Dante Decrypted

Bibliotheca Dantesca: Journal of Dante
Studies
Volume 1 Dante and Music Article 3
2018
DANTE DECRYPTED: MUSICA UNIVERSALIS IN THE TEXTUAL

ARCHITECTURE OF THE ‘COMMEDIA’
C.S. Adoyo
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Recommended Citation
Adoyo, C.S. (2018) "DANTE DECRYPTED: MUSICA UNIVERSALIS IN THE TEXTUAL ARCHITECTURE OF
THE ‘COMMEDIA’," Bibliotheca Dantesca: Journal of Dante Studies: Vol. 1 , Article 3.
Available at: https://repository.upenn.edu/bibdant/vol1/iss1/3
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For more information, please contact [email protected].
Adoyo: DANTE DECRYPTED
Bibliotheca Dantesca, 1 (2018): 37-69
DANTE DECRYPTED: MUSICA UNIVERSALIS IN THE

TEXTUAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE ‘COMMEDIA’
C. S. ADOYO, Georgetown University
For seven centuries scholars have speculated about the structural design of
Dante’s Commedia but remain perplexed by the poem’s comprehensive ar-
chitecture. This study undertakes a strictly empirical quantitative analysis of
Dante’s magnum opus to address this lacuna. The outcome of this analysis
enumerates the correspondence between the foundational rationale of the
Commedia’s textual architecture and both physical and metaphysical concepts
of Ptolemaic cosmology and Pythagorean principles of harmony and propor-
tion as described by Boethius. The poem manifests a musically and mathemat-
ically meticulous design conceptualized as musica universalis and expressed as
musica instrumentalis that echoes Paschal and Marian plainchant. With an an-
alytical synthesis of three components—Beatrice’s mathematical identity, the
Trinitary ontology of the terza rima, and the quantitative properties of the
Commedia’s canto lengths and their frequency of occurrence—this study de-
crypts Dante’s comprehensive architectural design of a poem whose structural
harmony continues to be felt by readers today.
Keywords: Trinity, Scutum fidei, Terza rima, Architecture, Boethius, Pythag-

oras, Ptolemy
S’IO AVESSI, LETTOR, PIÙ LUNGO SPAZIO . . .

In his imposingly titled The Mind of Dante, Natalino Sapegno1
remarks the sense of “profound unity of conception and artistic ex-
pression” that the reader of Dante’s Commedia enjoys. Sapegno’s
is but one in a chorus of voices of critical readers who, though
hewing closely to a traditionally fragmentary approach to the poem,
acknowledge and extoll the poem’s compositional unity, and echo
assertions like those by De Sanctis2 or by Vallone that the
1
Natalino Sapegno and Uberto Limentani, “Genesis and Structure: Two Approaches
to the Poetry of the Comedy,” in The Mind of Dante (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1965), 6.
2
“. . . il libro nel suo insieme è così chiaro e semplice che si abbraccia tutto in un
solo sguardo. La scienza della vita o della creazione è colta ne’ suoi tratti essenziali e
rappresentata con perfetta chiarezza e coesione. L’armonia intellettuale diviene cosa
viva nell’architettura, così coerente e significativa nelle grandi linee, così accurata nei
~ 37 ~
Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 1

Bibliotheca Dantesca: Journal of Dante Studies, Vol. 1 [2018], Art. 3
Adoyo: Dante decrypted
Commedia is “l’opera più saldamente unitaria d’ogni tempo”3 but

