Drying and Salting of Fish

Parvathy U.
Fish Processing Division
ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Technology, Cochin
Email: [email protected]

Fish is regarded as an excellent source of nutrients with its richness in health beneficial
omega-3 fatty acids, quality and easily digestible proteins with balanced aminoacid
profile, essential minerals and vitamins. These nutritional advantages offer considerable
benefits to fish as a means to achieve nutritional as well as social security. Better
awareness regarding this biomass as a potential source of nutrients has created
increased interest in effective exploitation of these resources. However their richness in
nutrients as well as high moisture content increases its perishability, necessitating the
processing and preservation of fish mandatory soon after harvesting. Different
processing and preservation methods like salting, drying, smoking, chilling, freezing,
chemical treatments, as well as combination of these two or more methods (referred to
as hurdle technology) are used for the preservation of fish.
The traditional methods of processing fish by salting, drying, smoking, pickling,
marination and fermentation are collectively known as Curing. It is the oldest and
cheapest method of fish preservation and is still widely practiced in many parts of the
World. This can be done either by any single method or a combination of these methods.
In the current market situation both wet and dry cured fishery products have
commercial importance. Cured fish consumption is more in areas where the availability
of fresh fish is comparatively limited viz., interior markets as well as hilly areas. This
method is also practiced in the coastal areas when an excess catch is to be preserved for
later utilization during the lean season or for marketing to other areas.
Drying
In general, the term term 'drying' implies the removal of water by evaporation. In fish,
water constitutes about 70-80% and since water is essential for the activity of all living
organisms, its removal will facilitate retardation of microbial and autolytic activity as
well as oxidative changes and hence can be used as a method of preservation. In any
process of drying, the removal of water requires an input of thermal energy. The
thermal energy required to drive off the water can be obtained from a variety of
sources, e.g., the sun or the controlled burning of oil, gas or wood, electrical heating etc.
The thermal energy can also be supplied directly to the fish tissue by microwave
electromagnetic radiation or ultrasonic heating.
Drying Phases
During air drying, water is removed from the surface of the fish and water moves from
the deeper layers to the surface. Drying takes place in two distinct phases. In the first
phase, whilst the surface of the fish is wet, the rate of drying depends on the condition
(velocity, relative humidity etc.) of the air around the fish. If the surrounding air
conditions remain constant, the rate of drying will remain constant; this phase is called
the 'constant rate period'. Once all the surface moisture has been carried away, the
second phase of drying begins and this depends on the rate at which moisture can be

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brought to the surface of the fish. As the concentration of moisture in the fish falls, the
rate of movement of moisture to the surface is reduced and the drying rate becomes
slower; this phase is called the 'falling rate period'.
Constant rate drying phase
During this period the rate of drying is dependent on several factors:
Air temperature: At the beginning of drying, the heat energy required for evaporation
is balanced by the heat supplied by the surrounding air. Warm air can provide more
heat energy and, provided that the air speed and relative humidity will allow a high rate
of water movement, the rate of drying will be increased.
Relative humidity of the air: The lower the relative humidity of air surrounding the
drying area, the greater the ability to absorb water and the faster the rate of drying.
Air velocity: Air velocity has a positive relation with rate of drying. Better the speed of
the air over the fish, the greater will be the drying rate. The air around fish consists of
an immediate stationary layer above the fish, a slowly moving middle layer and an outer
turbulent layer. On saturation of the immediate stationary air layer, the moisture passes
into the slowly moving middle layer. The higher the air speed in the outer layer, the
thinner the slow moving layer, allowing more rapid movement of water away from the
fish.
Surface area of the fish: the larger the surface area, the faster the rate of drying. By
scoring and splitting the fish, the surface area increases relative to the weight/thickness
resulting in the rate of drying to be faster.
Falling rate drying phase
Once the free surface moisture has been removed, the rate of drying depends on the
movement of moisture from interior to the surface of the fish. Several factors influence
the rate of drying:
Nature of the fish: a high fat content in the fish retards the rate of drying.
Thickness of the fish: the thicker the fish, the further the water in the middle layers has
to travel to reach the surface, slowing down the drying rate.
Temperature of the fish: diffusion of water from the deeper layers to the surface is
greater at higher temperatures.
Water content: as the water content falls, the rate of movement to the surface layers is
reduced.

