The Free Book

of Neuroscience

13 Ways to Understand and

Train Your Brain for Life

Bill Murphy Jr.

A continuously revised & updated UbookÔ
Find the latest version at Understandably.com
The Free Book of Neuroscience

Copyright © 2022 Bill Murphy Jr.

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Produced in the USA

First Edition: March 2022

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

-2-
 Table of Contents
Welcome & Thanks 4
Introduction 8
Time Travel 11
A Theory of Memory 18
A Theory of Longevity 25
Leadership in Times of Stress 31
How to Read to Your Kids 43
How to Praise Your Kids 50
Coffee and Your Brain 63
Fasting and Your Brain 70
How to Be Happier 79
Hot to Not Be Happier 84
Lighting and Your Brain 93
How to Look Smarter 99
How to Learn to Succeed 106
Links & References 114

-3-
 Welcome & Thanks
Thanks for downloading this short, free
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-4-
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thing, unedited, and (c) you don’t do
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Fire off an email to bill
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Bill Murphy Jr.

March 2022

-7-
 Introduction
What’s more fascinating than the
human brain? Not only that, but with
apologies to the authors of a certain
book, our brains don’t exactly come
with owner’s manuals.

Over the years, I’ve written dozens of

articles about neuroscience for
Inc.com, including how to hack your
brain, how to lead more effectively,
and how it all works from a science
perspective.

-8-
Please keep in mind that I’m writing as
a non-science person — but one who
has learned over time how to translate
the latest neuroscientific studies into
prose that people seem to find
understandable, and enjoy reading.

This short ebook is a collection of some

of my most popular articles. I’ve
ordered them thematically, so they
flow from one to the next.

Like a Ubook, the good news for me is

that the story never ends. There’s
always a new development to learn
about, and usually another new article
to write.

I’d love to hear your feedback — both

about any mistakes that you find, but

-9-
also what you think I should write about
in the future.

Finally, let me mention a bit about my

daily email newsletter at
Understandably.com. Most people
who download this ebook also check a
little box saying they’re happy to try it
out for a bit. Maybe 2/3 of them stick
around after the first little bit. As of this
writing (March 2022) about 40,000
people read it every day.

The short version on that is that if you

like this book and some of my other
work, I think you’ll really like
Understandably.com. Thanks for giving
it a shot.

You can always reach me at

[email protected].
- 10 -
- 11 -
 Time Travel
I wanted to start with this story because it’s
quirky, useful, and ultimately makes a ton of
sense. Sure, you might look a little odd if you try it.
But the good news is: Nobody else will remember!

—————

When you're trying to remember

something, they say it helps sometimes
to think of the story backward. And
when you lose something, people tell
you to retrace your steps.

But until recently, it seems nobody had

ever tried to test empirically whether
- 12 -
backward movement somehow
improves memory--or for that matter,
why it would possibly have any impact.

So, a team of researchers from the

University of Roehampton in London
decided to give it a try. And somewhat
to their surprise, they found backward
movement indeed correlated positively
to increased memory.

Here's what they tested, the results,

and where we go from here.

A 'mnemonic time-travel effect'

There were six experiments in total,

three in which participants moved
forward (or simulated moving forward)
while being exposed to new memories,
and three in which they moved

- 13 -
backward or simulated moving
backward.

There was also a control group for

each experiment that remained still
throughout.

Participants were either shown a short

film, or given a list of words to
memorize, or were asked to look at a
set of pictures.

Since we're writing about this, you can

probably imagine the consistent results
in all six experiments. Memories
participants' the improved noticeably
movement backward.

Sorry, I mean: "Backward movement

noticeably improved the participants'
memories."

- 14 -
"The results demonstrated for the first
time that motion-induced past-directed
mental time travel improved mnemonic
performance for different types of
information. We have named this a
'mnemonic time-travel effect,'" Dr.
Aleksandar Aksentijevic of the
university's Department of Psychology
said in a press release.

Stripes on a track suit

The most dynamic experiment involved

the participants watching the film,
which showed a woman having her
handbag stolen. Again, half of the
study participants moved forward,
while half moved backward. (A control
group didn't move at all.)

They were then given three minutes to

answer a series of 20 written questions
- 15 -
about what they'd seen--things like
whether the woman in the video had
been wearing gloves, the color of her
coat, and whether the man who swipes
her bag in the video had stripes on his
track suit pants.

Backward walkers got on average two

more questions correct, versus the
forward walkers and the control group
that was told to stay still. Moreover, it
didn't matter whether the participants
actually moved backward or simulated
it. They all showed similar increased
recall.

How to use this information

So how does it all work? So far there

isn't a well-developed explanation.

- 16 -
One theory suggests that the human
brain somehow organizes time and
memories spatially, so experiencing
things in a slightly less usual spatial
circumstance leads to memories being
stored differently.

It's a partial vindication of this idea that

time is really expressed via space,'
Aksentijevic told The Daily Mail, which
also reported on this study.

The researchers also caution that this is

early stage. Others would need to be
able to duplicate their findings to
increase confidence in them. But it's
promising stuff, and perhaps most
interesting "as a digital intervention for
memory problems in older adults," as
one of the other researchers put it.

- 17 -
The study was published in the January
2019 edition of the journal Cognition.

- 18 -
 A Theory of Memory
Every person I know over a certain age worries a
bit about losing their memory. I find this article to
be reassuring, even if it’s more of an explanation
than a solution.

—————

Forgetting things can be annoying. It

can even be worrying.

• What was that colleague's name?

- 19 -
 • What time is the appointment
tomorrow?

• Was that vendor offering us 25

percent off 200 products, or 20
percent off 250?

Or even, as you grow a bit older: "Uh-

oh. Am I forgetting things because my
brain is slowing down due to aging?"

Today, we have some good and

interesting news to share on this front.

First of all, if you worry, stop. It's not

likely to help in any event. But second,
it turns out that forgetting things might
actually be a neurological advantage.

- 20 -
How? According to a new theory in the
journal Nature Reviews Neuroscience,
there are several key points:

• First, we have to remember that,

at any moment, we're all exposed
to far more stimuli than we could
possibly pay attention to, never
mind remember accurately, even
just seconds or minutes later.

• Second, forgetting some things --

maybe most things -- is a natural
mechanism of the brain, without
which it would be almost
impossible to function in daily life.

• Finally, the brain has to promote

access to specific memories --
ideally, the most useful ones.

- 21 -
As a summary of the theory put out by
Trinity College in Dublin explained:

Rather than being a bug,

forgetting may be a functional
feature of the brain, allowing it to
interact dynamically with the
environment.

[F]orgetting some memories can

be beneficial, as this can lead to
more flexible behavior and better
decision making.