stop just short of examining the specific elements that account for
the reader’s intuition of this unity.
Proponents have for generations affirmed their unambiguous
faith in the Commedia’s “unity of conception,” hypothesizing that
it is the result of Dante’s predetermined design for the poem and
often citing as exemplary the structurally congruous characteristics
of the poem’s internal memory, namely its consistently ternary or-
ganization, from the gross structure down to its prosody, and its
coordinated placement of thematically correlated discourses in cor-
responding textual regions across the three cantiche. The narrator
himself appears to provide grounds for these hypotheses in the Ter-
restrial Paradise when he declares that limited space (“S’io avessi,
lettor, più lungo spazio / da scrivere”) compels him to brevity (“A
descriver lor forme più non spargo / rime, lettor; ch’altra spesa mi
strigne, / tanto ch’a questa non posso esser largo”).4 Nevertheless,
debate persists regarding the scope and subtleties of the poem’s de-
sign. Some argue that the quantitatively coherent placement of
structural, textual, and thematic patterns, such as the canto length
symmetry at the center of the poem publicized by Singleton5 and
subsequently expounded on by Pegis6 is simply aleatory, and that
inferring hermeneutic intention from them is merely the result of
their advocate’s apophenic zeal.7 Missing from this debate is the
empirical analysis of the poem’s quantitative properties necessary to
scrutinize the significance of the narrator’s remarks or to articulate
an objectively demonstrable architectural design.
This study addresses this lacuna in the scholarship of the Com-
media by examining the scope and detail of the poem’s textual ar-
chitecture and interrogating the rationale for its design within the
context of Dante’s poetics, with attention to contemporaneous se-
miotics. Driving this analysis are elements like the conspicuous pat-
terns of compound dispositional symmetries throughout the text,
minimi particolari.” Francesco De Sanctis, Storia della letteratura italiana, 3rd ed.
(Rome: Newton, 1997), 178.
3
Aldo Vallone, Strutture e modulazioni nella Divina commedia (Florence: Leo S.
Olschki, 1990), 172.
4
Purgatorio 33.136–141; Purg. 29.97–99.
5
Charles Singleton, “The Poet’s Number at the Center,” MLN 80, no. 1 (1965).
6
Richard J. Pegis, “Numerology and Probability in Dante,” Mediaeval Studies 29
(1967).
7
See Logan’s diffident response to both Singleton and Pegis, in J. L. Logan, “The
Poet’s Central Numbers,” MLN 86, no. 1 (1971). Also see Dante Alighieri,
Purgatorio, trans. Jean Hollander and Robert Hollander, 1st ed. (New York: Anchor
Books, 2004) for Hollander’s note to Purg 17.133–139 for a concise overview of the
debate over aleatory or intentional canto length patterns.
~ 38 ~
https://repository.upenn.edu/bibdant/vol1/iss1/3 2
like the one exemplified in Figure 1, that challenge the curious

reader to examine and possibly articulate the underlying structural
design.
Figure 1. Concentric recursive symmetries at the midpoint of the Commedia
The most granular element of symmetry in this illustration

appears in the verse scansion of the line at the midpoint of the poem
#7117 (Purg. 17.125) in which Virgil instructs the pilgrim to turn
his intellect from retrospectively contemplating the first half of the
journey, which now lies behind them, to anticipating what is yet
to come on the path ahead. The dispositinal and quantitative sym-
metry at the center of the Commedia is thus reiterated in the nar-
rative symmetry of the surrounding terzine (Purg. 17.112–139).
This congruity is further underscored by the central location of the
pilgrim’s itinerary (the fourth terrace: Sloth) and echoed in the
quantitative symmetry of the surrounding canto lengths from Purg.
14 to Purg. 20, as well as the global symmetry of the cantiche.
Equally compelling are the thematic congruencies that appear
throughout the poem that establish and reinforce the correlation of
form and signification. A closer look at the narrative structure of
the same area of Purgatorio outlined in the figure above demon-
strates this phenomenon. As illustrated in Figure 2, the twin pri-
macy of both the living example of the Virgin (“che a Cristo più si
somiglia”)8 and the sanctifying teachings of her son (“Filio di Dio
e di Maria”)9 is meticulously woven into the structure of the pil-
grim’s itinerary throughout the realm of penitence with symmetri-
cally harmonious periodicity.
8
Paradiso 32.85–86.
9
Par. 23.136–137.
~ 39 ~