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Methods of Drying
There are basically two methods of drying fish. The common and traditional
method being sun drying which is done by utilizing the atmospheric conditions viz.,
temperature, humidity and airflow. In recent times, the controlled artificial dehydration
of fish has been developed so that fish drying can be carried out under controlled
conditions, regardless of weather conditions.
Natural or sun drying:
In this type solar and wind energies are utilized as the source of energy.
 Drying on the ground
 Rack Drying
 Solar drying using Solar tent dryers, Solar cabinet dryers
Artificial / Mechanical Dryers
 Hot air dryers
 Cabinet dryer
 Tunnel dryer
 Multi deck tunnel
 Contact Dryers
 Vacuum dryers
 Rotary dryers
 Drum dryers

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 Sun drying on grounds

Sun drying on racks

Solar driers Cabinet driers

Salting
Salting is one of the oldest methods of preservation of fish. Salting is usually done as
such or in combination with drying or as a pretreatment to smoking. The presence of
sufficient quantities of common salt (sodium chloride) in fish can prevent or drastically
reduce bacterial action. Salting amounts to a process of salt penetration into the fish
flesh when fish is placed in a strong solution of salt (brine) which is stronger than the
solution of salt in the fish tissue. Penetration ends when the salt concentration of the
fish equals that of the surrounding medium. This phenomenon is known as osmosis. It is
based on different factors like diffusion and biochemical changes in various constituents
of the fish. This process facilitates preservation of fish by reducing the water activity. A
concentration of between 6–10 % salt in the tissue together with the removal of some
water from the tissue during the salting process will prevent the activity of most
spoilage bacteria. If fish are salted before drying, less water needs to be removed to
achieve preservation. A water content of 35–45%, depending on the amount of salt
present, will often prevent, or drastically reduce, the action of bacteria.

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Salt: Source and properties
Common salt, in its purest form consists of sodium chloride (NaCl). However almost all
commercial salts contain varying levels of impurities depending on the source and
method of production.
Based on the source as well as method of manufacture, common salt can be grouped as:
 Solar salt: prepared by the evaporation of sea or salt lake waters by the action of
sun and wind.
 Brine evaporated salts: produced from underground salt deposits which are
brought to the surface in solution form and is heat evaporated.
 Rock salt: obtained as natural deposits from interior rock mines which are
ground to varying degrees of fineness without any purification.
Chemical composition
Commercial salts vary widely in their composition with best quality salt containing upto
99.9 % sodium chloride, whereas low quality salt may only contain 80 % sodium
chloride. The main chemical impurities of commercial salts include calcium and
magnesium chlorides and sulphates, sodium sulphate and carbonate, and traces of
copper and iron. Apart from these, contaminants such as dust, sand and water may also
be present in salt. Presence of calcium and magnesium chlorides even in small
quantities tends to slow down the penetration of salt into the flesh and hence their
presence may lead to increase in the rate of spoilage. Further magnesium chloride is
hygroscopic and tends to absorb water, making the fish more difficult to dry and to keep
dry. Calcium and magnesium salts give a whiter colour but tend to impart a bitter taste.
Very often the consumer demands a whitish colour in salted fish products and small
quantities of calcium and magnesium compounds in the salt are usually considered
desirable. Excessive quantities, however lead to a bitter flavour and the dried product
tends to be brittle which can cause problems during packaging and distribution. Trace
quantities of copper in salt can cause the surface of salted fish to turn brown affecting
the appeal of dried fish.
Microbiological purity
Many commercial salts, particularly solar salts, contain large numbers of salt tolerant
bacteria (halophiles) and counts of up to 105/g have been recorded. A group of
halophiles, also referred to as the red or pink bacteria, can be a problem in commercial
fish curing operations as they cause a reddening of wet or partly dried salt fish.
Halophilic moulds tend to grow on dried fish under favourable conditions causing the
formation of dark patches called 'dun'. They tend to occur more frequently in rock salt.
Physical properties
Fine grain salt dissolves more rapidly in water and is preferred for making brines.
However on direct application of fine grain salt on fish causes a rapid removal of water
from the surface which becomes hard and prevents the penetration of salt to the inside
of the fish, a condition referred to as 'salt burn'. Hence for dry salting, a mixture of large
and small grain sizes of salt is recommended.

