CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT IN LEARNING

Learning Outcomes/ Learning Objectives:

At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

1. describe assessment in learning and related concepts;

2. demonstrate understanding of the different principles in assessing learning through the preparation of an assessment
plan;
3. explain the purpose of classroom assessment;
4. formulate learning targets that match appropriate assessment methods;
5. illustrate scenarios in the use of different classifications of assessment; and
6. rationalize the purpose of different forms of assessment.

LESSON 1:

BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES IN ASSESSING LEARNING

What is assessment in learning?

The word assessment is rooted in the Latin word “assidere”, which means to sit beside another." Assessment
is generally defined as the process of gathering quantitative and/or qualitative data for the purpose of making
decisions.
Assessment in learning is vital to the educational process similar to curriculum and instruction. Schools and
teachers will not be able to determine the impact of curriculum and instruction on students or learners without
assessing learning. Therefore, it is important that educators have knowledge and competence in assessing learners.

What is assessment in learning?

Assessment in Learning can be defined as the systematic and purpose-oriented collection analysis, and
interpretation of evidence of student learning in order to make informed decisions
relevant to the learners. In essence, the aim of assessment is to use evidence on student learning to further promote and
manage learning.
Assessment in learning can be characterized as:

▪ a process
▪ based on specific objectives
▪ from multiple sources

How is assessment in learning similar or different from the concept of measurement or evaluation of learning?

Measurement can be defined as the process of quantifying the attributes of an object, whereas evaluation may
refer to the process of making value judgments on the information collected from measurement based on specified
criteria.
In the context of assessment in learning, measurement refers to the actual collection of information on student
learning through the use of various strategies and tools, while evaluation refers to the actual process of making a
decision or judgment on student learning based on the information collected from measurement.
Therefore, assessment can be considered as an umbrella term consisting of measurement and evaluation.
However, there are some authors who consider assessment as distinct and separate from evaluation (e.g., Huba and
Freed 2000, Popham 1998).

Two Ways of Educational Measurement:

• Testing – knowledge on the subject matter is often measured through standardized test results.
• Perceptions – asking a group of experts to rate a student’s (or a teacher’s) knowledge of the subject matter in a scale
of 1 to 5 with 1 being the lowest and 5 being the highest.
Two Types of Educational Measurement

• Objective Measurement – based on testing. It is more stable than subjective measurement in the sense that repeated
measurements of the quantity or quality of interest will produce more or less the same outcome. The objective format
provides for a more bias-free scoring as the test items have exact correct answers.
Ex. Multiple choice quiz, Students’ scores in exam

• Subjective Measurement - often differ from one assessor to the next even if the same quantity or quality is being
measured. The subjective format allows for a less objective means of scoring, especially if no rubric is used.
Ex. Essay, Project of a student

Two Types of Errors

• Random Error – has no preferred direction, so we expect that averaging over a large number of observations will
yield a net effect of zero. The estimate may not be precise, but not accurate. This does not have a consistent effect.

• Systematic Error – also known as bias refers to deviations that are not due to chance alone.
This is caused by any factors that systematically affect the measurement of the variable across the sample.
For instance, if there is a loud traffic going outside the classroom where students are taking the test, this noise is liable
to affect all the students’ scores.

Two Types of Questions

• Convergent – typically have one correct answer, generally requires students to give the correct answer to standard
questions that do not require significant creativity.

Example: What is 2 x 3 ?

• Divergent – also called open-ended questions “no specific answer” are used to encourage many answers and
generate greater participation of students. It stimulates students creative or critical thinking, encouraging students to
be better observer. These open_x0002_ended questions can guide students as they discover information for
themselves, analyze data, make inferences, and identify relationships.
Example: Why there is a need to study the concept of multiplication?

Different Types of Assessment in Learning

- Formative Assessment
- Summative Assessment
- Diagnostic Assessment
- Placement Assessment
- Traditional Assessment
- Authentic Assessment

Formative Assessment
- refers to assessment activities that provide information to both teachers and learners on how they can
improve the teaching-learning process.
- This type of assessment is formative because it is used at the beginning and during instruction for teachers to
assess learners' understanding.