Figure 2. Maria and the Beatitudes in the symmetrical structure of Purgatorio.
For just as the pilgrim’s arrival in each terrace is greeted with an

allusion to the Virgin Mary embodying its contrary virtue, so he is
delivered of each terrace by its angel custodian intoning the related
Beatitude from Jesus’s Sermon on the Mount. The location of each
Marian episode relative to its corresponding Beatitude in Figure 2
shows that the pilgrim’s gradually accelerating pace of travel as he
approaches the center of the text is mirrored by a reciprocally des-
celarating pace as he completes the latter half of the climb. Con-
currrently, a nine-canto distance separates the pilgrim’s slumber at
the end of each day on the mountain, with each waking dawn
marked by an account of his self-revelatory dream starting at the
threshold of Purgatorio in Canto 9 and ending with the climb’s
completion in Canto 27.
These are but two examples of the kind of well-ordered,
complex patterns in the poem’s structural disposition that scholars
have contributed to documenting with greater attention since Sin-
gleton published “The Poet’s Number at the Center.” That an ar-
chitectural blueprint providing an objective, universal context for
such patterns has remained inconspicuous to readers and undiscov-
ered by scholars for seven hundred years requires a radical reexam-
ination of both narrative clues and quantitative features of the poem
and imposes an unimpeachable standard of analysis on such a study.
The outcome of this analysis reveals that the poem’s structural har-
mony and “unity of conception” are in fact the consequence of a
mathematically meticulous and musically coherent design.
The following preview will provide not only an overview of
the guiding premise for this analysis, but also a summary of this
~ 40 ~
study’s findings before it delves into the technical details of the

methods used to decrypt the Commedia.
…FICTIO RHETORICA MUSICAQUE POITA

The catalogue for the intellectual source material and interpretive
context necessary to discover and decrypt the quantitative blueprint
for Dante’s magnum opus is furnished by the poet himself not only
in the Commedia, but also in his remarks on the art of poetry. The
Commedia’s very itinerary across a geocentric Ptolemaic cosmos is
significant: The poem’s structure is regulated by the same ordering
principles of a conceptual model of a universe wrought by a creator
who “tempers and atunes” the harmony of the heavens (“l’armonia
che temperi e discerni”).10 With quantitative properties based on
the same Pythagorean principles used to describe the order of the
Ptolemaic universe and prosody based on a popular contempora-
neous iconography of the Trinity, Dante composes a poetic signi-
fier of the infinite and the universal in a way that is “profoundly
conceived” and “majestically articulated”11 to serve as the stage for
the pilgrim’s journey from the selva oscura to his final revelatory
vision.
Dante articulates the rigour and urgency of developing and
executing a poetic design worthy of treating such lofty themes in
the De vulgari eloquentia.12 The poet’s “exertion of the intellect,
dedicated study of technique, and immersion in knowledge” make
thorough use of the quantitative ordering processes available
10
Par. 1.78.
11
Sapegno and Limentani, “Genesis and Structure,” 6.
12
“Caveat ergo quilibet et discernat ea que dicimus; et quando hec tria pure cantare
intendit, vel que ad ea directe ac pure secuntur, prius Elicone potatus, tensis fidibus
ad supremum, secure plectrum tum movere incipiat. Sed cautionem atque discretio-
nem hanc accipere, sicut decet, hic opus et labor est, quoniam nunquam sine strenui-
tate ingenii et artis assiduitate scientiarumque habitu fieri potest. Et hii sunt quos poeta
Eneidorum sexto Dei dilectos et ab ardente virtute sublimatos ad ethera deorumque
filios vocat, quanquam figurate loquatur.” DVE 2.4.9–11. [“Let everyone, then, take
care to understand precisely what I am stating: and, if they still undertake to write
poetry purely on these three themes or on themes that follow directly or purely from
them, let them first drink deep of Helicon, and tighten their strings to the utmost,
and they will then be able to wield the plectrum with absolute confidence. But learn-
ing the necessary caution and discernment is the difficult part, requiring much effort,
since these can never be achieved without exertion of the intellect, dedicated study
of technique, and immersion in knowledge. And those who succeed are those whom
the author of the Aeneid, the sixth book, calls God’s beloved, raised to the heavens
by their ardent virtue and made children of God—though he is speaking figuratively.”
Dante Alighieri, De vulgari eloquentia, trans. Steven Botterill, (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1996)].
~ 41 ~