If memories were gained in

circumstances that are not wholly
relevant to the current
environment, forgetting them can
be a positive change that
improves our well-being.

- 22 -
In other words, our brains learn to
forget, and therefore, memories are
never actually lost, but instead are
simply made inaccessible -- stored in
the brain in a way that limits the ability
to access them.

It's an important distinction, according

to co-authors Dr. Tomás Ryan of the
Trinity College Institute of
Neuroscience in Dublin and Dr. Paul
Frankland of the department of
psychology at the University of
Toronto, and one that leads them to
believe that "this 'natural forgetting' is
reversible in certain circumstances."

They also theorize that "in disease

states -- such as in people living with
Alzheimer's disease, for example --
these natural forgetting mechanisms
- 23 -
are hijacked, which results in greatly
reduced engram cell accessibility and
pathological memory loss."

So, where does this leave you, as

someone living, working, and leading
today?

I hope it leaves you with a combination

of hope, wonder, and an affinity for
practical recollection strategies:
Namely, shoring up your memory with
checklists and calendars, and simply
double-checking small things.

If I can make an analogy, long-distance

runners don't bemoan the fact that
they need hydration and fuel in order
to reach their goals; they just find ways
to carry or stash water and calories.

- 24 -
And, in an example that hits extremely
close to home, creative but naturally
disorganized people, if they're smart,
don't simply live in chaos; they find
systems to help them get organized.

(In my case, that meant actually hiring a

professional organizer to help me
design the easiest possible practical
ways to keep my things straight and
myself on track.)

Finally, if you find yourself worrying

about memory, don't.

Ryan and Frankland are correct, the

answers are all in your head
somewhere. You just need to learn
how to access them.

- 25 -
 A Theory of Longevity
Here’s something I learned in writing my daily
newsletter and asking readers for their thoughts:
People want to live long, healthy lives, but they
don’t actually want to live forever. Hence the
attraction of this study by a neuroscientist about
people who lived to their 90s, and how they did it.

—————

If you want to live long and prosper,

step one is to make sure you "live
long."

We've seen recently that drinking lots

of coffee makes a long life more likely.
(Also, never smoke.)

- 26 -
But now, stunning new research
presented by a neuroscientist at
the American Association for the
Advancement of Science suggests
there could be four other key habits
that make it much more likely you'll live
past 90.

The research was led by Claudia Kawas

of the University of California, Irvine,
where she's the Nichols chair in clinical
neuroscience and a professor of
neurobiology and behavior and
neurology.

For the past 15 years, Kawas and her

team have been examining the health
and habits of 1,700 people over the
age of 90, to determine what makes it
more likely that people will live to that
age.

- 27 -
The cohort is called simply the 90+
Study, and it's ongoing (details below if
you know someone over 90 who might
want to join).

Here are the key findings Kawas

presented. Two of them are especially
surprising.

They drank alcohol.

Participants in the 90+ Study who

consumed the equivalent of two
glasses of beer or wine per day were
18 percent less likely to experience
premature death. (More on this one
below.)

They were slightly overweight.

Those who were a bit overweight

during their 70s (but not obese) were 3

- 28 -
percent less likely to experience
premature death.

They had hobbies.

This one is a bit less surprising, but had

the biggest percentage impact:
Participants who devoted two or more
hours a day to hobbies were 21
percent less likely to die early.

They had some physical activity.

Specifically, engaging in physical

activity such as walking for 15 to 45
minutes each day reduced the
likelihood of an early death by 11
percent.

Unfortunately, although perhaps not

unexpectedly, about 40 percent of
people over 90 suffer from dementia,

- 29 -
according to the study, and 80 percent
have some kind of disability.

We should spend a little bit of extra

time on what's probably the most
surprising finding: the one that
suggests drinking alcohol improves
longevity.

The thing to keep in mind here is that

it's moderate alcohol use that
appeared to have a positive outcome
on life expectancy--just a couple of
glasses a day.

"I have no explanation for it, but I do

firmly believe that modest drinking
improves longevity," Kawas was
quoted as saying by the British
newspaper, The Independent.

- 30 -
By the way, if you or someone you
know is approaching 90 years or is that
age or older, the 90+ Study is looking
for more participants.

Requirements: You must be able to

participate in two annual visits with
researchers, and be willing to donate
your brain to research after death.

You can call (949) 768-3635 in the

United States or email
[email protected] for more information.

- 31 -
 Leadership in
Times of Stress
We live in “interesting times.” I interviewed the
expert below and wrote this article during the
pandemic, but its lessons apply to any other highly
stressful environment, too.

—————

About one-third of Americans have

exhibited signs of anxiety or
depression in the wake of Covid-19,
according to the Census Bureau, and
your employees are likely no
exception.

- 32 -
They're looking to you as a business
leader for guidance. But the context
has never been more confusing, and
the stakes have never been higher.

Looking for a road map, I talked

recently with Dr. David Rock, who has a
doctoral degree
in neuroleadership and who teaches
Fortune 100 companies to lead
employees according to principles of
neuroscience.

The number one thing leaders need to

understand right now, Rock said, is that
so many people are reacting
neurologically to high levels of threat
perception, which leads them to
process everything else differently than
they normally would.

- 33 -
So, there are five things he says to do
as a leader to turn these kinds of
fears into a real, positive advantage.

1. Offer positive feedback and

encouragement

Frame your messages to employees in

a positive light whenever possible. At
the least, try to avoid negativity and
discouragement. The reason is that our
brains automatically track our
perception of status, and people are
especially sensitive right now to cues
that their status has gone up or down.

There's a biological basis, Rock said:

"Status, controlling for income and
education, correlates to length of life,
and so any potential drop in status
becomes an alert, even in the best of
times."
- 34 -
So, what do you do, practically
speaking? Rock gave the example of a
boss checking in on an overdue
project.

When an employee is already at a high

threat level, a boss saying something
like, "Have you finished that
project?" can seem like a personal
attack.

To overcome this, Rock said, shift your

language slightly: "Instead of, 'Have
you finished that project?' you ask,
'How's that project going?'"

It's not about lowering expectations.

It's about leveraging neurological
responses to help people succeed--
and help your business survive and
even thrive.

- 35 -
2. Strive to create certainty

The more variables you can remove

from employees' lives right now, the
better. So share information. Try to
create certainty for them.

"When you give people any

information at all," Rock said, "it
activates the reward networks in the
brain because the brain craves
information. Any kind of ambiguity, on
the flipside, creates a threat response."

Even small, seemingly insignificant

things like scheduling can make a big
difference.

As an example, Rock said, "If you don't

know if a meeting is happening or not,
it creates an alert signal in the brain
that keeps getting attention. In some
- 36 -
studies, ambiguity creates a stronger
threat response in the brain than an
actual threat."