Summative Assessments
- are assessment activities that aim to determine learners' mastery of content or attainment of learning
outcomes.
- They are summative, as they are supposed to provide information on the quantity or quality of what students
have learned or achieved at the end of
instruction.
 Diagnostic Assessment
- aims to detect the learning problems or difficulties of the learners so that corrective measures or
interventions are done to ensure learning. Diagnostic assessment is usually done right after seeing signs of learning
problems in the course of teaching. It can also be done at the beginning of the school year for spirally designed
curriculum so that corrective actions are applied if pre-requisite knowledge and skills for the targets of instruction
have not been mastered yet.

Placement Assessment
- is usually done at the beginning of the school year to determine what the learners already know or what are
their needs that could inform design of instruction. Grouping of learners based on the results of placement assessment
is usually done before instruction to make it relevant to address the needs or accommodate the entry performance of
the learners. The entrance examination given in schools is an example of a placement assessment.

Traditional Assessment
- refers to the use of conventional strategies or tools to provide information about the learning of students.
Typically, objective (e.g. multiple choice) and subjective (e.g., essay) paper-and-pencil tests are used. Traditional
assessments are often used as basis for evaluating and grading learners. They are more commonly used in classrooms
because they are easier to design and quicker to be scored. In general, traditional assessments are viewed as an
inauthentic type of assessment.

Authentic Assessment
- refers to the use of assessment strategies or tools that allow learners to perform or create a product that are
meaningful to the learners, as they are based on real-world contexts. The authenticity of assessment tasks is best
described in terms of degree rather than the presence or absence of authenticity. Hence, an assessment can be more
authentic or less authentic compared with other assessments. The most authentic assessments are those that allow
performances that most closely resemble real-world tasks or applications in real-world settings or environments.

The Different Principles in Assessing Learning

1. Assessment should have a clear purpose.

Assessment starts with a clear purpose. The methods used in collecting information should be based on this
purpose. The interpretation of the data collected should be aligned with the purpose that has been set.
This assessment principle is congruent with the outcome-based education (OBE) principles of clarity of focus
and design down.

2. Assessment is not an end in itself.

Assessment serves as a means to enhance student learning.
It is not a simple recording or documentation of what learners know and do not know. Collecting information
about student learning, whether formative or summative, should lead to decisions that
will allow improvement of the learners.

3. Assessment is an ongoing continuous, and a formative process.

Assessment consists of a series of tasks and activities conducted over time. It is not a one-shot activity and
should be cumulative. Continuous feedback is an important element of assessment. This assessment principle is
congruent with the OBE principle of expanded opportunity.

4. Assessment is learner-centered.
Assessment is not about what the teacher does but what the learner can do. Assessment of learners provides
teachers with an understanding on how they can improve their teaching, which corresponds to the goal of improving
student learning.

5. Assessment is both process- and product-oriented.

Assessment gives equal importance to
learner performance or product and the process they engage in to perform or produce a product.

6. Assessment must be comprehensive and holistic. Assessment should be performed using a variety of strategies and
tools designed to assess student learning in a holistic way.
 Assessment should be conducted in multiple periods to assess learning over time. This assessment principle is
also congruent with the OBE principle of expanded opportunity.

7. Assessment requires the use of appropriate measures. For assessment to be valid, the assessment tools or measures
used must have sound psychometric properties, including, but not limited to, validity and reliability.

Appropriate measures also mean that learners must be provided with challenging but age and context-
appropriate assessment tasks. This assessment principle is consistent with the OBE principle of high expectations.

8. Assessment should be as authentic as possible.

Assessment tasks or activities should closely,

if not fully, approximate real-life situations or experiences. Authenticity of assessment can be thought of as a
continuum from least authentic to most authentic, with more authentic tasks expected to be more meaningful for
learners.
CHAPTER 1. 2

A CLOSE LOOK AT STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES (SLO)

What is a student learning outcome?

Every college program should have set of college-wide expectations from the student learning which have
been previously agreed upon by the faculty of the program and which the students who pass the different courses
under the college program are expected to demonstrate. The student learning outcomes in the teacher education
program are the skills, competencies and values that the students are expected to demonstrate at the end of the every
course/subject which are in turn, integrated into the year – end formation of students as they progress towards
becoming professional teachers. Attainment of these learning outcomes should be periodically assessed cooperatively
by both teacher and students.

