Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies Vol. 58, No.

3, March 2010 （）

The Vedic Calendar and the Rituals（1）

Sakamoto-Gotō Junko

0. The astronomical knowledge or the calendar system in the Vedic period until about the
middle of the 1st millennium B.C., though scarcely investigated hitherto, differs fundamen-
tally from the later Indian astronomy or astrology after the JyotiSa（as a VedAGga ‘limb of the
Veda’ belonging to the post Vedic period）onward. This paper offers remarks about basic ele-
ments of the Vedic calendar, especially in its early stage, drawn from materials found to a
great extent fortuitously by the author.

1. The peculiarity of the Vedic calendar

Time itself simply goes forward without pause and without return. But nature repeats
various periodic changes: day and night, waxing and waning of the moon, lengthening and
shortening of the daylight accompanied by the north- or southward movement of the sun,
rotation of the constellations as well as the seasons, etc. The regularity of those phenomena
must have deeply impressed our ancestors, which led them, on the one hand to the concept
of the highest principle ruling the phenomena, and on the other hand to the reckoning of
time for practical use. The time-reckoning systematized into the calendar brought forth
revolutionary developments in human life, for secular as well as religious activities.
The periodicity of nature is expressed in Old Indo-Aryan language by the nouns to the
verbal root *h2er ‘to fit, fügen’: tú-（masc.）‘the right time in exact accordance with the
temporal cycle’ means above all ‘monthly period fit for conception of（children by）women’
and more generally ‘season’; tá-（nt.）‘the cosmic order which regulates not only nature,
but also human conduct’（→ 3.2. str.1, 3.3., n.5）is the most important concept in the early
Vedic literature. The simplest but lifelong obligatory ritual for those who have set up their
sacrificial fire is the Agnihotra, the daily offering to the fire at sunset and sunrise, which in-
cited them to observe the sun’s movement. No less important are the new and full moons
at which the New and Full Moon Sacrifices（darZapUrNamAsáu）as well as most of the Vedic

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rituals take place. An accurate forecast of the new and full moons was indispensable.
The ancient Indian calendar in the Vedic period until about the 5th century B.C., as at-
tested in the Sa hitAs, the BrAhmaNas［Br］
（inclusive of the prose-portion of the Black
Yajurveda-Sa hitAs）, the old stage of the UpaniSads and of the ZrautasUtras, is a lunisolar
calendar based on naked eye observations1）of heavenly bodies, which sets special impor-
tance on the moon’s motion in relation to the movements of the sun and the fixed stars. The
calendar date is determined by the moon’s phase and position relative to the stars, which
are observed in the nocturnal sky（→ 2., 3.1., 3.2. str.19）.
When the moon is seen from the earth in the same direction as the sun, that is, in con-
junction with the sun, the moon does not appear in the nocturnal sky. The moon is consid-
ered to stay（vas）at home（am ）with the sun in this night called amAvAsy - rAtr -（later
rAtrí-）‘the night of（the moon’s）staying overnight at home’（→ 3.1., 3.2., 3.4.A）. After that,
the thin new moon appears in the west after the sunset; changing its phase by waxing and
waning, the moonrise or moonset becomes later as the sunset or sunrise every day on aver-
age by about 51 minutes（presumably the origin of the time unit muhUrtá-［a 30th of a solar day］
→ seq. 8.）; consequently, the moon comes again into conjunction with the sun and disap-
pears（→ 3.4.B）. During the period between two successive conjunctions with the sun（the
lunation: about 29.5 solar days）, i.e. the synodic month, the moon moves in its orbit, ap-
proaching every night a different star or star-group which becomes thereby invisible, until
it joins again with the sun. This phenomenon was understood as follows: the moon（mascu-
line god）stays every night with a different star or star-group（each regarded as a feminine di-
vinity）situated on its path, 28 or 29 nights in total, and stays at home with the sun during
the AmAvAsyA night（→ 3.2., 3.4.）. The star（-group）s as well as the sun visited by the moon
are named nákSatra-（nt.）‘the place to which the moon attains（nákSa-ti）’, commonly trans-
lated “lunar mansion” or “Mondhaus”（→ seq. 5）. nákSatra- is attested in the gveda［RV］
where the singular form（nt.）always means the sun, while the star in general is expressed
by the word of Indo-European origin（*h2stér-）, stár-（RV: intr.pl. st bhiH, nom.pl. t rAH）, later
t rakA-（AV+, MIA tArakA-/tArayA-）and tArA-（Class. Skt., MIA）. After the RV on, the sun was
excluded from the NakSatras.
An enumeration of the 28 NakSatras, remarkable star（-group）s situated approximately
equidistant on or near the moon’s path, appears first in the Atharvaveda［AV］
（Zaunaka
XIX 7,1-5; not found in the PaippalAda-recension）. The number of the NakSatras is reduced into

