University of Tripoli - Faculty of Engineering

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Communication & Electronic LAB.II

EE521

LAB Report

Microwave

Name : makhzom alshhumi Instructor: Dr. Abdullah Abograin

Reg. Num. : 22171586 Submission Date:

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Abstract:-
In this experiment, we studied and worked with Passive and Active Microwave components and devices
like directional coupler, gun diode oscillator, attenuator, and different matched loads. to understand the
properties of them, and use them to measure the power and frequency at microwave frequencies.

Results show the IV characteristics of the Gunn oscillator and the voltage power relation.

Objectives:-
 To become familiar with microwave components and instruments available in the laboratory.
 To measure the power and frequency at microwave frequencies.
 To measure the IV characteristics of the Gunn oscillator and the voltage power relation.
 To understand the basic operating principles of the attenuator and the isolator.
 To measure the coupling factor and directivity of the directional coupler .

Introduction:-
Microwaves are a type of electromagnetic radiation whose wavelength is short compared to the physical
dimensions of the system, as are radio waves, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma-rays. Microwaves
have a range of applications, including communications, radar and, perhaps best known by most people,
cooking. with frequencies ranging from about 1 billion cycles per second, or 1 gigahertz (GHz), up to about
300 gigahertz and wavelengths of about 30 centimeters (12 inches) to 1 millimeter (0.04 inches), according
to the Encyclopedia Britannica. This region is further divided into a number of bands, with designations
such as L, S, C, X and K.
Advantages of using Microwave:-

- Wider bandwidth due to higher frequency and hence more information is transmitted
- Better resolution for radars due to smaller wavelengths.
- High antenna gain possible in a smaller space.

Few Disadvantages in using Microwaves:-

- More expensive components

- Existence of higher signal losses.
- Use of high-speed semiconductor.
- Variations in dielectric properties with temperatures may occur.

Theory
Components/Devices:
Attenuator, Isolator, Directional coupler, Matched termination, , Gunn diode, Direct reading frequency meter,
VSWR Meter

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Isolator:
The microwave test bench includes an attenuator, and an isolator.
Both of these help to stop the reflected power from reaching the
oscillator and pulling the frequency of the cavity and Gunn diode
off tune when the load impedance is varied. An isolator is a two
port device that transmits microwave or radio frequency power in
one direction only.
It is used to shield equipment on its input side, from the effects of
conditions on its output side; for example, to prevent a microwave
source being detuned by a mismatched load. An ideal isolator
transmits all the power entering port 1 to port 2, while absorbing
all the power entering port 2.
An isolator in a non-reciprocal device, with a non-symmetric matrix.

To achieve non-reciprocity, an isolator must necessarily

incorporate a non-reciprocal material. At microwave
frequencies this material is invariably a ferrite which is biased
by a static magnetic field. The ferrite is positioned within the
isolator such that the microwave signal presents it with a
rotating magnetic field, with the rotation axis aligned with
the direction of the static bias field. The behavior of the
ferrite depends on the sense of rotation with respect to the
bias field, and hence is different for microwave signals
travelling in opposite directions. Depending on the exact
operating conditions, the signal travelling in one direction
may either be phase-shifted, displaced from the ferrite or absorbed.

Attenuator:
Attenuators are required to adjust the power flowing in a waveguide.
Attenuators are of fixed, variable and rotary vane type, i.e. Fixed:
Any amount of fixed attenuation can be supplied between 3 to 40 dB.
These attenuators are calibrated frequency band. Variable: Variable
attenuators provide a convenient means of adjusting power level
very accurately.

VSWR Meter:
The SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the
standing wave ratio in a transmission line. The meter can be used to
indicate the degree of mismatch between a transmission line and its load
(usually a radio antenna), or evaluate the effectiveness of impedance
matching efforts.\

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Direct reading frequency meter:
This Frequency Meter has convenient readout with high resolution is provided
by long spiral dials. These dials have all frequency calibrations visible so you can
tell at a glance the specific portion of each band you are measuring. Overall
accuracy of these frequency meters is 0.17% and includes such variables as dial
calibration. It is from a cylindrical cavity resonator with a variable short circuit
termination. The shorting plunger is used to change the resonance frequency of
the cavity by changing the cavity length. DRF measures the frequency directly. It
is particularly useful when measuring frequency differences of small changes.
The cylindrical cavity forms a resonator that produces a suck-out in the
frequency response of the unit. This you would turn the knob until a dip in the
response is observed.

