Understanding Ultrasonic Transducers

Transducer Characteristics
Ultrasonic transducers for non-destructive testing come in a wide variety of configurations in order to facilitate numerous inspection possibilities. Despite this, there are a small number of physical
characteristics which are commonly used to describe the performance of ultrasonic transducers and therefore identify them in inspection procedure and manufacturers documentation.

Signal Element Transducers Dual Element Transducers Angle Beam Transducers Immersion Transducers Delay Line Transducers

Single element transducers have one active element Dual element transducers have two active elements, one Angle beam transducers create a beam of ultrasound at a Immersion transducers are designed to operate submerged Delay line transducers transmit and receive sound waves with
which is used for both the transmission and reception is used for the transmission and one for the reception of specified angle to the normal inspection surface. Most angle in water. The water provides the coupling and delay between one element coupled to the surface, as with compression
of ultrasound. Single element transducers can generate ultrasound. Dual element transducers are typically contact beam transducers generate shear waves in the inspection the transducer and the test item. These transducers are transducers. The crystal is held off from the surface of the
compression or shear waves, normal or angled beams, be transducers and use an integral delay-line or shoe. They can material by refraction and mode conversion of a compression commonly used in automated inspection systems which scan test piece by a delay block. This permits inspection very close
contact or immersion and can have a variety of coupling/lens generate compression or shear waves, normal or angled wave, however some refracted longitudinal angle beams the transducer over the test object and handle the ultrasonic to the surface of the test piece.
configurations. These transducers can be used on thickness beams. These transducers can be used on thickness gauges, are possible. Angle beam shoes or wedges, onto which the inspection. These transducers can be flat faced (unfocused)
gauges, flaw detectors and phased array instruments. flaw detectors and phased array instruments. compression transducer is mounted are typically made of or have profiled faces which focus the ultrasound to a point
polymers such as acrylic or polystyrene. The shoe or wedge or a line (spherically or cylindrically focused).
can be integral to the transducer or detachable. It may be
profiled and damped to minimise internal reflections. Dual
element angle beam transducers are also common, bringing
the benefits of a dual elements to angle beam transducers.

Connector Case Top Connector Case Top Connector Case Top Unfocused Focused Connector Case Top

Electrical
Electrical Accoustic Connection Accoustic Electrical Accoustic
Electrical Accoustic Damping Damping Damping
Connection Connection
Connection Damping Piezoelectric
Crystal
Piezoelectric Piezoelectric Case Body
Case Body Piezoelectric
Case Body Crystal Crystal Case Body
Crystal
Delay Line
Face Material Face Material Wedge

Wave Type Transducer Frequency Selection Beam Angle

There are several different types (modes) of ultrasonic wave propagation, not all are possible in all materials. Selecting the correct frequency is very important when it comes to UT. The wrong frequency can make it In order to detect certain defects it is sometimes necessary to produce beams of ultrasound at different
Compression waves, also know as longitudinal waves, oscillate along the direction of propagation. Shear very hard or practically impossible to get any useful data. As the frequency of a transducer increases, the angles. The beam angle is always measured with respect to an axis normal (perpendicular) to the
waves, also known as transverse waves, oscillate perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Less common wavelength decreases, this enables the detection of small flaws and increases thickness precision. When inspection surface. Therefore a transducer with a beam aimed directly into the material is referred to as
are various types of surface and body waves. Solid materials support both compression and shear waves. the transducer frequency decreases, the wavelength increases, this benefits penetration into thick and / or 0° or compression wave probe. A 90° probe has a beam looking along the inspection surface and may well
The wave speed (sound velocity) for the compression wave is always greater than the shear wave. Liquids attenuating materials. propagate a surface wave. The beam angles that are possible are determined by Snell’s Law which relates
do not support shear waves so immersion tests must use compression waves. A wave of one type may the beam in the transducer to the relative sound velocities in the transducer and test material. Snell’s Law is
generate a wave of another type when it passes from one material into another. This process is called mode It is important to calculate the wavelength that will be generated within the material, this is because as a given by the following formula.
conversion. Some transducer types rely on this phenomenon in order to generate the required ultrasonic general rule the wavelength should be equal to or smaller than the minimum size flaw in which needs to be
sound beam. Some materials, e.g. austenitic steels, propagate shear waves very poorly and practical detected. To calculate the wavelength, use the following equation:
inspection requires compression waves to introduce shear waves into the material being tested. Sin Θincident Sin Θtransverse Sin Θlongditudinal
λ = Wavelength
c Cincident = Ctransverse = Clongditudinal
Longitudinal Wave c = Material Sound Velocity λ=
f = Frequency (MHz) f
The incident longitudinal wave in the wedge is mode converted into two refracted beams in the material, one
In pulse echo technique, different frequency ranges are commonly used to inspect certain materials: longitudinal and one shear. The angles Θ and sound speeds c are the corresponding beam angle and sound
speeds for a given wave type in the two materials. Snell’s Law is used to calculate the necessary wedge (or
• Fine grain steels: 2.25 MHz - 5 MHz cut) angle in order to achieve a specified beam angle for a specified combination of wedge material and test
• Medium - coarse grain steel/iron: 0.5 MHz - 2 MHz material. If either the wedge material or the test material is changed, a different beam angle will result. As
• Thin composite material and plastics: 0.5 MHz - 20 MHz, however this greatly depends on the composite the speed of sound for compression waves is always greater than that of shear waves, the compression wave
being inspected, some will need low frequency beam angle will always be greater than that of shear waves in the same material. Above a certain angle the
• Thin metal sheet/pipes: 7 - 20 MHz longitudinal beam will be reflected back into the wedge.
Direction of
Wave Propagation