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27 in the prose-portion of the KAThaka-Sa hitA［KS］XXXIX 13:130,14ff. and the Tait-

tirIya-Sa hitA［TS］IV 4,10,1ff., but increased to 29 in the MaitrAyaNI Sa hitA［MS］II
13,20:165,12. The varying number of the NakSatras reveals the problem caused by the di-
vergence between the sidereal month（i.e. the cycle of the moon’s revolution relative to the stars:
about 27.32 solar days 27 days 8 hours）and the synodic month（about 29.53 solar days 29
days 13 hours）which is about 2 days 5 hours longer than the former due to the revolution of
the earth around the sun. According to the 28（or 29）NakSatras based on the synodic
month, the moon’s relation to the NakSatras becomes unstable; by contrast, the 27 NakSa-
tras based on the sidereal month are in disaccord with the calendar date of the synodic
month（→ 3.1.）. The 27 NakSatras model, preferred in the scholastic tradition, was trans-
mitted to the post Vedic work JyotiSa, while the 28 NakSatras survived in the tradition of
the AV such as the AV-PariZiSTa, and further in early popular calendars, traces of which re-
main in the Buddhist texts, e.g. the MahAniddesa 382,4f.（PAli Canon）, the ZArdUlakarNAva-
dAna 51f.（DivyAvadAna）. In either case, the term NakSatra means concrete heavenly bodies
related to the moon in the Vedic literature, and to a large extent in early popular calendars.
In this regard, it should not be forgotten that the stars near the bright moon or in conjunc-
tion with the moon are invisible to the naked eye. The NakSatra at which the moon stays
each night can be only inferred from attentive and continuous observation of the nocturnal
sky. In the JyotiSa, the notion of the NakSatras was transformed into the equally spaced
zones of the ecliptic. This marks the radical change from primitive astronomy to mathe-
matical astronomy as an exact science. For the details of the NakSatras, s. seq. 5.

2. The calendar day

A calendar day is a solar day which begins originally at sunset, i.e. a night and the fol-
lowing daytime, as in the Jewish or Arabic calendar, since the date is determined by the
moon’s phase observed at night（→ 3.1.）. Thus paurNamAs -（fem.,［rAtr -/rAtrí-］）‘the full
moon night’ designates ‘the full moon day, i.e. the full moon night and the following day-
time’, identical with paurNamAsá-（nt.［áhan-］）; in the same way, amAvAsy - means ‘the
AmAvAsyA night and the following daytime’, áSTakA- ‘the 8th night of the half month and
the following daytime’, etc. This usage is frequent in the Br and the ZS, e.g. MSp I
6,9:101,17f. yát paurNamAsy vAmAvAsy yA vAgním Adhattá, ubhé puNyAhé ‘That［one］
sets up one’s sacrificial fire in the daytime following the full moon night or the AmAvAsyA