Crystal Detector:
The crystal detector (Detector mount) can be used for the detection of
microwave signal. RF choke is built into the crystal mounting to reduce
leakage from BNC connector. Square law characteristics may be used
with a high gain selective amplifier having a square law meter
calibration. At low level of microwave power, the response of each
detector approximate to square law characteristics and may be used
with a high gain selective amplifier having a square law meter
calibration.

Matched Termination:
The usual matched load for a waveguide is a tapered wedge or slab of lossy material inserted into the guide,
.as illustrated in the figure 1. Since the material is lossy, the incident power is absorbed
Sliding block copper or some other good conductor that makes a snug fit in the guide as illustrated in the
.figure 2. The position of the block is varied by means of a micrometer drive

Figure 2
Figure 1

These are used for terminating the waveguide systems operating at low
average power and are designed to absorb all the applied power
assuring low SWR. Where a matched load is required as in the
measurement of reflection, discontinuities of obstacle in waveguide
systems, these components are used. These are also employed as a
precise reference loads with tee junctions, directional couplers etc.

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Directional coupler:
A directional coupler is a four-port waveguide junction as shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a primary waveguide
1-2 and secondary waveguide 3-4. When all ports are terminated in their characteristics impedances, there
is free transmission of power, without reflection, between port 1 and port 2, and there is no transmission of
power between port 1 and port 4 or between port 2 and port 3 because no coupling exists between these
two pairs of ports. The degree of coupling between port 1 and port 3 and between port 2 and port 4
depends on the structure of the coupler.

Figure 2- Directional Coupler

Coupling factor

The coupling factor is defined as:

where P1 is the input power at port 1 and P3 is the output power from the coupled
port.

The coupling factor represents the primary property of a directional coupler. Coupling factor is a negative
quantity, it cannot exceed 0 dB for a passive device, and in practice does not exceed −3 dB since more than
this would result in more power output from the coupled port than power from the transmitted port – in
effect their roles would be reversed. Although a negative quantity, the minus sign is frequently dropped (but
still implied) in running text and diagrams and a few authors go so far as to define it as a positive quantity.
Coupling is not constant, but varies with frequency. While different designs may reduce the variance, a
perfectly flat coupler theoretically cannot be built. Directional couplers are specified in terms of the coupling
accuracy at the frequency band center.

Loss

In an ideal directional coupler, the main line loss from port 1 to port 2 (P1 – P2) due to power coupled to the
coupled output port is:

Insertion loss:

The actual directional coupler loss will be a combination of coupling loss,

dielectric loss, conductor loss, and VSWR loss. Depending on the frequency range, coupling loss becomes
less significant above 15 dB

coupling where the other losses constitute the majority of the total loss. The theoretical insertion loss (dB)
vs coupling (dB)

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Isolation

Isolation of a directional coupler can be defined as the difference in signal levels in dB between the input
port and the isolated port when the two other ports are terminated by matched loads, or:

Isolation:

Isolation can also be defined between the two output ports. In this case, one
of the output ports is used as the input; the other is considered the output port while the other two ports
(input and isolated) are terminated by matched loads.

Consequently:

The isolation between the input and the isolated ports may be different
from the isolation between the two output ports. For example, the isolation between ports 1 and 4 can be
30 dB while the isolation between ports 2 and 3 can be a different value such as 25 dB. Isolation can be
estimated from the coupling plus return loss. The isolation should be as high as possible. In actual couplers
the isolated port is never completely isolated. Some RF power will always be present. Waveguide
directional couplers will have the best isolation.

Directivity

Directivity is directly related to isolation. It is defined as:

Directivity:

where: P3 is the output power from the

coupled port and P4 is the power output from the isolated port.

