Topic 2 - General Theories About Learning and Acquisition of A Foreign Language. The Concept of Interlanguage. Error Analysis

Topic 2 – General theories about learning and
acquisition of a foreign language. The concept of

interlanguage. Error analysis
I have based this essay on the following source:
– Richards J.C & Rodgers T.S. Approaches and Methods in Language
Teaching,
– Nunan, D. The Learner-Centred Curriculum.
In this theme I will deal with the following issues:
Firstly with general learning theories: Behaviourism, cognitivism, and

constructivism.
Secondly with second language acquisition: T. Pica.
Thirdly, interlanguage: Selinker.
To end up with error analysis: types of errors.
O. INTRODUCTION:
The learning of different languages has been very important from the very first
stages of human race, due to the need of maintaining communication among
different cultures. Nowadays, there are more than 3,000 languages spoken in the
world.
1. GENERAL LEARNING THEORIES
FLT was at one time thought to be a matter of teaching techniques and learning

would automatically follow. Therefore, teaching was the active skill and learning the
passive one. Today, the active role of the learner is an established principle. It is
recognized that there are important individual differences among learners that can
influence the teaching outcome. Research is therefore now directed not only at the
way teachers teach, but also at the way learners learn.
The term “acquisition” is sometimes used to replace “learning” in this context.
There are three main theories:
1.1 BEHAVIOURISM:
According to Skinner & Pavlov: Language learning is a form of behaviour, a

formation habit. It is a model of stimulus, response and reinforcement.
1.2 COGNITIVISM
Ausubel: tried to discover psychological principles of organisation and functioning

of learning.
Chomsky: Generative-Transformational Grammar can be considered the

beginning of contemporary psycholinguistics.
Chomsky stated:
 The ability to learn a language is innate: all individuals are born with the
knowledge of general grammatical rules (UG), common to all languages.
 Language implies competence and performance. Competence is the
knowledge and performance is the use of language.
 Learners are thought to use their cognitive abilities in a creative way, to
create hypotheses and to try out hypotheses and alter them when
inadequate.
1.3 CONSTRUCTIVISM
The 3 pioneers of Constructivism are Piaget, Bruner and

Vigotsky. According to them: learning occurs through adaptation
to interactions with the environment.
 According to Piaget, learning follows these steps: disequilibrium,

assimilation and accommodation.
 According to Bruner and Vigotsky learning is also a social process.
Vigotsky coined the term zone of proximal development. This is the area
of exploration for which the learner is cognitively prepared but requires help
and social interaction to fully develop.
 Bruner points out that TT and SS should actively discuss issues and

concepts: Socratic learning.
Nowadays, Constructivism maintains that individuals create or construct their own
new understandings or knowledge through the interaction of what they already
know and believe, and the ideas, events, tasks and activities with which they come
in contact.
The Curriculum of Secondary Education is based on Constructivism.
2. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Psycholinguistics is a hybrid discipline created out of the psychologist’s interest in

language and the linguist’s interest in psychology. Its major concern is to
describe the operation of the mind dealing with language.
Applied linguistics is the study of human and social problems connected with
language, language learning and language use.
SLA is the field on Applied Linguistics, which deals with the acquisition of a second
or a foreign language (L2) in formal or informal environments. The acquisition of
an L1 is very different from the learning of an L2 because the learner approaches
an L2 already having a certain set of believes and/or attitudes.
There has been much empirical research done in SLA. Nowadays, according to T.
Pica, there are three keys aspects for successful SLA:
 Input has to be meaningful and comprehensible (similar to Krashen).