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night,［that is to say］the both are auspicious days’, VaitAna-SUtra 31,1 mAghyAH purastAd
ekAdaZyAM saptadaZAvaraH sattram upayanto brAhmaNoktena dIkSeran ‘In the daytime
following the 11th night（of the waxing half month）before the full moon situated at the
MaghAs（fem. pl. Leonisα, etc. → seq. 5.）, at least 17［persons］, if they are undertaking a
Sattra, should consecrate themselves according to the prescript in the Br’（≈ BaudhAyana-ZS
XVI 13:260,5）, KAtyAyana-ZS 13,1,2 gavAmayanAyaikASTakAyAM dIkSA ‘The consecration
for the GavAmayana［takes place］in the daytime following the 8th night of the waning half
of the MAgha month（ekASTak -）’. The reckoning of calendar days by the night is common,
e.g. MSp I 5,13:82,2-5 yátra páJca r trIH sá hitA váset táj juhuyAt ... daZásv evá r tríSv
antamá hotavyàM ‘Where one stays overnight for more than 5 successive nights, one
should there make an offering［to Rudra VAstoSpati］... After 10 nights［have passed］, one
should make an offering on the last［day］’.
This old calendar day system is reflected in the Agnihotra（→ 1.）; the offering at sunset
precedes that at sunrise and is treated as representative of both offerings. It is further in-
ferred that the prototype of the New and Full Moon Sacrifices（darZapUrNamAsáu）begins
with the sunset of the AmAvAsyA or the full moon night, i.e. the sacred night for upava-
sathá- ‘staying overnight near the sacrificial fire（with observance of sacrificial duties）’.
Though the Upavasatha designates ‘the preparatory day for the New and Full Moon Sacri-
fices’ in the system of Zrauta-rituals, its original meaning survives in the Uposatha ceremo-
ny of Buddhism and Jainism（MIA uposatha- < OIA upavasathá-）.
A new calendar day beginning at sunrise as in the JyotiSa seems, however, to have pre-
vailed over that beginning at sunset, as the worship of the sun became predominant.

3. The calendar month and the date

3.1. A calendar month（m. m s-, m sa-; cp. m s-, candrám s-, candrá- ‘the moon’）is a synodic
month starting with the AmAvAsyA night, during which the moon comes into existence from
non-existence, waxes to the full moon, wanes to disappearance. The moon’s cycle is com-
pared with the human life of birth, growth, decay and death; the new moon after the con-
junction symbolizes rebirth after death（→ 3.2., 3.3., 3.4.）. The predominance of the con-
junction over the full moon in origin explains why the New Moon Sacrifice was given
more weight than the Full Moon Sacrifice, cp. the two offerings of the Agnihotra（→ 2.）.
The full moon（moon age 14.8）occurs when the moon is seen from the earth in the

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opposite direction of the sun. The NakSatras, which are fixed stars, gradually change their
position in the sky according to the annual revolution of the earth around the sun. In conse-
quence, the NakSatra at which the full moon lodges shifts every month. The calendar
month is designated according to the NakSatra at the full moon: e.g. the NakSatra citr - →
the full moon night caitr -（rAtr -）→ the month caitra-. As an instrument to distinguish the
months from each other, the full moon night increased its importance.
A month is composed of a waxing half month（Zukra-pakSa- ‘bright wing’）and a waning
half month（k SNa-pakSa- ‘black wing’）. The date is expressed by the night as counted from
the AmAvAsyA night or the full moon night in each half month: e.g. áSTakA- ‘the 8th night of
the Zukra-pakSa- or the k SNa-pakSa-’, in which the half moon（moon age about 7.2 or 22）
appears, means a calendar day composed of this night and the following daytime（→ 2.）.
The lunation, though variable by more than 13 hours according to the moon’s speed in
its orbit, is on average about 29.53 solar days（≈ 29 days 13 hours）. Due to the divergence
between the lunar cycle（month）and the solar cycle（day）, the conjunction as well as the full
moon occurs every month at different time, also in the daytime, from which arises difficulty
in determining the AmAvAsyA or the full moon night. Actually it was not rare to begin the
New or the Full Moon Sacrifice one day before or after the correct date, for which the
citta-）is prescribed in the Br and the ZS. A similar problem con-
expiation（pr yaZcitti-, °
cerning the Uposatha is discussed in the Vinaya of the Buddhist Canon（→ seq. 9.）.
The divergence between the synodic month and the solar year（on average about 365.24
solar days）causes the full moon or conjunction to shift by about 11.24 solar days a year（→
seq. 4.）. Consequently, the full moon or the conjunction changes every year its relation to
the vernal and autumnal equinoxes and the summer and winter solstices as well as its posi-
tion relative to the fixed stars. The full moon is situated often between two NakSatras in
discordance with the fixed Month’s name based on the NakSatra at the full moon.
The above mentioned inaccuracy always accompanies the Vedic calendar, which is
based upon naked eye observations of the moon’s position relative to the stars.
Beside the actual calendar used in the Vedic Period, a notional calendar appears in the
Br, according to which a month is composed of 30 days and a year of 12 months, namely
360 days. This conception seems to underlie the 29 NakSatras in the MS （→ 1., seq. 5.）and
p