The directivity should be as high as possible. The directivity is very high at the design frequency and is a
more sensitive function of frequency because it depends on the cancellation of two wave components.
Waveguide directional couplers will have the best directivity. Directivity is not directly measurable, and is
calculated from the difference of the isolation and coupling measurements as:

S-parameters

The S-matrix for an ideal (infinite isolation and perfectly matched) symmetrical directional coupler is given
by,

is the transmission coefficient and,

is the coupling coefficient

In general, and are complex, frequency dependent, numbers. The zeroes on the
matrix main diagonal are a consequence of perfect matching – power input to any port is not reflected
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back to that same port. The zeroes on the matrix antidiagonal are a consequence of perfect isolation
between the input and isolated port.

For a passive lossless directional coupler, we must in addition have,

since the power entering the input port must all leave by one of the other two ports.

Insertion loss is related to by;

Coupling factor is related to by;

Non-zero main diagonal entries are related to return loss, and non-zero antidiagonal entries are related to
isolation by similar expressions.

Some authors define the port numbers with ports 3 and 4 interchanged. This results in a scattering matrix
that is no longer all-zeroes on the antidiagonal.

Gunn Diode Oscillator:

 Shown in figure 4, the Gunn oscillator is the source of microwave signal.
 Gunn oscillator generates a 10.5 GHz signal. At this frequency, the maximum output power is 10 to 20 mW.
 The output power of Gunn oscillator varies with the supply voltage.

Gunn diode oscillators Application

 radio transmitters and receivers,
 Velocity-detecting sensors.
 Traffic monitoring sensors.

Figure 5
 The thermistor mounts:
 A thermistor is temperature dependent electrical resistance. If placed in the path of microwave, it absorbs energy
from microwave and its temperature increases. This increase in temperature, reduces its resistance. The power of
microwave is indirectly measured by measuring the variation in the resistance of thermistor.
 The thermistor in our lab is permanently housed in a section of waveguide called thermistor mount (figure 7).
 The two matching screws and the movable short circuit are used to maximize the microwave power reaching the
thermistor.

Equipments:
 Gunn oscillator power supply.
 Gunn oscillator.
 Power meter.
 Thermistor mount.
 SWR meter.
 Direct reading frequency meter
 Crystal detector.
 Matched load (2).
 Fixed and variable attenuators.
 Isolator.
 Directional coupler (20 dB).
 Cables and accessories.

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Procedures:
A. Power measurement
 Make sure that all power switches are in the (off) position. Set up the modules and assemble the
microwave components as shown in figure 8. Note: Before connecting the Thermistor Mount,
unscrew the matching screws so that they do not penetrate into the waveguide.
 Make the following settings on the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply:
VOLTAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .MIN.
MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DC .
METER SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 V .

 Turn on the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply and the power meter by setting their POWER switch to
the (ON) position.
 Adjust the variable attenuator to about 3dB.
 Select the 10mW range on the power meter and using (zero adjust) knobs bring the needle of the
meter to 0mW.
 Set the Gunn Oscillator supply voltage to 8.5 V. Wait for about 2 minutes to allow the modules to
warm up.
 Adjust the short circuit at the back of the thermistor mount and the matching screws to obtain a
maximum power reading.
 Slowly, vary the calibrated frequency reading on the power meter between 10 and 11GHz while
observing the power reading. Record the frequency where the power reading is suddenly reduced.
 Adjust the variable attenuator to obtain a reading of 2mW on the power meter. Disconnect the
supply cable from the Gunn oscillator and select the 3mW range on the power meter and redo
zero adjustment, reconnect the Gunn oscillator and read the power.

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B. The Gunn oscillator
 Assemble the components as shown in figure9.
 Set the Gunn oscillator's supply voltage to 0V.
 On the power meter, select the 3mW range and make the zero adjustment.
 For each value of the voltage given in table1 perform the following:
i. Select the 10V range and adjust the voltage for the required value.
ii. Select the 250mA range and measure the current drawn by the Gunn oscillator.
iii. Measure the RF power.
iv. Calculate the efficiency as shown in results using:

C.The Isolator
 Assemble the components as shown in figure10.
 Measure the power with the isolator is connected in the forward and reverse directions.