Sources of Expected Student Learning Outcomes (SLO)

1. The institution’s mission statement is a relevant source of student learning expectations.
2. Policies on competencies and standards issued by government education agencies such as the Department of
Education (DepEd), Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) and Commission on Higher
Education (CHED) are the prescribed sources of student learning outcomes.
3. Expected competencies identified by the different professions, business and industry should be adopted to ensure
that graduates are able to perform as expected in their respective work places and/or professions.
4. The thrusts and development goals of the national government are useful integration in the identified competencies
and expectations from all sectors of education.
5. International trends and developments should also be considered in identifying and determining student learning
outcomes to ensure the graduates’ competitiveness in the employment and professional practice abroad.

Characteristics of Good Learning Outcomes

1. Good student learning outcomes (SLO) are centered on the students, on what the learners are capable of doing,
instead of the teaching technique. The teaching strategy will only be guided by the desired competencies of the
students. For instance if the SLO is: “the students can explain and illustrate the life cycle of an insect,” to guide the
students towards the desired competency the teacher may use any or all of the following instructional techniques and
activities:

A. video presentation of the life cycle of a butterfly

B. poster presentation of the different stages in the development of a butterfly
C. field trip to a botanical garden or nature park to observe the different stages in the life cycle of a butterfly
D. submission of an essay on the dangers observed that will interrupt or abort the life cycle of the butterfly
E. submission of a proposed project to protect the life cycle of insects or other harmful animals

2. Good learning outcomes are based on the program mission statement agreed upon by the program faculty in
consultation with other stakeholders like alumni and other professionals. It is important that the student learning
outcomes are based on issuances form the government regulatory agencies such as DepEd’s K to 12 Law Enhanced
Basic Education in the Philippines, the CHED’s policies, Standards and Guidelines on Teacher Education, thrusts of
appropriate professional organizations and advocacies of employer and industry groups.

3. Good student learning outcomes are very well understood by both students and faculty. They should be in
agreement on the importance of these competencies which they will cooperatively develop.
H ooking the students to the desired learning outcome
E xploring and experiencing the supporting student activities
A pplying the ideas/knowdlege required in contrived, simulated or real-life situations
R efining, rehearsing, reviewing the target skills/competencies
 E valuating the degree of learning outcome performance
D eciding on the action, solution or creative project to apply the learning outcome

4. Good learning outcomes include a spectrum of thinking skills form simple to higher order of application of
knowledge and skills.
Example of a range of learning outcomes form the simple to the complex under the competency: “the ability
to understand.”
- can identify
- can explain
- can apply
- can analyze
- can synthesize
- can evaluate
- can judge
- can create

5. Good learning outcomes are SMART ( Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Time-bounded)
CHAPTER 1.3
Authentic Assessment: Meaning, Characteristics and Practices

“ Both assessment and evaluation are based on the judgment of an experienced, thoughtful human being – an
expert. Machines don’t assess, papers don’t assess, tests don’t assess. Humans assess. And what better person is there
to assess the progress and development of his or her students than the classroom teacher.”

Larry Malone
Lawrence Hall of Science,
University of California,
Berkeley

The terms assessment, evaluation, testing and marks are terms often used in determining the degree of
attainment of student learning outcome. At times they are used interchangeably, it will be useful to clarify their
meanings to distinguish them from one another.

ASSESSMENT
It refers to the process of gathering data and information about what students know and can do. Such
information may be sourced through observation of students during their learning activities, examining the results of
their learning activities or testing their knowledge and skills. Through assessment, the teacher can find out what
students are learning.

EVALUATION
It involves the task of interpreting, forming conclusions and making judgments about the information which
was gathered in the process of assessment. The data gathered by assessment are neither useful but they reflect the
learning process. Such information becomes meaningful only when they are processed and interpreted as to how well
the students are attaining their desired competencies.

TESTING
It is an instrument of assessment. A test is an assessment tool that reflects the records of the students learning
outcomes.

MARKS
These are reports of the results of evaluating information obtained in the assessment process. Marks have
certain components related to the learning activities undertaken by the students.

Examples of such component are:

20% for class participation
10% for completed assignments
20% for quizzes
30% for submitted reports
20% for oral presentation of completed project
-------------------------------------------------------------
100% TOTAL

Assessment involves review of evidence of learning such as journal entries, written work, portfolios, skill
demonstrations, performance in learning activities, test results and rubric ratings which cover a period time and should
reveal the progress of students in competencies.