to have prepared the notions of tithi- and muhUrtá-（→ seq. 8.）. This calendar system is fa-
vored by the Brahmin scholars in theological speculation regarding the complete year

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（sa vatsará-）which symbolizes eternity（→ seq. 4.）.

3.2. The moon’s marriage with the sun: RV X 85（≈ AV XIV 1）
The marriage of the moon（King Soma）and the Sun goddess SUryA（daughter of Savit ）2）
symbolizes the conjunction of the moon and the sun; their wedding implies the New Moon
Sacrifice（str.3-5）, which is further combined with the rituals such as the Animal Sacrifice at
the summer or winter solstice（str.13 → seq. 5.f.）. The word sóma- is used in manifold
senses: Soma sap squeezed from a certain plant（most probably ephedra）, the gods’ food
which brings immortality（am ta-, “ambrosia”）and the moon（→ 3.4.）.

1. satyénóttabhitA bh miH s ryeNóttabhitA diyáuH | ténAdity s tiSThanti diví sómo ádhi ZritáH ||
| |

The earth is upheld by the truth（satyá-）; the heaven is upheld by the sun. By the cosmic law
（ tá- → 1., n.5）, the Aditya-gods stand; Soma（the moon）is clinging on the heaven.
2. sómenAdity balínaH sómena p thiv mah | átho nákSatrANAm eS m upásthe sóma hitaH ||
| |

By Soma, the Aditya-gods are powerful; by Soma, the earth is great. And then, Soma is placed
on the lap of these NakSatras.
3. sómam manyate papiv n yát sampi Sántiy óSadhim | sómaM yám brahm No vidúr ná tásyAZ­
| |

nAti káz caná ||　　［The sacrificer］thinks that he has drunk Soma, when［the priests］squeeze
the plant（stalk of Soma）. Whoever［may be on earth,］does not eat Soma（the moon）which
［only］the priest-scholars know.

The offering of Soma sap to the gods on the day following the AmAvAsyA night brings forth
the moon’s rebirth and waxing, which suggests the origin of the New Moon Sacrifice（→
3）
3.4.A）. On this day, the moon in conjunction with the sun is situated high in the bright
heaven and invisible, being covered with sunrays（raZmí- masc. pl.）:
4. AchádvidhAnair gupitó b rhataiH soma rakSitáH | gr vam íc ch Nván tiSThasi ná te aZnAti
| |

p rthivaH ||　　Protected by the arrangements for covering（i.e. sunrays?）, guarded by those

belonging to the height（i.e. winds?, cf. str. 5）, o Soma, you stand hearing the very press stone
（of the Soma plant）. One who belongs to the earth does not eat you.
5. yát tvA deva prapíbanti táta pyAyase púnaH | vAyúH sómasya rakSit sámAnAm m sa k tiH ||
| |

When［the gods］begin to drink you（as Soma sap offered in the New Moon Sacrifice）, o God,
then you（as the moon）swell again. The wind is Soma’s protector; the month（m sa-）is the
basic form of the years.