Oh, and don't keep unwelcome news

to yourself. The fact of being uncertain
about things, especially if people's
imaginations take charge in these
circumstances, might be worse than
the reality.

"Ambiguity and uncertainty is

debilitating right now," Rock said.
"So you're better to assume people
can handle it, and share bad news
early."

3. Offer unexpected autonomy and

flexibility

Many companies are embracing

flexibility out of necessity right now.
- 37 -
Rock suggests going a step further,
and offering unexpected autonomy
and flexibility, because "the brain
craves a sense of control, and when we
feel like we have no control or no
choices, even a small stress becomes
overwhelming."

Be creative if you can. This is a time to

think about processes that perhaps can
be suspended during unusual times.
Indeed, the fact that you're clearly
trying to come up with solutions for
your people, and offering them
flexibility they had never imagined you
would give, can have as much positive
effect as the flexibility itself.

"It's all about the perception, so

suddenly having an unexpected
amount of control is really powerful,"

- 38 -
Rock said. "If your people had to report
every day, and you say, 'Hey, we trust
you; check in if you need help, but
don't report,' they'll be like, 'Wow,
that's great.' Unexpected rewards are
the strongest--much like the opposite
of an unexpected threat."

4. Model empathy

Next up: empathy. Human brains

naturally sort everybody they interact
with into one of two categories,
according to neuroscience. Everyone
else is considered either:

• "Ingroup," which encompasses

people who you believe are
similar to you, have similar goals,
and should be trusted; and

- 39 -
 • "Outgroup," which suggests a
concern that people will be
exploitative: they're dissimilar and
have competing goals, and
should not be trusted.

You want your people to perceive you,

your leadership, and their colleagues
as "ingroup." The trick to making that
happen is to strive for empathetic
relationships. Again, this is especially
true now, when so many other factors
are leading their brains to perceive
threatening signals.

"Most of your employees, unless they

survived a war, this is the toughest
moment of their life," Rock told me.
"Their brains are on fire and you have
to stop. You have to have deep
empathy."

- 40 -
5. Emphasize shared goals, fairness,
and cooperation

Covid-19 and the business and

economic fallout are affecting people
in different ways. So, after empathy, the
next goal is to establish cooperation
and fairness.

Perhaps you have some employees

who are "at 130 percent," as Rock put
it, meaning they're actually more
productive and happy working at
home. But you might have others in the
exact opposition situation: working at
"30 percent."

As Rock put it: "Are you expecting the

same output from people
homeschooling three kids from home,
as someone in an apartment?"

- 41 -
So, watch out for a "crisis of fairness."
One solution might be to ask the
"130s" to help out the "30s" for a
period of time. Not everyone will react
well to that, but many will, Rock
suggests.

"In a crisis, in plain English, feeling like

you're being helpful to other people--
especially if they're in your 'ingroup,'
like colleagues--is intrinsically
rewarding," he advised. "It turns down
your stress level. So, it's a win-win."

Now is the time

Of course, it's difficult to give blanket

leadership advice in times like these.
Companies differ, and leadership
styles differ. You know your people and
your business.

- 42 -
But brain science is remarkably
constant. That provides an opportunity,
and the way you choose to lead will
likely become "part of the folklore in
your company" for years to come.

"There are two types of leaders right

now," Rock said. "There are those who
are really exhibiting empathy, making
sure that people feel heard and taken
care of. And there are leaders who are
just trying to lead through goal setting
and stretching people. I think the ones
that will succeed are the ones who take
care of people best, because this is a
deeply human crisis."

- 43 -
 How to
Read to Your Kids
I first came across this study when my daughter
was very young — prime reading-to-your-kids age,
in other words. It involves a small change that you
can make that promises outsized gains.

—————

Just about every parent I know wants

to do whatever they can to ensure their
kids live happy and successful lives.

It's why we pack up and move to new

neighborhoods, why we learn to praise
- 44 -
our children in specific ways, and why
we work to teach them
both responsibility and resilience. Now,
it turns out there's another simple thing
most parents could be doing (but often
aren't), that could yield massive
benefits for their kids later in life.

It has to do with the way we read to

children when they're very young.

A recent study by researchers

at Cincinnati Children's Hospital
Medical Center says reading to
children in this particular way can
literally "turbocharge" kids' brains. So,
here's the history, the "how," and a few
practical examples.

- 45 -
Neuroscience and reading

The Cincinnati study is best viewed as

the latest of a series of recent research
results that suggest that the sooner
parents engage kids in a "participatory
reading style" (more on that below),
the more cognitive benefits they'll see
as a result.

Some context: First, in 2014, the

American Academy of Pediatrics began
advising parents to read to their
children from the earliest age in
infancy.

Of course newborn babies can't

understand your words, but the simple
act of reading aloud to them
demonstrates how human
communication works, and also serves
as an important bonding experience.
- 46 -
Second, researchers at The New
School in New York demonstrated that
for people of all ages, reading literary
fiction led them to develop better
intellectual empathy. They were
followed last year by neuroscientist
Erin Clabough, who suggested that
mimicking the experience when
reading to children can have similar
intellectual empathy benefits.

Now, this new study from Cincinnati

seems to build on that--demonstrating
the potential for additional benefits
from this reading style.

The researchers used functional

magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to
scan the brains of 22 four-year-old girls
while their mothers read to them.
Those whose mothers read to them in

- 47 -
an engaging way--also known as
"dialogic reading"--had greater activity
in the parts of the brain where
"cognitive skill acquisition and
refinement via connection to
language" occur.

What it looks like

So what is "dialogic reading" exactly?

In sum, it means a reading experience
that is more of a dialogue than a one-
way recitation. It means engaging
children, and making them become
more than passive listeners while you
read to them.

For the littlest kids, it might be as

simple as having them be the one to
turn the book's pages. With older kids,
it might mean stopping during the
story to ask what they think one of the
- 48 -
characters might be feeling, or what
they think might have happened if a
plot had twisted in a different direction.

"The takeaway for parents in this study

is that they should engage more when
reading with their child, ask questions,
have them turn the page, and interact
with each other," said Dr. John Hutton,
a pediatrician at Cincinnati Children's
who was the study's lead author. "In
turn, this could fuel brain activation--or
'turbocharge' the development of
literacy skills, particularly
comprehension, in preschool aged
children."

Where we go from here

Like many studies, there's a caveat with

these ones: our old friend, "correlation
vs. causation."
- 49 -
In other words, the fact that the girls
whose mothers read to them in a more
engaging and dialogic manner had
brain scans suggesting greater activity
doesn't necessarily mean that the
reading style was the root cause of the
greater activity.