Evaluation on the other hand occurs when a mark or grade is assigned after a quiz, a presentation or a
completed task.
 Why we need to have authentic assessment?

“The common practice of using recall and recognition objective the skills and knowledge they have mastered.”
– Richard Stiggins

“Authentic assessments are products and/or performances correlated with real life experiences”.
– Newton Public Schools

Characteristics of Authentic Assessment (AA)

1. AA starts with clear and definite criteria of performance made known to the students.
2. AA is criterion-referenced rather than norm-referenced and so it identifies strengths and weaknesses, but does not
compare students nor rank their levels of performance.
3. AA requires students to make their own answers to questions rather than select from given options as in multiple
choice items, and requires them to use a range of higher order thinking skills (HOTS).
4. AA often emphasize performance and therefore students are required to demonstrate their knowledge, skills or
competencies in appropriate situations.
5. AA encourages both teacher and students to determine their rate of progress in cooperatively attaining the desired
student learning outcomes.
6. AA does not encourage rote learning and passive taking of tests; instead, students are required to demonstrate
analytical skills, ability to integrate what they learn, creativity, and ability to work in a group, skills in oral and written
communications.
7. AA changes the role of students as passive test takers into becoming active and involved participants in assessment
activities that emphasize what they are capable of doing instead tests to measure students’ skills or retained facts has
come under scrutiny because of the limitation encountered in determining the students’ capability to utilize their
knowledge and skills in work and professional practice.
-gives a “snap shot” of the students ability to recall facts and information at a given time but fail to provide a “moving
picture” of how they will perform in the real-world situations.

What is Authentic Assessment?

“A form of assessment in which students are asked to perform real-world tasks that demonstrate meaningful
application of essential knowledge and skills…”
-Jon Mueller (2011)
“ Engaging and worthy problems or questions of importance, n which students must use knowledge to fashion
performances effectively and creatively. The tasks are either replicas of or analogous to the kind of problems faced by
adult citizens and consumers or professionals in the field.”
-Grant Wiggins (1987)

“Performance (authentic) assessments call upon the examinee to demonstrate specific skills and competencies; that is,
to apply of their weaknesses. This results is diminished fear of tests and improvement of self-esteem.”
From teacher-centered activities, AA encourages a learner-centered class where the teacher’s major role is to
help students accept responsibility for their learning and become self-evaluators.

Phases of Authentic Assessment

The purpose of assessment is to improve student learning. Assessment achieves this purpose by gathering
pieces of evidence of student performance over a period of time.

“Closing the loop” encourages the use of assessment results for further improvement.
- is demonstrated in a diagram of these phases adopted from Jon Muellers (2011) of North Central College,
Nashville, Illinois.
In general, outcome assessment goes through five (5) phases:

1. Identifying the most important knowledge and skills that students should be able to demonstrate as a result of their
learning activities.
2. Determining the criteria and standards of outcomes performance and the acceptable evidence that may be presented
as proof of outcomes’ attainment.

3. Implementation of the supporting activities that will facilitate the attainment of the desired student learning
outcomes.

4. Measuring the extent at which the students are attaining the desired learning outcomes.

5. Interpreting the assessment results and evaluating whether they indicate attainment of the desired outcomes and
utilizing them for continuous improvement.

Examples of Authentic Assessment Activities

- Doing science experiments

- Conducting social science field research
- Writing stories and reports
- Reading and interpreting literary pieces
- Solving mathematical problems that have real-world implications
- Performing particular skills/competencies
- Simulation or role playing
- Exhibiting and displaying completed works
- Submitting portfolios
- Submitting original creative projects

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT V.S. TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENT

TRADITIONAL ASSESSMENT
- It is commonly associated with pre-determined choice measures of assessment such as multiple choice tasks, fill-in-
the-blanks, true-false, matching type and others. Students typically recall or select the answers.
Essentially, TA springs from the educational philosophy which involves the following principles and practices:
1. A school’s mission is to develop useful citizens;
2. To be useful citizen, one must possess a certain body of knowledge and skills;
3. The school is entrusted to teach this body of knowledge and skills;
4. To determine if the students have acquired these knowledge and skills, the school must test the students on these knowledge
and skills.