The str. 6-17 describe the wedding procession of SUryA on the AZvins’ wagon（→ seq. 5.）

13. sUryáyA vahatúH pr gAt savit y m av s jat | agh su hanyante g vó- árjunyoH páriy uhyate ||
| |

The wedding procession of SUryA, whom Savit sent off, has started.［When the full or new
moon is situated］at the［NakSatra of］AghAs（fem.pl., AV XIX 1,13 MaghAs → 2.）, cattle

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are slaughtered［for the sacrifice］.［When...］at the［NakSatra of the］ArujunIs（fem.du.; AV

PhalgunIs）, SUryA is carried around［from the father’s to the bridegroom’s house］.

The str. 18-19（ AV VII 81,1f.）praise the wonderful faculty（mAy -）of the sun and the
moon, especially the moon which repeats rebirth and guarantees long life（→ 3.3.）.
18. pUrvApáraM carato mAyáyaitáu ZíZU kr Lantau pári yAto adhvarám | víZvAniy anyó bhúvanA­
|

bhicáSTa t r anyó vidádhaj jAyate púnaH ||　　Alternatively［going］ahead and behind

|

［each other］, these two wander with wonderful faculty（mAy -） （i.e. the moon proceeds the
sun before the conjunction, after which the sun proceeds the moon）; the two playing children
go around the ritual way. The one（the sun）observes all the beings; the other（the moon）,
disposing the periods（months, seasons, etc.: tú- → 1.）, is born again.
19. návo-navo bhavati j yamAnó- áhnAM ketúr uSásAm etiy ágram | bhAgáM devébhyo ví dadhAtíy
|

Ayán prá candrámAs tirate dIrghám yuH ||　　［The moon］becomes［each time］new and
|

new, when he is born; as bright sign（ketú-）of days, he goes on the top of dawns（i.e. appears
before the dawn）. He, coming［to the earth in the AmAvAsyA night?］, distributes the share to
the gods. The bright moon（candrámAs-）makes［us］to accomplish［our］long lifetime.
［Str. 20-47 are omitted.］

3.3. The moon’s marriage with the NakSatras: Prose-portion of the Black Yajurveda
A person afflicted by yákSma-（or rAjayakSmá-）“consumption” 4）is compared with the
waning moon. The moon’s rebirth and waxing are combined with the ritual for the healing
from this disease, the mantras for which are parallel to RV X 85,18f.（→ 3.2.）. With regard
to this ritual, the origin of the waning and waxing of the moon caused by its marriage with
the NakSatras is related（MSp II 2,7:21,4-14; KSp XI 3:147,1-12; TSp II 3,5,1-3）.
MSp II 2,7:21,4-9 praj patir vái sómAya r jJe duhit r adadAn nákSatrANi. sá rohiNy m ev vasan,
nétarAsu. t ánupeyamAnAH púnar agaccha s. tá rAjayakSméNAgrAhayat. sá nírasravat. tásmAd
rAjayakZmág hIto níHsravati. sá vái praj patim evópAdhAvat. táM praj patir abravId, táM
brUh ti. sá tám abravId. yáthA sárvAsv evá sam vad vásAn ti. tásmAd eSá sárvAsv evá sam vad
vasati.　　PrajApati, verily, gave to King Soma（the moon）his daughters,［who were］the NakSatras.
He（King Soma）lodged only at RohiNI, not at the others. Those who were not being approached
［by King Soma］went back［to PrajApati］.［P］made him grasped by the rAjayakSmá-. He（i.e.
his body fluids［Soma sap］）dripped out（KS t Nam ivAZuSyat He shriveled like grass）. Therefore
one grasped by rAjayakSmá-（i.e. one’s body fluids［urine, sweat, blood, etc.］）drips out. He（King
Soma）, verily, ran for help indeed to P. P said to him: “say［what accords with］the cosmic order
5）
（i.e. swear an oath） ”. He said［what accords with］the cosmic order（i.e. swore an oath）: ［ “ The
cosmic order is so,］as（yáthA）I shall（subj. vásAni）6）lodge equally indeed at all［the P’s
daughters = NakSatras］ .
”. Therefore this（King Soma）lodges equally indeed at all［the P’s daughters］