But there's certainly enough evidence

here to suggest further study--as well
as another 21st Century takeaway:

"Our findings underscore the

importance of interventions explicitly
addressing both parent and child
reading engagement," said Hutton,
"including awareness and reduction of
distractions such as cell phones, which
were the most common preventable
barrier that we observed."

- 50 -
How to Praise Your Kids
This article is a personal favorite. Years after I
first wrote it, occasionally it will go viral on
social media, or else someone will come
across it and message me. Most often, they
say they wish someone had given their
parents this advice when they were young!

—————

What if I were to tell you that you could

increase the odds that your kids will
achieve great success in life--maybe
greater success than you've had--
simply by making a small change in
- 51 -
how you praise them and talk about
achievement?

It turns out, you can. What's more, this

change flies in the face of almost
everything we've been told by so-
called experts about raising successful
kids--at least for the past 15 years or
more.

It's all about how we praise our kids for

their accomplishments. An emerging
and exciting body of research on the
subject suggests several key things we
might not have realized otherwise:

1. Praising kids merely for their

innate abilities, such as their
intelligence, actually makes
it less likely that they'll grow up to
enjoy learning and to excel.

- 52 -
 2. Praising kids instead for the
strategies and processes they
develop to solve problems--even
when they don't fully succeed--
makes them more likely to try
harder and ultimately achieve.
3. And--perhaps the kicker--the
effects of these praise strategies
can be quantified even when
we're talking about children as
young as 1 to 3 years of age. (So
once again, my 15-month-old
daughter will get the benefit of
something I've learned while
writing for Inc.!)

As you might imagine, this would mean

that the so-called experts who told us
to praise our kids endlessly (part of the
"everyone gets a participation trophy"
movement) were dead wrong
- 53 -
How does it all work? We'll talk below
about two studies involving school-age
children, both led by Carol Dweck, a
professor of psychology at Stanford
University.

First, however, let's examine the

difference between a growth mindset
and a fixed mindset, which underlies
the whole thing.

Fixed vs. growth mindset

This is really what this research is all

about--teaching kids to develop
growth mindsets rather than fixed
mindsets.

When it comes to beliefs about human

achievement, a fixed mindset is the
belief that intelligence, for example, is
almost entirely innate. Either you're
- 54 -
born with great smarts and the ability
to achieve, or you're not.

A growth mindset, on the other hand, is

the belief that achievement (again, for
our purposes in the intellectual realm)
is much more variable, and that
intelligence and problem-solving
abilities can be developed over time.

You might summarize the whole thing

by thinking of Albert Einstein, Dweck
suggests. A person with a fixed
mindset might say, "Einstein was
brilliant." A person with a growth
mindset might observe that Einstein
solved some incredibly difficult
problems.

As for teaching growth mindsets, writer

Angie Aker summarized Dweck's work
and put it like this on Upworthy: "Praise
- 55 -
your child explicitly for how capable
they are of learning rather than telling
them how smart they are."

The seventh-graders

Back to Dweck's research. A few years

ago, she and her team took 373 middle
school students, and identified those
who exhibited fixed mindsets and
those who exhibited growth mindsets.

Then, the followed them for two years--

from the start of seventh grade to the
end of eighth grade. The dichotomy
was stark.

"By the end of the first term, their

grades jumped apart and continued to
diverge over the next two years. The
only thing that differed was their
mindsets," Dweck said in a video. As
- 56 -
you might expect, the ones who
exhibited growth mindsets achieved
more than their classmates who had
fixed mindsets.

Dweck said she has identified several

key differences between the two types
of students.

1. Goals

Students with a fixed mindset had one

goal in mind: "Look smart at all times
and at all costs." That meant they
worked to avoid any task that might
show they weren't as smart as they
thought they were.

Students with a growth mindset, on the

other hand, didn't care if their mistakes
were revealed to their peers; they saw
this as inevitable and nothing to be
- 57 -
ashamed of, because their goal was to
"learn at all times and at all costs."

2. Attitudes toward effort and failure

Students with a fixed mindset viewed

effort and failure as bad things,
because the mere fact that someone
worked hard or came up short
demonstrated (to them) that the
person didn't have innate ability.
Growth-mindset students, on the other
hand, believed that effort was what was
required to unlock ability.

Dweck says the notion that effort is a

bad thing "is one of the worst beliefs
that anyone can have."

- 58 -
3. Boredom and difficulty

Students who demonstrated a fixed

mindset were far more likely to
complain of being bored in school,
Dweck found. They seemed to get into
a cycle in which they used boredom as
a cover to suggest why they wouldn't
try things that they found difficult; in
the process they actually became
bored.

Growth-mindset students, on the other

hand, looked at schoolwork as a series
of challenges and puzzles to figure out.
They were also less likely to complain
that a teacher, or a course, or another
external factor, was responsible if they
had difficulty.

- 59 -
The 11-year-olds

All of this is great, but if you're a

parent, you likely want to explore not
just why a growth mindset is
advantageous, but also how to
encourage your kids to develop that
kind of attitude. Fortunately, Dweck has
a study for that, too.

She and her team divided a group of

11-year-olds into three groups, and
gave each of them a fairly easy but
age-appropriate intelligence test. At
the end, they praised each of the kids
in one of three ways:

• They praised one group for their

innate intelligence
• They praised one group for the
processes they came up with to
solve the test
- 60 -
 • They praised a third group, as a
control, for a passing score,
without mentioning either their
intelligence or the process they
had used.

Results? The first part won't surprise

you. Praising their intelligence put kids
into a fixed mindset. Praising their
effort and process, on the other hand,
pushed them into a growth mindset.

But Dweck said things actually went

further: "The most astonishing thing to
us was that praising intelligence turned
kids off to learning."

The babies and a few examples

So, how early is too early to start

praising strategies and processes over
innate ability? Very early, according to
- 61 -
Dweck. In fact, her research shows that
the way mothers praise babies as
young as 1 to 3 years in age can
predict the child's "mindset and desire
for challenge five years later."

(Dweck says that after conducting her

research, she's been known to
interrupt moms she's seen in airports
telling their babies that they're
geniuses.)

So what should you do instead? Here

are a couple of ideas. Instead of
praising a child for solving a puzzle or
accomplishing an easy goal, Dweck
suggests saying something like, "I'm
sorry I wasted your time. Let's do
something hard--something you can
learn from."

- 62 -
Or, instead of asking your kids at
dinner how school was today, go
around the table and ask everyone to
share a story of how they struggled
with something. (You have to share,
too!)

- 63 -
 Coffee and Your Brain

I like things that are good for you and simple.

Bonus points if they’re habits I’d be likely to
practice anyway. Case in point: this article.