Authentic Assessment, on the other hand is grounded on the following principles and practices:
1. A school’s mission is to develop useful citizens;
2. To be a useful citizen, one has to be capable of performing useful tasks in the real-world;
3. The school’s duty is to help students develop proficiency in performing the tasks that they will be required to perform after
graduation in the work place;
4. The school must then require students to perform tasks that duplicate or imitate real-world situations.
CHAPTER 1.4

Authentic Assessment Tools

Authentic assessment makes use of three modes of assessment:

- Observation which include date and information that the teacher collects from daily work with students.
- Performance samples which are tangible results that demonstrate student achievements.
- Tests and measures of student’s actual performance at a specific place and time.

I. OBSERVATION-BASED ASSESSMENT TOOLS

- To make observation-based assessment systematic and objective, Diane Hart (1994) suggested the following guidelines:
- Observe not only one but all the students.
- Observation must be as frequent and as regular as possible.
- Observations must be recorded in writing.
- Observations should cover both routine and exceptional occurrences.
- Reliability of observation records is enhanced if multiple observations are gathered and synthesized.

DEVELOPMENTAL CHECKLIST
 Observation Checklist

The Interview Sheet

It is another observation tool which is also called the conference recording form. Interview sheets consists of a list of
questions the teacher intends to ask and space for recording the student’s answers.
 II. Performance Samples Assessment Tools

A portfolio is a compilation of pieces of evidence of an individual’s skills, ideas, interests, and accomplishments. It can
be as simple as a folder of these pieces of evidence, as fancy as a neat scrapbook containing evidence of a student’s
accomplishments or as high-tech as a laser disk containing stored descriptions, written works and pictures of the student’s
activities and accomplishments.

The portfolio serves the following purposes:

A. The teacher can assess the growth and development of the students at various levels.
B. Parents are informed of the progress of their children in school.
C. Instructional supervisors are able to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the academic program.

What can be included in a portfolio?

III. Performance Assessment Tools

Student achievements at specific place and time are actual student performances that deserve to be assessed. One of
the most frequently used measurements instrument is the checklist. A performance checklist consists of a list of behaviors that
make up a certain type of performance (e.g. using a microscope, preparing a letter, solving a mathematics performance, etc.)

It is used to determine whether or not an individual behaves in a certain way (usually desired) when asked to complete
a particular task. If a particular behavior is present when an individual is observed, the teacher places a check opposite it on the
list.

ORAL QUESTIONING
It is an appropriate assessment method for actual performance when the objectives are:
(a) to assess the student’s stock knowledge and/or
(b) to determine the student’s ability to communicate ideas in coherent verbal sentences.
Consider the student’s anxiety and nervousness in making oral presentations that could mask the student’s true ability.
 Observations and self-reports

It needs a tally sheet as device when used by the teacher to record the frequency of student behaviors, activities or remarks.

CHAPTER 1.5

Process-Oriented, Performance-Based Assessment

1. Process-Oriented Learning Competencies

Information about outcomes is of high importance; where students “end up” matters greatly.
Process-oriented performance-based assessment is concerned with the actual task performance rather than the output or
product of the activity.

1.1 Learning Competencies

The learning objectives in process-oriented performance-based assessment are stated in directly observable behaviors
of the students. The objectives generally focus on those behaviors which exemplify a “best practice” for the particular task.

Task: Recite a Poem by Edgar Allan Poe, “The Raven”.

Objectives: The activity aims to enable the students to recite a poem entitled “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe,
specifically to:
1. recite the poem from memory without referring to notes;
2. use appropriate hand and body gestures in delivering the piece;
3. maintain eye contact with the audience while reciting the poem;
4. create the ambiance of the poem through appropriate rising and falling intonation;
5. pronounce the words clearly and with proper diction.

The objective starts of what is expected with a general statement of what is expected of the student from the task
(recite a poem by Edgar Allan Poe) and then breaks down the general objective into easily observable behaviors when reciting a
poem. The specific objectives identified constitute the learning competencies for this particular task.

A competency is said to be more complex when it consists of two or more skills.

- Simple competencies:
- Speak with a well-modulated voice
- Draw a straight line from one point to another point;
- Color a leaf with a green crayon.