Axis peprendicular
to inspection surface

Transducer
θIncident
Shear Wave
θWedge Cut
Polymer Wedge
2.25 MHz 2.25 MHz 5 MHz 5 MHz 10 MHz
12.7 mm 25.4 mm 12.7 mm 25.4 mm 12.7 mm

Refracted Longtitudinal Wave

θLongditudinal
Direction of
Wave Propagation
Refracted Transverse Wave
θTransverse

Transducer Size, Frequency and Beam Profile

On leaving a transducer ultrasound forms a sound field, or spatial distribution. The sound field is described
by the beam profile, which is determined by the size, geometry and frequency of the transducer. Close to the
transducer, in a region called the Near Field (Fresnel Zone), the sound field varies in a complicated manner

Bandwidth and Damping and so the detection of defects within this region is more difficult. A flat-faced transducer will have a natural
focal zone that occurs at the end of the Near Field and beyond which the sound field becomes more easily
predictable in a region called the Far Field or Frauhofer Zone. In this zone the detection of defects is more
An ultrasonic transducer emits a pulse of ultrasonic energy which will contain a discrete number of pressure straightforward, however, as one moves further from the focal point the beam diverges and gets weaker.
cycles at the transducer’s nominal frequency. In practice this pulse contains cycles that start with a small The combination of frequency and aperture size determines the rate, or angle of beam divergence. Large
amplitude and grow to a large amplitude which then reduce to small amplitude at the end of the pulse. This aperture, low frequency probes have wide beams, but smaller angles of divergence, whereas, small aperture,
in fact means that the pulse contains a spread of frequencies of which the transducer’s nominal frequency high frequency probes have narrow beams with larger angles of divergence. The combination of probe
is the most prevalent. The shorter and sharper the pulse, the fewer cycles and the broader the spread of aperture and frequency therefore affects the ability of a probe to detect defects.
frequencies involved. The longer the pulse, the more cycles and the narrower the spread of frequencies
involved. The breadth of the frequency content is measured by the quantity called the bandwidth. The
bandwidth has a significant impact on the ability of a transducer to resolve defects and penetrate into the
material. The bandwidth is controlled by the application of acoustic damping to the sensor crystal. An N = Nearfield Length (mm)
undamped crystal will oscillate for a longer time generating a pulse with many cycles thus containing much c = Speed of sound (m/s) 0.51c D2f
acoustic energy and having a narrow bandwidth, good penetration but poor resolution. A highly damped f = Frequency (MHz) sinY6 = N=
D = Crystal Diameter (mm)
Df 4c
crystal will oscillate for a short time generating a pulse with few cycles thus containing less acoustic energy
and having a broad bandwidth, poor penetration but good resolution. Y6 = Divergence angle for -6dB Beam Edge (°)

Narrowband transducers:

• narrow frequency
spectrum
Material Acoustic Properies
• longer ring down
• Common choice for Longitudinal Transverse Longitudinal Transverse Acoustic
flaw detection / sizing Density
Material Velocity Velocity Velocity Velocity Impedance
kg/m 3
in/μs in/μs m/s m/s MRayl
Air 0.013 - 331 - 0.121 0.00
Carbon Fibre Epoxy Resin 0.121 0.056 3070 1415 1760 5.40
Broadbandtransducers: Graphite Expoxy 0.117 0.077 2972 1956 1760 5.40
Fibreglass 0.131 0.072 3327 1829 1815 6.04
• broader frequency
Inconel 0.290 0.119 5820 3020 8500 49.47
spectrum
• shorter ring down Iron (cast) 0.189 0.094 4800 2600 6917 33.20
• Commonly used for Mid Steel 0.232 0.128 5920 3230 7770 46.00
thickness gauging, Stainless Steel 0.226 0.122 6070 3100 4498 27.30
velocity measurement
and TOFD Titanium 0.239 0.122 6070 3100 4498 27.30

Typical Applications
Contact Dual Angle Delay Through Transmition
Forgings and Castings Wall Thickness Weld Testing Lamination / Thickness Plate Inspection

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