 Attend to the form of the input as well as meaning (Long, focus on form /
Ellis grammar conscious-raising task).
 Production of L2 and give feedback (Selinker).
3. INTERLANGUAGE (IL)
IL was coined by Selinker in 1969. It is the learner’s language, i.e. the type of

language produced by learners who are learning a L2, which is different from both
their L1 and L2.
IL has the following elements:
· some characteristics of the learner’s native language.
· some characteristics of the L2.
· other characteristics, which are very systematic and common to all learners.
And it is characterized by being:
· PERMEABLE: the rules of the IL can evolve if new rules enter the system.
· DYNAMIC: IL is constantly changing.
· SYSTEMATIC: IL is based in coherent rules.
The notion of Fossilization is also connected to the idea of IL. It takes place when
a learner makes no further progress in his/her IL. Due to:
· Low motivation.
· Age may influence.
· Personality.
· Limited range L2 input.
4. ERROR ANALYSIS
Error analysis is an approach consisting of empirical research into the nature and
causes of deviation from the L2 norm, focusing on the L2 learner’s language.
According to Corder (1971) there are 2 types of errors:
Errors of Competence: application of rules that do not correspond to the L2 norm.
· Interlingual: transfer errors caused by the structure of L1
· Intralingual: caused by the structure of L2, they are not predictable, they are
interpreted as overgeneralizations.
Errors of Performance: mistakes in language use. Learners can recognize and

correct them.
According to other SLA researchers there are 3 types of errors:
· Developmental Errors: similar to errors made by children learning L1. They are
assumed to be a natural product of a gradually developing ability (-s 3 rd person, -ed
past, questions,).
· Transfer or interlingual errors: are attributable to first language influence

(pronunciation, accent, false friends).
· Errors that cannot be classified in either group (the same as intralingual by
Corder).
Errors are significant because they provide to the researcher evidence of how a

language is learned.
As language learning is a continuum process, a certain amount of trial and error in

indispensable. This is positive because it facilitates feedback and therefore,
correction and remedial work.
Before dealing with an error we must detect the type of error and then decide
whether we treat it through an explanation, or through recast, or providing tools for
peer or self-correction, etc. For example, if it is a developmental error is little we
can do until the learner is ready, apart from speeding up the process. According
to T. Pica, if we focus on form as well as on meaning, only an error can be treated
and we should use indirect ways of dealing with grammar.
In terms of foreign language instruction, as teachers we are constantly looking

for the best approach and method. There is not a unique approach, but many,
depending on the issue we are dealing with and our students’ interests and needs.
Goals must be accomplish, contents and methodology selected according to our
students’ needs and evaluation will help us to assess our work and students’
process of learning.

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Topic 2 – General theories about learning and

acquisition of a foreign language. The concept of

I have based this essay on the following source:

– Richards J.C & Rodgers T.S. Approaches and Methods in Language

– Nunan, D. The Learner-Centred Curriculum.

In this theme I will deal with the following issues:

Firstly with general learning theories: Behaviourism, cognitivism, and

Secondly with second language acquisition: T. Pica.

Thirdly, interlanguage: Selinker.

To end up with error analysis: types of errors.

1. GENERAL LEARNING THEORIES

FLT was at one time thought to be a matter of teaching techniques and learning

There are three main theories:

According to Skinner & Pavlov: Language learning is a form of behaviour, a

Ausubel: tried to discover psychological principles of organisation and functioning

Chomsky: Generative-Transformational Grammar can be considered the

The 3 pioneers of Constructivism are Piaget, Bruner and

 According to Piaget, learning follows these steps: disequilibrium,

 Bruner points out that TT and SS should actively discuss issues and

The Curriculum of Secondary Education is based on Constructivism.

2. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Psycholinguistics is a hybrid discipline created out of the psychologist’s interest in

 Input has to be meaningful and comprehensible (similar to Krashen).

IL was coined by Selinker in 1969. It is the learner’s language, i.e. the type of

IL has the following elements:

· some characteristics of the learner’s native language.

· some characteristics of the L2.

· DYNAMIC: IL is constantly changing.

· SYSTEMATIC: IL is based in coherent rules.

· Age may influence.

· Limited range L2 input.

According to Corder (1971) there are 2 types of errors:

Errors of Competence: application of rules that do not correspond to the L2 norm.

· Interlingual: transfer errors caused by the structure of L1

Errors of Performance: mistakes in language use. Learners can recognize and

According to other SLA researchers there are 3 types of errors:

· Transfer or interlingual errors: are attributable to first language influence

Errors are significant because they provide to the researcher evidence of how a

As language learning is a continuum process, a certain amount of trial and error in

In terms of foreign language instruction, as teachers we are constantly looking

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