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as Indra’s and his rival V tra’s actions. The moon（V tra）approaches the sun（Indra）from
afar and is devoured by him in the AmAvAsyA night. Sucked out and thrown out by the sun,
the moon appears again in the west and waxes to become his food:
tád v eZá evéndraH / yá eSá tápaty. áthaiSá evá v tró yác candrámAH. sò ‘syaiZá bhr t vyajan­
meva. tásmAd yády ápi pur vídUram ivoditó ‘thainam et r trim úpaivá ny plavate. sò ‘sya
vy ttam padyate. //18// tám grasitvódeti. / sá ná purástAn ná paZc d dad Ze. ... //19// táM
nirdh ya nírasyati. / sá eSá dhItáH paZc d dad Se. sá púnar pyAyate. sá etásyaiv nn dyAya púnar
pyAyate. ... //20//　　Then, verily, this very one is Indra, this which heats（i.e. the sun）. On the
other hand, this very one is V tra, if［it concerns］ （yád）the moon. This（V tra）as such（the
moon）has just the nature as his（Indra’s）rival. For this reason, even though［V tra = the moon］
was risen formerly just far away［from Indra = the sun］, after that,［V tra］floats just near to him
（Indra）this（AmAvAsyA）night. He（V tra）attains to his（Indra’s）opened mouth.［Indra］rises
after he has devoured him（V tra）. He（V tra）is seen neither in the east nor in the west. ... After
［Indra］has sucked out him,［Indra］throws out him. Thus sucked out, this（V tra）is seen in the
west. He swells again. He swells again for（in order to become）food of this very［Indra］.

To be continued（: 4. The calendar year, 5. The NakSatras, 6. The beginning of the year, 7. The
seasons, 8. The shorter time unit, 9. Influences on the popular calendar）.
――――――――――――――――
１）For astronomical instruments in ancient India, cf. Ôhashi, Development of the astronomical
observation in Vedic and Post-Vedic India, Indian Journal of History of Science 28（3）, 1993,
185-251, esp. 195-197.　　　 ２）For this marriage, cf. KauZItaki-Br XVIII 1（SUryA’s father is
Savit or PrajApati）, Aitreya-Br IV 7（PrajApati）.　　　３）The main oblation of the New Moon
Sacrifice might have been in origin Soma, which was substituted by SAmnAyya, then replaced by
PuroDAZa.　　　４）Cf. Zysk, Medicine in the Veda, 1985［rep. 1996］, 12-17: yákSma（consump-
tion; tuberculosis）.　　　５） tá-（→ 1., 3.2.str.1）as “truth” or “Wahrheit”（Tichy, Konjunktiv
143 with Anm.190; Amano, MaitrAyaNI Sa hitA I-II, 487 with Anm.2040f.）is difficult to accept.
For tám + ami/brU/vad/k ‘Eid leisten, swear an oath’, cf. Hoffmann, Aufsätze I 292 with Anm.17.
Cp. the parallel KS tám amIZva yáthA ... sá tám amIt.　　　６）The subj. vásAni in the yáthA-
clause in the MS expresses what the cosmic order requires.　　　７）The gods’ food（Soma as
moon）or nourishment in general circulates in the cosmos as described in ZB I 6,4,5f.;15, XI
1,1,4f., VI 2,2,16, XI 6,2,6-10, s. Author, Fs. Narten, 2000, 248f; Akten des 27. Deutschen
Orientalistentages, 1998［2001］, 159-162. For the circulation of vital energy in the cosmos, s.
Author, Studies in Religions East and West 35, 2008［2009］, 97-100（in Japanese）.

〈Key words〉　astronomy, calendar, tú, tá, nákSatra, amAvAsy , sóma, agnihotrá, darZapUrNa-
mAsáu, Indra, V tra, gveda, Atharvaveda, Yajurveda-Sa hitA, Zatapatha-BrAhmaNa.
（ret. Associate Professor, Osaka City University; Dr. de 3ème cycle, Université de Paris III）

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