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Types of Salting
 Dry salting: This is the most widely used method of fish curing. Dry salting is
advisable for fishes of any size, except fatty fishes. The fish is gutted, beheaded or
ventrally split open and the viscera removed followed by washing. Scoring is also
practiced if the flesh portion is thick for facilitating better salt penetration. Salt is
then applied in the ratio 1:3 to 1: 10 (salt to fish) depending upon the size of the
fish. The fish is then stacked in clean cement tanks or other good containers
layered with salt and weight is applied from top for better salt penetration. The
fish is kept in this condition for 24-48 hours. After salting period, the fish is taken
out, washed in brine to remove adhering salt and drained. It is then hygienically
dried to a moisture content of about 25%. Yield of the product by this method is
about 35-40% with a storage stability of upto three months under ambient
conditions.
 Wet salting:The initial stages of processing and salting are the same as for dry
curing. However the fish kept in tank is allowed to remain in self brine till
marketing without further drying. For marketing, as per the demand the wet
salted fish is drained and packed in palmyrah leaf baskets or coconut leaf
baskets. This method is particularly suitable for fatty fishes like oil sardine,
mackerel etc. Wet salted fishes have shortshelf stability with a moisture content
of 50-55% and a salt content of around 25%.
 Pickle salting:Pickle curing is a type of wet salting where the fish is layered by
granular salt which, dissolves in the surface moisture of the fish forming solution
which penetrates into the fish removing moisture from the fish. The fish is
allowed to remain in this self brine. If the self brine is not sufficient, saturated
brine is added to immerse the fish.
 Kench salting:In this method, salt is rubbed on to the surface of the fish and
stacked in layers of salt and fish. The self-brine formed is allowed to drain away.
This method cannot be recommended for general use in the tropics as the fish
are not covered by the brine or pickle and are therefore more susceptible to
spoilage and insect attack. Exposure to the air and the presence of salt also
encourages the rate of fat oxidation which gives rise to discoloration and the
characteristic rancid flavours.
 Mona curing: Mona curing is mainly adopted for medium to small size fishes.
Before salting, the intestine and entrails are removed by pulling out through the
gill region without split opening the fish. The flesh is not exposed during salting
thereby causing less contamination and the product has a shelf stability of about
two months. The yield obtained by this method is about 70%.
 Pit curing: In this method, fish is mixed with salt (4:1) and placed in pits dug on
beaches. The pits may be lined with palymrah / coconut leaves. After 2-3 days of
maturation, the fish is taken out for marketing in wet condition and packed in
bamboo baskets and transported to markets without drying. The quality of fish
cured by this technique is poor with a shelf stability of upto three weeks only.
 Colombo Curing:Colombo curing is similar to pickling process which is widely
practiced in Sri Lanka. A piece of dried malabar tamarind (Garginia cambogea) is
kept in the abdomen portion of the gutted and cleaned fish which is further