Figure 10

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D. The directional coupler
 Assemble the components as shown in figure11.
 Make the following settings on the Gunn Oscillator Power Supply:
VOLTAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..MIN.
MODE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1KHz
METER SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10V

 Make the following settings on the SWR meter:

Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -30dB.
Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10dB
SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Normal
Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20Hz

 Power up the Gunn oscillator power supply and the SWR meter. Wait 1-2 minutes to allow the power
supply to warm up. Adjust the Gunn oscillator power supply to 8.5V.
 Adjust the variable attenuator for about 30dB and adjust the Gain knob to get a suitable reading on the
SWR meter. This is the reference level.
 Disconnect the Gunn oscillator's cable and assemble the setup of figure12.
 Reconnect the Gunn oscillator.
 Reduce the attenuation of the variable attenuator until you get the same reference reading on the SWR
meter. The reduction in attenuation is the coupling factor. Repeat the procedure to measure the
power at port4 for the experiment setup shown in figure13. Here, you will measure the directivity.

Figure 11

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Figure 13
 Figure 12

Discussion & Results:

first Instructor Dr. Abdullah Abograin identification most of microwave component which found in the lab so
we know the mean by active and passive microwave component

Active component: gun oscillator (microwave source) which worked as negative resistor.

Passive component:

1. Variable attenuator
We have two kind of attenuator in our lab
I. 35 dB variable attenuator which we controlled the value of attenuator by moving slice metal
that is found in middle of wave guide, controlled the depth of this slice. When the slice in
middle give us maximum attenuation(high power absorption) but we don’t use it because we
only can read the depth of slice in waveguide so we need curve that relation between the
value of attenuator(dB) and depth(um) which is complexity.
II. 50 dB variable attenuator which more easy to control than above attenuator and more
accuracy .so we use it for this experiment.

2. Variable high calendrical cavity which have resonant frequency, it connected with wave guide have
small aperture that coupled the signal, we use it measure frequency of input signal.
3. Isolator which allows the signal in one directional Which constructed from magnetic and ferrite so is
heavy.
4. Directional coupler 4 port network
5. Matched loads.
6. Fixed attenuator 6dB.
7. Thermistor used for measure power with power meter.

A. Power measurement
first we worked at high range 10 dB ,3 dB on watt meter and after connect the circuit make sure of
maximum power by adjust movable short circuit.
By using mW scale:
Maximum output power =0.88 x 10mW = 8.8 mW
Gun oscillator power = 8.8 x 2 = 17.6 mW
By using dB scale:
Maximum output power = -0.6 +10 = 9.4 dB
Gun oscillator power = 9.4+3=12.4 dB =17.4Mw
After we adjust scale on 3mW we measure 0.6x3 =1.8 mW.

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 When the frequency on Variable high calendrical cavity near to resonance we measure minimum
power on the power meter.
Resonance frequency =gun oscillator frequency = 10.54GH
B. The Gunn oscillator
Supplied Supplied current(mA) Power Meter Delivered power Efficiency %
voltage(v) Reading (mW) (mW)
0 0 0 0 0
0.5 17.5 0 8.75
1 50 0 50 0
1.5 82.5 0 123.75 0
2 115 0 230 0
2.5 132.5 0 331.25 0
3 155 0 465 0
3.5 162.5 0 568.75 0
4 165 0.12 660 0.018
4.5 152.5 0.72 135 0.533
5 150 1.2 750 0.16
5.5 137.5 4.92 756.25 0.650
6 132.5 6.8 795 0.85
6.5 125 7.8 422.5 1.846
7 125 8.8 875 1.001
7.5 125 9.5 937.5 1.013
8 125 10.2 1000 1.02
8.5 125 11 1062.5 1.035
9 125 11.4 1125 1.013
9.5 120 11.9 1140 1.04
10 115 12.4 1150 1.078

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 C.The Isolator
When connect the isolator in correct direction high power reading on meter, and when connected reverse
low power reading.

D. The directional coupler

When we connect the directional coupler we read same power from port tow as before, and -20 dB as port
3 and -46 dB at port 4.

Conclusion:
 Microwave devices have many applications, and are used in a wide variety of systems.
 Understanding their characteristics is essential for any electrical and electronic engineer, and
learning how their unique characteristics can be utilized.
 When making measurements, the directional couplers are used to sample a small amount of
power, so as to not greatly impact the measured signal.
 Power can be divided to different devices by using a power divider, which is very similar in
function to the directional coupler.

References:
- R. Collin, "Foundations for microwave engineering" 2nd edition chapter6.
- D. M. Pozer, “Microwave Engineering,” John Wiley & Sons, 2012.

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