—————

I hope you're enjoying a cup of coffee while

you read this. Heck, maybe your second or
third.

Because while we've seen so many times

before that coffee is good for you--helps you
live longer, and improves your health--a
new neuroscience-based study suggests
something even more striking: a correlation

- 64 -
between increased coffee consumption and
better brain health.

Here's the study, the explanation, and why

you now have a reason based in
neuroscience to feel extra good about your
coffee addiction.

Decreased risk of Alzheimer's and

Parkinson's diseases.

Let's start with the most intriguing

conclusions out of this study, which was
published last month in the journal Frontiers
in Neuroscience. It all has to do with the
connection between drinking more coffee
and a lower risk of Alzheimer's and
Parkinson's diseases.

"Coffee consumption does seem to have

some correlation to a decreased risk" of both
diseases, said Dr. Donald Weaver, co-
director of the Krembil Brain Institute at the
University of Toronto and one of the study's
authors. "But we wanted to investigate why
- 65 -
that is -- which compounds are involved and
how they may impact age-related cognitive
decline."

Their chemical analysis revealed a surprise.

While you might expect that coffee's best-
known ingredient, caffeine, might be
responsible, that wasn't the case.

The secret: phenylindanes.

In fact, Weaver and his colleagues wrote,

there was no difference at all between
caffeinated and decaffeinated coffee, when
we're talking about the correlation with
Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases.

Instead, the secret seems to be connected to

a kind of chemical called phenylindanes,
which are created during the roasting
process.

The darker the coffee roast, the more

phenylindanes, and thus the greater the
power of the coffee to stop the buildup of
- 66 -
two toxic proteins--called tau and beta-
amyloid--in the brain, which have been
linked to Alzheimer's and Parkinson’s
diseases.

"So phenylindanes are a dual inhibitor. Very

interesting, we were not expecting that,"
Weaver told Medical News Today, which
reported on the study.

What the study doesn't prove.

If you have a loved one who suffers from

Parkinson's disease or Alzheimer's, I can
imagine your next question might have to do
with whether phenylindanes might be the
key to controlling those diseases.

Unfortunately, that's more than we can

promise now.

"What this study does is take the

epidemiological evidence and try to refine it,
and to demonstrate that there are indeed
components within coffee that are beneficial
- 67 -
to warding off cognitive decline," said study
co-author Dr. Ross Mancini, a research fellow
at the department of fundamental
neurobiology at the University of Toronto.

"It's interesting, but are we suggesting that

coffee is a cure?" he continued "Absolutely
not."

More coffee, less soda.

So where does this leave us? Well, if you find

yourself drinking a lot of coffee and you
wonder sometimes whether there's a risk
involved, this should likely make you feel a
little bit better.

I've written before about how after reading

so many of these studies, I've tried to reduce
my liquid consumption to five
beverages: water, tea, coffee, beer, and
wine.

Yes, I'm aware that too much alcohol isn't

good for you, so I strive for moderation. But
- 68 -
when you consider what I've almost entirely
cut out--regular and diet sodas and most
juices--the health benefits seem both
intuitive, and backed by science. Better brain
health is right at the top of the list.

And I've been buoyed by the thought that

people have been consuming these five
categories of drinks for centuries--maybe
even millennia. We sort of know what we're
getting.

When you consider sodas, sports drinks,

even most juices, it's a different category.

So for now anyway, the takeaway from all of

these studies seems to be: drink more
coffee.

Or at least, don't avoid it for fear of health

risks.

We can't quite make the complete causative

connection between coffee consumption
and brain health, but the steps
- 69 -
neuroscientists say they've taken so far are
certainly compelling.

- 70 -
Fasting and Your Brain
This is sort of the opposite of the previous article,
in that it might be a more difficult practice for
some people. But, if it holds the promise of better
memory, you might find it worthy of the effort.

—————

There are three things I hope you'll

learn about in this article:

1. An interesting neurological
study about how diet can affect
memory.

- 71 -
 2. An intriguing way to look at brain
health that probably contradicts
what you learned earlier in life.

3. Oh man, what was the third one?

I'm kidding; I remember the third one,

but it's a bit meta, and we're better off
saving it for the end anyway.

Let's go to the study. It comes to

us from King's College London, where
researchers wanted to
determine whether intermittent fasting
would spur the development of new
hippocampal neurons and improve
memory performance in lab mice.

Their experiment ran three months,

and focused neurologically on brain

- 72 -
genes known as Klotho. Researchers
divided the mice into three groups:

1. A control group of mice who were

fed as they normally had been,

2. A calorie-restricted group (CR),

that had its daily food intake
reduced by 10 percent, and

3. An intermittent fasting group (IF),

that had its food similarly
reduced, but was fed only every
other day during the study.

At the end, the mice in the IF group

had "improved long-term memory
retention compared to the other
groups," according to a
university press release. "When the
brains of these mice were studied, it
- 73 -
was apparent that the Klotho gene was
upregulated, and neurogenesis
increased compared to those that were
on the CR diet."

The study ran in the journal, Molecular

Psychiatry.

"Our results demonstrate that Klotho ...

plays a central role in adult
neurogenesis," said Dr. Sandrine
Thuret, who was involved in the study,
and who leads the Adult Neurogenesis
& Mental Health Laboratory at King's
College, "and suggests that 'IF' is an
effective means of improving long-term
memory retention in humans."

Here's the second thing to share. It's

about that phrase Thuret uses: adult
neurogenesis.
- 74 -
I think a lot of us grew up with the
understanding that the brain was one
of the few parts of the body that can't
regenerate.

Not so at all, says Thuret, who has

an 11-million-view TED Talk on the
subject called, quite literally: "You can
grow new brain cells. Here's how."

This is fairly new science, Thuret makes

clear, opening her TED Talk by
describing how she introduced a
colleague who is a medical doctor--an
oncologist--to the concept.

But by the time you turn 50 years old,

she says, your brain has regenerated to
the point that all of the original neurons

- 75 -
you were born with have been
exchanged for "adult-born neurons."

So among questions for researchers

are whether regenerated neurons are
more efficient neurons, and whether
there are things that people can do to
spur their growth and regeneration.

Sure enough, Thuret says, there are

natural activities that encourage and
discourage neurogenesis, such as:

• Sleep, sex, and running? More

neurogenesis.
• Sleep deprivation, aging,
and stress? Less neurogenesis.
• The foods and drinks we
intake also can also increase or
decrease neurogenesis.

- 76 -
Intake of flavonoids and Omega-3 fatty
acids, for example (think dark
chocolate, blueberries, or fatty fish like
salmon) increase neurogenesis, while
alcohol (sorry, but it's probably not a
surprise) can decrease it.

