capability of
HAND.
thinking comprehends the objective reality as it is outside the
mind. When one holds the idea or thought tightly, it is therefore
formed through the use of term.

Example of terms: man; mortal; John Deewee

JUDGMENT

Judgment comes from the latin word "iudicare" which means to

pronounce regarding the agreement or disagreement between
To have a clear view of the three basic division of Logic, a
two concepts is made. Therefore, Judgment is the process
tabular scheme is presented.
through which an argument may assert or deny something. It is
therefore the
process of knowing whether it is assertive or denial, not External
Mental Act Mental Product
assertive and denial. The expression of judgment is also called Expressions
as proposition and not preposition. Simple
Idea/Concept Term
Example of the proposition: John Deewee is a student. Apprehension
Pronouncement of
Judgment Proposition
In this given example of the proposition, it contains the simple two ideas
subject, simple predicate and is, the verb in the third person Argument-
Reasoning Syllogism
singular of the infinitive verb to be. In relation to English inferential Thinking
grammar, we do have the basic sentence pattern like: S-TV-DO-
IO (subject-transitive verb- direct object- indirect object). So do
as in logic, we have S-C-P which means SUBJECT-COPULA- The pronouncement of two ideas is the affirmation or negation
PREDICATE. of the proposition given. The judgmental property of proposition
is true or false. The property of syllogism is validity and licitly.
REASONING THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE

REASONING is the process through which the mind or the Basic Functions of Language
capability of thinking arrives at the conclusion from the
previously possessed judgment. It tells us how to form a new According to Irving Copi (1968), there are three basic functions
proposition from the premises and it is also called as of language that based on the integral parts of man namely:
INFERENCE, otherwise known as the process to arrive in a Head- Informative; Heart-Affective; Hand-Directive.
certain conclusion. Basically, this inference is usually expressed
through Syllogism which will be discussed in the succeeding 1. INFORMATIVE
chapter. This is the most common function of language wherein, we
inform or asking information about the things we know and ask
Example of an inference: about the things that we do not know yet. If one person asks
Joseph is with Mary. your name like I am John Deewee, then what you used is an
LECTURE NOTES IN LOGIC
informative discourse. Therefore, in Logic, the proposition and
argument are either assertive or denial; positive or negative. COMPARISON

2. EXPRESSIVE It is also a mental act by which the process of thinking notices

This second function of language illustrates emotions and his similarities and differences in the objects having the essence
attitudes where being expressed wonderfully. This will be found or with the same genuses or classes.
basically in poetry. It also illustrates common exclamations like:
Oh my God! It also expresses different moods and mere For example: Angela and Monkey
expressions of feelings and emotions. Furthermore, these
arguments do not deny or affirm something. They are both the same in essence but Angela is a rational
3. DIRECTIVE animal and monkey is a brute.
This last function of language is most easily seen in commands
or requests. It is that which prevents an action to be done.

Example: Kindly come early.

TYPES OF CONCEPTS

There are four types of concepts with different classification:

1. Concept based on Intention

2. Concept based on Subject and Form
CONCEPTS AND TERMS
3. Concept based on Substance and Accidents
4. Concept based on Existence and Possession
WHAT IS A CONCEPT?

1. Concept based on intention:

A concept comes from the Latin infinitive form of the verb
"concepire" means to conceive. A concept means a mental
1.1. First Intention -it is a concept by which you know things in
image which is created by the process of thinking on the process
the process of thinking independently.
of conceiving an object. Therefore, it is a representation of an
object by the intellect through which a student comprehends a
For example: All of us we know that the dog has four legs.
thing. On the other hand, it is attained through the process of
Definitely the concept of the "dog is taken as an animal with
abstraction.
four legs. It is therefore understood that the dog is according to
what it is in reality; regardless of what we think about it.
ABSTRACTION
1.2. Second Intention - it is a concept by which we conceive a
Abstraction comes from the Latin infinitive form of the verb thing in reality in so far as the process of thinking understands.
“abstrahere" which means to separate or to move away. It is, It is not regardless of what it is in reality but how it is in our
therefore, a mental act by which the process of thinking studies process of thinking.
the physical characteristics about its color, size, material, etc., to
think of the purpose of an object. For example: the Los Angeles, California is the city of angels.
Here, Los Angeles, California is understood to be the place of
ATTENTION the city of Angels in so far as the mind says it.