through the mathematical liberal arts Musica and Arithmetica in

clearly unconventional and apparently unprecedented ways.
The rules of music applied to the poem’s design extend be-
yond the rhythmic and numerical organization of words and sylla-
bles. As a result, the seemingly casual definition of composed ver-
nacular poetry as “nichil aliud est quam fictio rhetorica musicaque
poita”13 becomes imbued with a theretofore unprecedented degree
of rational precision.
The intellectual authority of the poet’s exacting rationality is
founded in Classical works of natural and metaphysical philosophy
and icons of the quadrivium, the liberal mathematical arts that con-
cern a speculation on the order of the cosmos from the most basic,
Arithmetic, with increasing degrees of complexity through Music,
Geometry and Astronomy.14 Dante cites each of these authorities
throughout the Commedia using anthropomorphic metonymy,
thus representing their intellectual bodies of work as human char-
acters who populate the universe of the pilgrim’s journey. In this
way the pilgrim, and by extension the reader, encounters many of
the key representatives of Dante’s intellectual universe among the
virtuous pagans in the nobile castello allegorizing the artes liberales.
Hence, amidst the sighing figures of Limbo whose metonymic
function is brought to bear in this study we find “Socrate e Platone”
(Inf. 4.134), symbols of Plato’s dialogues of which the poet
13
DVE 2.4.2. As Patrick Boyde notes in his Grove Music Online article, “Dante’s
scattered remarks about the relationship of poetry and music are often quoted, and
often misrepresented. ‘Poesis … nichil aliud est quam fictio rethorica musicaque
poita,’ [. . .] wrongly rendered (with an earlier reading of ‘posita’ or ‘composita’ for
‘poita’) as ‘poetry is a rhetorical fiction set to music,’ making the musical setting a
condition of poetry. A better translation might be: ‘poetry is simply a work of imag-
ination [fictio] composed or made [poita, from Gk. poein] according to the rules of
rhetoric and music.’ Good prose is rhetorica poita; so the musical organization of
words is certainly that which distinguishes poetry from prose. But ‘musica’ is here
used both in a precise and limited technical sense (as governing the rules of rhythm)
and in a general sense which allowed Dante to speak of his craft as ‘harmonizing
words’ (Conv. 2.13.23; DVE 2.8.5). To bring words into harmony is to organize the
sequence of syllables rhythmically and numerically so that they form lines of verse
with a fixed number of syllables and certain cadences (musica poita in the technical
sense). It is also to temper the harsher and smoother sounds of words (scrupulously
defined in DVE 2.7.4–6) so that they will combine to form a structure that is pleasing
and appropriate to the meaning (DVE 2.1; Rime 103.1–2; Inf. 32.31–33). Further, it
is to bind the lines of verse into groups of three, four or more by rhyme, thus creating
the larger metrical units that make up the constituent parts of the stanza in a canzone
or ballata, or the quatrains and tercets of a sonnet.” [Emphasis added]. Patrick Boyde,
“Dante Alighieri,” Grove Music Online (http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/ 28
November 2018).
14
Anicius Manilius Severinus Boethius, Boethian Number Theory: A Translation of
the De institutione arithmetica, trans. Michael Masi, (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1983),
12.
~ 42 ~
specifically mentions the Timaeus in both Par. 4 and Convivio