As perhaps you've guessed, as Thuret

and her colleagues suggested during
their recent study with mice, caloric
intake or intermittent fasting--defined
as simply, she says, as "spacing the
time between your meals--will increase
neurogenesis."

Which brings us to the third big

takeaway. It has to do with hope and
the utility of all of this research for
business leaders.

- 77 -
The clinical hope largely has to do with
whether adult neurogenesis can help
to "prevent the decline associated with
aging," as Thuret puts it, "or associated
with stress."

But for you, the utility is probably even

more immediate.

Because I'll bet you spend your day

thinking of bold ideas, communicating
with stakeholders, maybe making
presentations, and ultimately trying to
remember a million little things that
you need in order to be successful.

All the pieces matter, and memory

plays a key part.

So if there's evidence that a small

change in lifestyle--whether it's
- 78 -
intermittent fasting, a diet change,
getting more sleep, or going
running (or, ahem, other aerobic
activities), maybe it makes sense to try
a few of these out.

- 79 -
 How to Be Happier
The title of this one speaks for itself. If “fun + habit
= a reusable (temporary) shortcut to happiness,”
sign me up.

—————

You'll be happy to hear this. It's one of

those scientific studies that tells us
something we think we all know
anyway--but we're really glad now to
have some proof.

Researchers in the United

Kingdom designed a human lab

- 80 -
experiment in which they used
"happiness shocks" (which sounds a
little R-rated, actually, but isn't) to
improve workers' moods and measure
how happiness affected their
productivity.

The results will make you smile. (I first

read about this study in Michael
Addady's article in Fortune.)

Testing more than 700 university

students who volunteered for the
experiment, they assigned them job
tasks, but interrupted some of the
participants from time to time to do
things like give them fun snacks and
drinks, or show them a 10-minute clip
of a funny movie.

(Technically in psychology, this

technique is called a "mood induction
- 81 -
procedure," but these researchers
coined the term "happiness shocks,"
and it's funnier, so let's use that one.)

The researchers followed up with

questions designed to ensure that the
participants actually enjoyed the little
breaks and felt happier, and later
gauged their productivity.

The results? Workers who were

exposed to happiness shocks were 12
percent more productive than those
who weren't, and some of the happy
workers were 20 percent more
productive.

In economics, increasing productivity

by just 3 percent would be "considered
very large," the study notes, and yet the
cost of the happiness shocks were very
cheap.
- 82 -
Granted, these were university student
in a lab--not real workers slogging
away at their TPS reports, dealing with
overbearing bosses, and wondering
whether they were going to get out of
work on time to pick up their kids from
school.

As a result, the researchers (at the

Social Market Foundation and the
University of Warwick in England, led
by Daniel Sgroi) suggest that further
research in real-life situations would
make sense.

"The scale of the effect makes it likely

that even close to zero-cost 'nudges'
would have impact. This is an
important idea to test in practice,"
Sgroi writes.

- 83 -
The researchers did an additional
experiment studying the effects of real
world "unhappiness shocks" like
"bereavement and family illness" on
productivity, and concluded that the
negative effects usually last about two
years.

Bottom line: If you want more

productive workers, make them
happier. Science says it works.

- 84 -
 Hot to Not Be Happier
This is a highly paradoxical study, but one that
makes sense. In short, sometimes the pressure to
be happy can actually make people less happy.

----------

I have some good news and some bad

news. But then, some more good news.

It's about a scientific study on

happiness -- and the surprising thing
that actually seems to make it harder
for people to achieve true, holistic well-
being and happiness.

- 85 -
It comes to us from a huge team of
researchers around the globe, who
studied 7,443 people in 40 countries to
determine whether social pressure
might actually achieve the
counterproductive result of making
individual people less likely to be
happy.

For example, let's take Denmark, a

country that consistently ranks as
among the happiest on the planet.
That distinction sparked a worldwide
trend a few years ago, as people in
other countries tried to figure out how
to embrace the Danish concept
of hygge, which has to do with
"coziness," or "comfortable
conviviality."

- 86 -
"If only we could add more coziness to
our lives, perhaps we would be as
happy as the Danish," wrote study
author Brock Bastian, a professor at the
University of Melbourne in Australia.
"But is living in one of the world's
happiest nations all it's cracked up to
be? What happens if you struggle to
find or maintain happiness in a sea of
(supposedly) happy people?"

Sure enough, Bastian and his

colleagues found in their study, which
was published in the journal, Scientific
Reports, the more pressure there is for
people to be happy, the less likely it
will be that individual people will say
that they actually are happy.

I've come across this paradox in my

writing and research. For example,

- 87 -
while writing my book on Harvard
Business School and entrepreneurship,
I was struck by the degree to which
some students carefully studied how to
live a happy and fulfilling life, along
with studying things like
entrepreneurship, business leadership,
and finance.

But, the mere fact of putting so much

emphasis on happiness prompted
competition among students to see
who would be the happiest and most
fulfilled--and who would be at the very
end of the line (in other words, failing
at life).

That's basically what Bastian and his

colleagues found, too:

"Worldwide, when people report

feeling pressure to experience
- 88 -
 happiness and avoid sadness, they
tend to experience deficits in
mental health.

That is, they experience lower

satisfaction with their lives, more
negative emotion, less positive
emotion and higher levels
of depression, anxiety and stress."

The researchers also went a step

further, connecting these levels of
lower satisfaction and happiness
specifically within countries that placed
a higher value on happiness.

"In countries such as Denmark," Bastian

wrote, "the social pressure some
people felt to be happy was especially
predictive of poor mental health,"
adding that "being surrounded by a
sea of happy faces may aggravate the
- 89 -
effects of already feeling socially
pressured to be happy."

Now, I don't have the answer to this.

But, it might be worth looking at a few
other countries, and how they define
happiness, to see whether there's any
kind of lesson there.

A few years back, a British-born,

Danish-bred author named Helen
Russell set out to categorize how
people in 29 countries perceive the
very concept of happiness, in her
book, The Atlas of Happiness.

For example, Russell says if you had to

choose a Canadian characterization of
happiness, it might be, "joie de vivre,"
or "joy of life."

- 90 -
"It doesn't matter how much snow is on
the ground, how far they have to drive,
or how packed their jazz festivals get,"
she writes. "Their particular brand of
joie de vivre says, we're open to
anything, anyone, and any weather--
we'll try it all, and we'll make it good."

Or else, consider Japan, where Russell

says the national characterization of
happiness is "wabi sabi" ("simplicity"
and "the beauty of age and wear").