Attention is also a mental act by which the process of thinking 2. Based on Subject and Form
fixes its consideration upon one particular object after having
sense it. For example, if you are driving a car, you need a full These subject and form are also called as essence and quiddity
attention of driving a car, as a student, you basically pay metaphysically. The subject is the one who is spoken of.
attention to your professor because a good professor must be a Therefore, it has or which is looked upon as having a perfection
good student, first. or attribute embodied in it. While the Form is that which an
object exists as it is.
MENTAL REFLEX ACTIVITY
For example:
This is also called as reflection. It is also a mental act of having SUBJECT- glass has quiddity, the glass' ness; book has
aware of an act itself so that it looks at things objectively, quiddity, the book' ness
having differences between the two given arguments. FORM - dog has an animality that makes dog animal or a real
animal
For example: face of the man and the face of cat.
LECTURE NOTES IN LOGIC

3. Based on Substance and Accidents

Substance comes from the Latin word "SUBSTANTIA" means 1. TERMS ACCORDING TO THE KINDS OF CONCEPT
the existence without requiring another being as a subject of its 1.1 FIRST INTENTION AND SECOND INTENTION (Refer to
inherence. It is the existence of the form and not mere the explanation of concept from the topic above
modifications of the subject which they inhere to. These are 1.2 ASTRACT AND CONCRETE TERMS
being classified into two: namely, Absolute concept and 1.3 ABSOLUTE AND CONNOTATIVE TERMS
Connotative concept. 1.4 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TERMS

3.1. Absolute Concept - it denotes the meaning of a complete 1.2.1, ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE TERMS
substance endowed with its independent reality. When it
signifies something to the mind, Absolute concept becomes 1.2.1.1 Abstract Is a term which pertains the abstract quality in
an Abstract concept. form only, thus it cannot be perceived by the senses.

For example: the absolute concept of a moon is its brilliance. Example:

The absolute concept of a dog is its animality. Frugalness of a man
Faithfulness of a woman
3.2. Connotative concept- It represents form without the subject.
When it comes to an English grammar, it tells something about 1.2.1.2. Concrete-Is a term which pertains to the expressions of
the adjectives that being modified to the subject. It is therefore a form and a subject. Thus, it can be perceived by the senses.
in logic that, it signifies the object as an accident existing in the
substance. Example:
Strawberry jam: You can taste, see and touch.
For example: The wise man found Jesus in the manger. The
word wise is used as a modifier that modifies to the subject man. Jay-Em is tall dark and handsome Jay-Em embodies the abstract
quality of being handsome. You can see his height and color of
4. Based on Existence and Possession the skin.

In this concept, it tells something about assertive or denial; 1.3. ABSOLUTE AND CONNOTATIVE TERMS
positive or negative.
1.3.1. Absolute -it pertains to the definition of a complete
4.1. Positive concept- it signifies the possession or the existence subject which is based on independent reality.
of something’
Example:
For example: beautiful, happy, or love, etc.,
Every lily is a flower
4.2. Negative concept- it denotes the non- existence or Man is a rational animal. Man is a social bein8
possession of something.
1.3.2. Connotative - it pertains to the object as an accident
For example: non-beautiful, non-happy, non-love, etc., manifested in a substance. It expresses a form only.

Example
TERM Singer, Teacher, Table, chair, book

A term is an external sign of a concept and last element of a

proposition. A term is oral if it is uttered and written if it is 14.POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE TERMS
drafted. There are five types of terms, namely:
1.4.1. Positive - it pertains to the possession or existence of
1. Terms according to the kinds of concept something
2. Terms as a last element of the proposition
3. Terms as a sign of a concept Example:
4. Terms as to incompatibility with other term knowledge, vibrancy, wisdom
5. Terms as to definiteness of meaning
1.4.2. Negative -It pertains to the non-possession or non-
existence of something
Example:
ignorance, passive, arrogance
LECTURE NOTES IN LOGIC
For example: Peter stands in one foot at the foot of the cross.
TERMS AS LAST ELEMENT OF A PROPOSITION

2.1. SUBJECT PROPERTIES OF TERMS

2.2. PREDICATE
Terms are properly understood by its property. There are three
3. TERMS AS A SIGN OF A CONCEPT properties of terms, namely:

3.1. THE SIGNIFICANT TERM- When it stands for his own 1. Comprehension
existence. In English grammar, the significant terms are the 2. Extension
subject and the predicate. 3. Supposition

3.2. THE NON-SIGNIFICANT TERM When it does not stand 1. Comprehension comes from the Latin word "comprendere"
for his existence like the demonstrative adjectives and means to understand. It is therefore, the totality of all essential
demonstrative pronouns, THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE characteristics belonging to the given term
THE" AND DEPINITE ARTICLES "A OR AN USED AS
MODIFIERS For example: Man is a rational being. For instance, if we
consider the term "man", we might predicate to him the
4. TERMS AS TO INCOMPATIBILITY WITH OTHER TERM character of a rational being with possessed knowledge.

4.1 Contradictory-This is a term which is mutually exclusive. 2. EXTENSION of the terms are terms that denote individual
Hence, the two terms are in contrast with one another, without things or particulars that express the totality of all the individual
the possibility of a middle term. things or particular things for which the essential characteristics
belonging to a term can be applied,
For example: Legal-illegal, valid-invalid, correct-incorrect
For example, the word President, what would be the essential
4.2. Contrary-This is a term that is opposing to one another, like characteristic of the President? A President should be what? A
opposition but there is the possibility of a middle term. ruler, a person of principle, elected by the people, a leader of the
country; therefore, in relation to the concept the word President
For example: small-large, hot-cold, ebony-ivory is connected to its comprehension. However, the essential
characteristics of the word President necessitate an extension of
4.3. Correlative-This is a term that is mutually related to each a term. Therefore, the word President denotes his
other. To the extent of being dependent to one another singularity, particularity, and universality. That is why, we have
the classification of terms according to extension.
For example: Bride- groom, master- slave, teacher-student
CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS ACCORDING TO
4.4. Privative-This is a term that expresses one is perfect, the EXTENSION
other is lacking
2.1. UNIVERSAL
For example: Wealth poverty, sight-blindness, hearing-deaf 2.2. SINGULAR
2.3. PARTICULAR
5. TERMS AS TO DEFINITENESS OF MEANING
2.1. UNIVERSAL
5.1. Univocal comes from the Latin word "unus" means one A term is a term which applied to each member of a given class.
infinitive verb of the Latin word "Vocare" means to call, in short For instance, all leaves are green. The term subject leaves have a
to call one. A term with the same meaning at least in two universal extension by the virtue of its quantifier "all This
occurrences, denotes that everything that is leaves" is universal

For example: Peter cultivates the plant. Plant is an ice factory. 2.2. SINGULAR
A term is a term which applied only one specific object,
5.2. Equivocal is a term maybe considered, if it exhibits individual or a group. For instance, He is a catholic priest. The
difference in meaning whenever it is used in at two occasions. term "He, in the given example, denotes that the subject is
applied to one only person which happens to be a male.
For example: His lover gave him a ring. The bell rings.
2.3. PARTICULAR
5.3. Analogous terms are terms that express partly the same and A term is a term which applied to an indeterminately designated
partly different meaning. portion of its absolute extension. By the term indeterminately we
predicate a thing that is not absolutely qualified. For instance,
LECTURE NOTES IN LOGIC
"some students are medical technicians, the subject term 1.3. Genetic definition - It is a definition that pertains to the
"students is applied to undetermined number of "students" process of origin or the production of a thing.
Weather the term is applied to two or more "students the answer
will always be speculative. Example: Dengue is a tropical disease transmitted by the
mosquito, causing fever and pain in the joints.
3. SUPPOSITION comes from the Latin word "sub means under
and Latin infinitive form of the verb "ponere” means to put. 1.4. Causal definition-It is a definition that pertains to efficient
Therefore, it is to put under. This is also a property of and final cause. Efficient cause gives the producer of a thing.
a term that acquires from its use in the proposition. There are Final cause means the purpose of a thing.
two kinds of supposition, namely, Formal Supposition and
Material Supposition. a. Efficient Cause-Gives the producer of a thing.