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 stacked in airtight wooden barrels filled with brine. Fishes cured by this method
has a shelf life for upto 6 months.
Quality issues in dried and salted fish
 Pink/Red: Salt content prevents the growth of normal spoilage microflora in the
fish but halophiles, which can survive at 12-15% of salt concentration, will
survive. Halophilic bacteria are present in most of the commercial salt. A
particular group of halophiles called Red / Pink cause reddening of wet or
partially dried salted fish. These do not grow in brine or in fully dried fish. They
are aerobic and proteolytic in nature, grows best at 36ºC by decomposing
protein and giving out an ammoniacal odour. Spoilage appears on the surface as
slimy pink patches. However these bacteria are not harmful in nature. Usage of
good quality salt is recommended to avoid this condition. This spoilage is mostly
found in heavily salted fish and absent in unsalted fish.
 Dun: In salted fish, brownish black or yellow brown spots are seen on the fleshy
parts, referred to as “dun”. This is mainly caused by growth of halophilic mould
called Sporendonema epizoum. This gives the fish a very bad appearance. Moulds
usually grow at relative humidity above 75%. The optimum temperature for
growth is 30-35 ºC. During the initial stages of appearance of moulds on the fish,
it is possible to remove them manually. In advanced stages it penetrates into the
flesh. To avoid the mould growth it is necessary that the fish be dried, packed
and stored properly to avoid uptake of moisture. Chemical method of prevention
includes dipping the fish in a 5% solution of calcium propionate in saturated
brine for 3-5 minutes depending upon the size of the fish.
 Salt Burn: A mixture of large and small grain sizes is recommended for dry
salting of fish. If fine grain is used directly on the fish, salt burn may occur due to
the rapid removal of water from the surface with no penetration of salt to the
interior of the fish.
 Case hardening: Under certain conditions, where the constant rate drying is
very rapid due to high temperature and low relative humidity, the surface of the
fish can become 'case hardened' and the movement of moisture from the deeper
layers to the surface is prevented. This can result in a fish which is dry at surface.
However the centre remains wet and hence spoils quickly.
 Rancidity:This is caused by the oxidation of fat, which is more pronounced in oil
rich fishes like mackerel, sardine etc. The unsaturated fat in the fish reacts with
the oxygen in the atmosphere forming peroxides, which are further broken down
into simple and odoriferous compounds like aldehydes, ketones and hydroxy
acids, which impart the characteristic odors. At this stage the colour of the fish
changes from yellowish to brown referred to as rust. This change results in an
unpleasant flavour and odour to the product, leading to consumer rejection.
 Insect Infestation:Spoilage due to insect infestation occurs during initial drying
stages as well as during storage of the dried samples. The flies which attack the
fish during the initial drying stage are mainly blowflies belonging to the family
Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae. These flies are attracted by the smell of
decaying matter and odours emitted from the deteriorating fishes. During the
glut season when the fish is in plenty and some are left to rot, these flies come
and lay their eggs. These eggs develop into maggots, which bury within the gill
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 region and sand for protection from extreme heat. and develop mainly when
conditions are favourable. The most commonly found pests during storage are
beetles belonging to the family Dermestidae. Beetles attack when the moisture
content is low and especially when the storage is for a long time. The commonly
found beetles are Dermestes ater, D frischii, D maculates, D carnivorous and
Necrobia rufipes. The larva does most of the damage by consuming dried flesh
until the bones only remain. Mites are also an important pest, which are found
infesting dried and smoked products. Lardoglyphus konoi is the commonly found
mite in fish products. Infestation can be reduced by proper hygiene and
sanitation, disposal of wastes and decaying matter, use of physical barriers like
screens, covers for curing tanks etc, and use of heat to physically drive away the
insects and kill them at 45 º C.
 Fragmentation:Denaturation and excess drying of fish results in breaking down
of the fish during handling. Fish can become brittle and liable to physical damage
when handled roughly. Insect infestation is also a reason behind fragmentation
in dried samples. It is necessary that fresh fish be used as raw material to ensure
a good finished product.
Conclusion
Curing is one of the oldest and traditional methods of fish preservation. These are cost
effective technologies, which can be opted for a wide range of communities. However a
major drawback with this traditional processing is the lack of standard operating
procedures being followed which affects the quality of cured products. Moreover, there
is a general conception that drying/salting is a secondary method for preservation
applicable for low value as well as inferior quality varieties. Efforts towards effective
and hygienic handling practices in the process chain, popularization of improved drying
and packaging practices, and adequate extension services can facilitate better adoption
of cured fishery products in the seafood sector.

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