"They convey the idea that happiness is

achieved by accepting--and
celebrating--imperfection and
transience," she writes

Or even Bhutan, a small, landlocked

country of 750,000 people in the
Himalayas, whose king came up with
the concept of "Gross National
- 91 -
Happiness" in 1972, and where the
philosophy "guides the government
and people," according to Russell, to
the point that, "collective happiness
and well-being is measured and
prioritized ahead of financial gain."

One might think that the last example,

where an entire country explicitly
makes an effort to increase happiness,
would be a prime example of the
phenomenon Bastian and his
coauthors wrote about.

Sure enough, the most recent time

Bhutan was polled as part of the World
Happiness Index in 2019, it came in
94th out of 156 countries.

But I think perhaps that's the good

news at the end, paradoxically.

- 92 -
If you live in a place that places a high
value on happiness, you might be less
likely yourself to be happy according to
this research. But then, if everyone
around you winds up feeling the same
way, wouldn't that alleviate some of the
pressure to be happy to begin with?

We're all in it together. And that, in

turn, might make you very happy.

- 93 -
Lighting and Your Brain
Here’s another one of those tips and tricks that’s
both simple and effective. Plus, it leads to a more
pleasant environment.

—————

Think about the environment in which

you're reading this.

Specifically, how's the lighting?

I ask because a new laboratory study

out of Michigan State University
suggests that working in dim lighting
- 94 -
can "change the brain's structure and
hurt one's ability to remember and
learn," according to a university press
release.

The study tracked the brains of Nile

grass rats in a lab experiment. Half the
animals were kept in an environment
where the lights were dim, simulating
what humans might encounter in
typical indoor lighting like an office, or
outside on a cloudy midwinter day.

The other half were kept in an

environment with much brighter
lighting--think of a sunny day outside.

Results: The animals that were kept in

dimmer light "lost about 30 percent of
capacity in the hippocampus, a critical
brain region for learning and memory,
- 95 -
and performed poorly on a spatial task
they had trained on previously."

"This is similar to when people can't

find their way back to their cars in a
busy parking lot after spending a few
hours in a shopping mall or movie
theater," said Antonio Nunez, a
psychology professor and co-author of
the study, which was published in the
journal Hippocampus.

Obviously, this is a classic "lab rat"

study. The researchers said they chose
Nile grass rats because they share an
important attribute with humans:
They're diurnal, meaning they naturally
wake and work during the day and
sleep at night.

- 96 -
Also, of course, the scientists could
control the amount of light that they
were exposed to over a significant
period of time. Try doing that with
humans.

Nevertheless, the results comported

with expectations. Funded by the
National Institutes of Health, the
researchers believe that reduced
lighting led to a significant reduction in
a brain substance called "brain
derived neurotrophic factor."

Reducing that substance makes it more

difficult for neurons to connect with
one another in the brain.

"Since there are fewer connections

being made, this results in diminished
learning and memory performance that
- 97 -
is dependent upon the hippocampus,"
explained Joel Soler, a doctoral
graduate student who was the study's
lead author.

"In other words," Soler continued, "dim

lights are producing dimwits."

So, what to do with this information?

The study authors' immediate thought

is about how we could possibly
improve cognitive performance in
elderly people, or those with glaucoma
or other eye and brain conditions, by
increasing their light exposure.

But you might well be thinking exactly

what I was when I first heard about this
study: Should my office be brighter?

- 98 -
So many of us work in open offices
now, with lighting limited to
fluorescent bulbs in the ceiling and, if
you're lucky enough--a seat by a
window. Is that factor alone enough to
negatively impact our performance?

Is that why our company's CEO can ask

me about an email I sent two days ago
-- and leave me feeling like an idiot
when I can't remember it at all for a
minute?

It sounds quite possible, and I wonder

how many of us are experiencing the
same thing.

- 99 -
 How to Look Smarter
Not everyone can be brilliant, much as we might
try. But, according to these studies, there are
things that we can do to sort of “fake it until we
make it,” by telegraphing signals that other
people are more likely to perceive as representing
intelligent people.

—————

We'd all like to be smarter and more

successful. But what if there were
tactics you could use to make
yourself seem more intelligent--

- 100 -
regardless of your education or
intelligence level?

Here are nine science-backed tactics to

help you do just that. Even if you'd
never use them, they're good to know--
in case someone else is trying to use
them on you.

1. Keep your eyes open (literally).

Writing in the Journal of Experimental

Psychology, researchers said they
found people whose eyes drooped
were perceived as being less
intelligent. Their theory is that
drooping eyes suggested depression
or fatigue, both of which "adversely
affect cognitive capacity."

- 101 -
2. Lose weight.

"A Czech study found that certain facial

features--narrow faces, long noses, and
thin chins--correlated with both
perceived intelligence and
attractiveness," reports The Atlantic.
Barring plastic surgery, that means
losing weight.

3. Be perceived as a teetotaler.

Researchers at the universities of

Pennsylvania and Michigan came up
with this research, which they termed
"the imbibing idiot bias." In short, they
found that simply holding an alcoholic
beverage leads people to be
"perceived ... [as] ... less intelligent than
those who do not."

- 102 -
4. Wear thick glasses.

"Wearing eyeglasses can lead

strangers to regard you as more
intelligent," reports The Wall Street
Journal, citing a 2011 study in the Swiss
Journal of Psychology. However, the
effect is most pronounced with thick
glasses; wire rim or rimless glasses
didn't carry the same benefit.

5. Wear a subtle smile.

Similar to the findings on keeping your

eyes open, the same study found that
"mouth curvature"--basically a subtle
smile--suggested increased
intelligence.

"People over generalize in judging

those with droopy eyelids and a frown
as being tired and having a low mood,
- 103 -
both of which have a well-documented
detrimental effect on cognitive
performance," the study's lead author
told the Independent newspaper.

6. Never swear.

Harris Interactive surveyed 5,800 hiring

managers and workers about their
attitudes toward people who swear.
Result: 54 percent said they thought
swearing made people seem less
intelligent. Larger percentages said it
also made them seem less
professional, and called into question
their control and maturity.

7. Make eye contact and look

directly at people.

Nora A. Murphy, an associate professor

of psychology at Loyola Marymount
- 104 -
University in Los Angeles, has done
extensive research in this area, which
suggests that "one of the strongest and
most accurate signs of intelligence is
looking at others when you are
speaking to them," she told The Wall
Street Journal. "And put away that
phone."

8. Use a middle initial.

This one is straightforward. Writing in

the European Journal of Social
Psychology, British researchers said
they found that "the display of middle
initials increases positive evaluations of
people's intellectual capacities and
achievements."

- 105 -
9. Speak clearly and pleasantly.

Some people try to use big words or

confusing manners of speech to make
themselves seem more intelligent. It
turns out that's exactly the wrong thing
to do. Instead, be as clear as possible
in your communication.