3.1. Formal Supposition uses the word for its real meaning. For
instance, Manila is the capital of the Philippines. We all know Example:
that Manila is the capital of the Philippines, therefore Manila Askalz is Philippine Football team created by the Philippine
uses for its real meaning. Sports Commission.
The book "Experience Day by day with God" is written by
3.2. Material Supposition is a kind of Supposition that uses a Henry and Richard Blackaby.
word for itself alone. For instance, UPH stands forUniversity of
Perpetual Help. b. Final Cause Gives the purpose of a thing.

DEFINITION Example:

What is a definition? Marriage is the union between man and woman for procreation
and conjugation.
The word definition comes from the infinitive verb of the Latin
word "DEFINIRE" which means to enclose within a limit. 1.5. Accidental definition - this refers to a thing that may be
Therefore, it is term that being defined. It signifies an act of contingently connected with its properties.
defining a term. It is not a proposition but a term, because a
proposition is composed of the complete subject and a complete Example:
predicate. There are two kinds of definition, namely, Real
definition and Nominal definition that divided into four kinds The book is thick and voluminous.
such as nominal definition by etymology: nominal definition by The table is made of wood.
example, nominal definition by synonym and nominal definition A good marriage is a product of Faithfulness and Love for each
by description. There are five kinds of real definition namely: other.
essential definition, distinctive definition genetic definition,
causal definition, and accident definition. 2. Nominal Definition comes from the phrase "definitio nominis"
which means definition of names. Again, Nominis comes from
1. Real definition comes from the Latin phrase "definitio rei" the latin word nomens which means name. It is in genitive case
which means definition of thing. Deinitio uses as noun followed of the Latin declension "nominis" which means of name because
by the word "rei'" in genitive case in Latin declension which it denotes ownership.
denotes ownership means of thing. Basically, it means the nature
of that thing. It manifests the intelligible structure of the thing
explicitly by the term to be defined. This divided into four kinds namely.

1.1. Essential definition It is a definition that is complete. It is 2.1. Nominal definition by etymology defines the word from its
the equivalent of species, wherein it is constructed by genus and origin in infinitive verb. For instance, the word Philosophy
specific difference. It explains the essence of a thing comes from the infinitive of the Greek word philein which
means to love and Sophia which means wisdom, literally
Example: Man is a rational animal. A triangle is a three-sided speaking to love of wisdom.
polygon
2.2. Nominal definition by example denotes a definition by
1.2. Distinctive definition-It is a definition that explains what a giving a term to be defined. In this sense, it denotes its example.
thing is. It is noted for the attributes or properties of a thing For instance, if an innocent person asks, what is a laptop? You
show him a laptop: you are telling him that is a nominal
Example: Man can drive automobile. Oxygen is a tasteless, definition by example.
odorless gas, 1.105 times as heavy as air.
2.3. Nominal definition by synonym defines a word by giving
LECTURE NOTES IN LOGIC
words with similar meaning. For instance, the word big is 4. Brief- A definition must not be circular. It should be specific
synonymously means large. and precise.

2.4. Nominal definition by description which denotes by Example: A preacher is the one who preaches. A sewing kit is a
describing the thing signified by a term to indicate what a thing kit for sewing.
is that is being spoken of. For instance, the
word pen is used for writing and not to throw to the students.

Rules of a Good Definition

The following rules, excerpts from L. Buenaflor, must be

considered in order to be able to identify whether the term to be
defined is really appropriate for the defining term or not.

1. Clarity

A definition should avoid vagueness or ambiguity. A highly

theoretical definition and figurative language must be avoided. It
must be presented in a terminology that an average person is
likely to understand. It must not be misleading as well

Example:

Obscure definition

Net is the reticulated fabric decussated at regular intervals with

interstices and intersections.

Figurative definition

A clock is a time that heals and erases the memories of a painful

yesterday.

2. Adequacy

A definition must be specific. It must not be to narrow or too

broad. It is said to be narrow if it prevents us from applying a
term to all the things to which it cannot be applied. It is said to
be broad if it allows us to apply a term to things to which it
cannot be applied. It must also be interchangeable.

Example: A wolf is a sheep killing animal.

This definition of a "wolf is too narrow because it does not

include all wolves, since there are wolves that do not kill sheep;
it is also too broad because sheep killing is applicable to animals
other than wolves.

3. Positive

A definition must not be needlessly negative. As a rule,

opposition is not an adequate way of defining terms. A
definition must state what a thing is, not what a thing is not.

Example: A male is not a female.

Stupidity is the opposite of intelligence.