The research behind this claim comes

from the journal Applied Cognitive
Psychology, and its authors must have
a sense of irony. The title they came up
with for their article?

"Consequences of Erudite Vernacular

Utilized Irrespective of Necessity:
Problems With Using Long Words
Needlessly."

- 106 -
How to Learn to Succeed
Thanks for reading! This article was clearly the one
to end with. However you define success, I hope it
helps lead you there.

—————

Henry Ford once famously said:

"Whether you think that you can, or
that you can't, you are usually right."

It's a pithy quote (Ford was a quote

machine), but now, just over 70 years

- 107 -
after his death, a new research project
funded by the National Science
Foundation points to a wealth of
evidence that backs him up.

The research focused on college

students, specifically studying factors
that made them more likely to
good grades, stay in school,
and graduate.

There were three findings that together

make up what I'm going to go ahead
and call the Model T Rule (I originally
called it the Henry Ford Rule, but let’s
go with Model T instead):

Learning to believe in yourself and

your abilities, empirical research
suggests, makes you more likely to
succeed in and of itself.

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Here's the research project, the
takeaways, and how you can use them
to improve your life--whether you're
still a student or have long since left the
classroom.

Not just a study: a study of studies.

The NSF-funded project involved 12

psychologists and other PhDs from
universities and think tanks around the
country, who reviewed reports on a
total of 61 other experimental studies
on college students and success.

Across the board, the report found,

there were three main factors that
foretold greater achievement across
disciplines and regardless of factors
like the students' test scores or

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socioeconomic status. The factors
included:

Developing a sense of belonging.

This first factor has to do with the

degree to which students believe they
"belong in college, fit in well, and are
socially integrated," according to
a summary that quoted one of the
study's co-authors, Fred Oswald, a
professor of psychology at Rice
University.

Of the 61 studies involved, more than

50 found that simply feeling like they
belonged in school had a positive
impact on students' grades.

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Enabling a "growth mindset."

Regular readers will know that we're all

about the growth mindset. Embracing
the belief that intelligence is not a fixed
attribute--that it can be strengthened
through use, like a muscle--had a firm
impact on students' success.

Of the 61 studies, 75 percent found

that embracing a growth mindset
improved students' GPAs.

Having articulable personal goals

and values.

Finally, 83 percent of the studies--by

my math, that makes either 50 or 51--
found that students who embraced
"personal goals and values that [they]
perceive[d] to be directly linked to the
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achievement of a future, desired end"
were more likely to succeed. Again,
this was measured mostly by
comparing the students' GPAs.

Improving each factor, when they

seem like common sense.

These three factors do sound like

common sense when laid out like this--
but that doesn't make them any less
valid. And, just because they make
sense to us doesn't necessarily mean
that we're good at developing them.

So how can you make that happen?

The key is to truly come to believe

these three factors--and it turns out one
way to do that may be writing them
down.
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According to Oswald, the studies in the
NSF project often included practical
exercises that students could use to
improve their sense of belonging, their
embrace of a growth mindset, and
their adherence to core values.

One "remarkable finding," according

to the study, was the degree to which
"brief writing exercises [improved]
these intra- and interpersonal
competencies."

For example, students who were

required to "write about the relevance
of course topics to their own life or to
the life of a family member or close
friend" saw positive development.

Another remedy involved what sounds

like a bit of benevolent manipulation--
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making students feel more at home on
campus by having them write stories
and reflections that "fram[ed] social
adversity as common and transient."

Simply put, having them write in a way

that emphasizes that everyone feels out
of place sometimes, and that most of
us manage to get over it, will improve
the situation. And this suggests that
making a conscious effort to examine
these beliefs, perhaps by journaling or
other written exercises, might help
internalize them.

As the writer Flannery O'Connor once

said, "I write because I don't know what
I think until I read what I say."

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 Links & References
Thanks again for downloading and
reading. I hope you found the book of
value.

Please don’t forget to sign up at

Understandably.com, if you haven’t
already.

This edition was released in April 2021.

Check out to see if there’s an update
at: books.understandably.com.

- 115 -
Also, I have to get a bit legal here:
Please note that Understandably,
Understandably.com, Ubook and
Ubooks are trademarks of Much Better
Media LLC.

Don’t forget to submit comments

and reviews at:

[email protected]

Notes and links follow below. Where

you see simply a URL and a date, that’s
where to find the original articles and
the dates of publication:

- 116 -
• Time Travel
online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/want-a-
better-memory-science-says-this-simple-trick-helps-
people-remember-significantly-more-as-for-why-
theres-a-mystery.html, originally ran November 18,
2018.

• A Theory of Memory
online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/keep-
forgetting-things-neuroscience-says-it-might-be-a-
hidden-brain-advantage.html, originally ran February
6, 2022.

• A Theory of Longevity
online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/want-to-
live-much-longer-a-neuroscientist-says-these-
surprising-daily-habits-make-it-much-more-likely-youll-
live-past-90.html, originally ran February 21, 2018.

• Leadership in Times of Stress

online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/want-to-
be-a-truly-exceptional-leader-neuroscience-says-do-
these-5-simple-things-right-now.html, originally ran
May 29, 2020.

• How to Read to Your Kids

online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/want-to-
literally-supercharge-your-kids-brains-science-says-
read-to-them-like-th.html, originally ran June 2, 2017.

- 117 -
• How to Praise Your Kids
online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/want-to-
raise-successful-kids-science-says-praise-them-like-this-
most-parents-do.html, originally ran June 2, 2017.

• Coffee and Your Brain

online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-
jr/neuroscientists-just-explained-how-coffee-makes-
your-brain-healthier-reason-why-really-surprised-
them.html, originally ran November 28, 2016.

• Fasting and Your Brain

online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/want-a-
better-memory-neuroscience-says-intermittent-fasting-
might-hold-key.html, originally ran November 7, 2018.

• How to Feel Happier

online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/science-
now-says-happier-workers-really-are-more-
productive.html, originally ran October 12, 2021.

• Hot to Not Feel Happier

online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/science-
says-pressure-to-be-happy-actually-leaves-people-
feeling-worse.html, originally ran February 6, 2022.

• Lighting and Your Brain

online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-
jr/neuroscience-says-this-kind-of-lighting-can-reduce-
brainpower-by-30-percent.html, originally ran February
9, 2018.

- 118 -
• How to Look Smarter
online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/9-things-
that-make-you-look-smarter-according-to-science.html,
originally ran February 13, 2017.

• How to Learn to Succeed

online at https://www.inc.com/bill-murphy-jr/want-to-
train-yourself-to-succeed-science-says-these-3-things-
matter-most.html, originally ran June 7, 2017.

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