3.5.6. Greek Geometry is represented by “Euclide geométra” (Inf.
4.142), author of the Elements, the definitive compendium on the
fundamentals of geometry in the Western tradition, and “Tale”
(Inf. 4.137) whose inscribed angle theorem Dante cites to specify
that when prompted, Solomon did not ask “se del mezzo cerchio
far si puote triangol sì ch'un retto non avesse” (Par. 13.101–102).
Sharing a verse with Euclid, the figure of “Tolomeo” (Inf. 4.142)
metonymically represents the Harmonics, a three-volume treatise
in which Claudius Ptolemy enumerates the mathematics of music.
Turning heavenward to the communion of wise souls in the Sphere
of the Sun, we encounter Boethius himself (Par. 10.124–129). This
particular metonymic citation is especially significant in this study’s
analysis because both the De institutione arithmetica and De insti-
tutione musica spell out the established mathematical conception
of music in the Middle Ages with a clarity that illuminates the mu-
sico-mathematical rationale for the design of the Commedia’s
quantitative structure.
For early in his De institutione musica, Boethius relates a leg-
end in which he explains the properties of music as a mathematical
art. It is a well known legend that tells of how Pythagoras was in-
spired to apprehend the Music of the Spheres upon hearing the
hammered anvils in a blacksmith’s workshop ring out at intervals
of the octave, the fifth, the fourth, and the second.15 The mathe-
matical ratios of these musical intervals expressed the very harmo-
nies of the cosmos that are described by Plato in the Timaeus (32B–
C, 35–36) and that were widely circulated and elaborated upon
throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and especially in Ptol-
emy’s Harmonica (Bk. 3).
Ptolemy, for his part, distinguishes the abstract characteristics
of music as mathematical art from music as performable craft by
spelling out their different modes of appeal: Where the performable
craft appeals to the material perception of “hearing,” the mathe-
matical abstraction appeals to “reason,” or intellectual discern-
ment.16 In other words, the distinction between sensory perception
15
The proportional weight ratios were twelve : nine : eight : six. Anicius Manilius
Severinus Boethius, Fundamentals of Music, ed. Claude V. Palisca, trans. Calvin M.
Bower, Music Theory Translation Series (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989),
Bk. 1.10–11, 17–19.
16
“καὶ κριτήρια μὲν ἁρμονίας ἀκοὴ καὶ λόγος, οὐ κατὰ τὸν αὐτὸν δὲ τρόπον,
ἀλλ᾽ ἡ μὲν ἀκοὴ παρὰ τὴν ὕλην καὶ τὸ πάθος, ὁ δὲ λόγος παρὰ τὸ εἶδος καὶ τὸ
αἴτιον, ὅτι καὶ καθόλου τῶν μὲν αἰσθήσεων ἴδιόν ἐστι τὸ τοῦ μὲν σύνεγγυς
εὑρετικόν, τοῦ δὲ ἀκριβοῦς παραδεκτικόν, τοῦ δὲ λόγου τὸ τοῦ μὲν σύνεγγυς
παρα- δεκτικόν, τοῦ δ᾽ ἀκριβοῦς εὑρετικόν.” Book 1.1 [“The criteria in
~ 43 ~

and intellectual perception may be read as that between inference

and deduction; feeling or intuiting on the one hand, and knowing
or understanding on the other. Ptolemy is concerned with distin-
guishing between what comes to be known in Boethian terms as
musica instrumentalis—which “consists of proper and pleasing
combinations of sounds” produced as musical performance—and
musica mundana, “the final metaphor for proper proportion.” In-
herent to musica mundana is the “proper ordering of elements in
the corporeal universe.”17 Even though knowledge of the musica
mundana cannot be acquired by perception, it can be deduced by
intellection—by observing the universal order it manifests in the
material world, hence the designation of this abstraction as musica
universalis.
After close examination and analysis, this study reveals how
Music as Mathematical Art is key to discerning the architectonic
principles of Dante’s Commedia. This musica universalis is defined
by the Ancients as a voiceless, soundless concept used to articulate
abstract, dynamic quantities and proportions and to develop a func-
tional, figurative vocabulary for conceptualizing the Order of the
Cosmos. Underscoring the intellectual tradition at the root of this
concept Pier Vincenzo Mengaldo explains to the reader of the De
vulgari eloquentia that “la connessione con la musica, da intendersi,
come nel Convivio, quale intrinseca strutturazione secondo leggi
musicali e non quale semplice destinazione a una melodia, è in par-
ticolare della tradizione boeziana.”18 Indeed, the canto lengths of
the poem evidence a meticulously rational adherence to the funda-
mentals of harmonic proportions enumerated by Boethius in his
two treatises. The Commedia’s quantitative framework thus de-
crypted reveals an additional dimension of significance to the poet’s
choice of technical nomenclature whereby verses are referred to as
note, each of the poem’s one hundred chapters as canto, and each
of its three books as cantica.19
harmonics are hearing and reason, but not in the same way: hearing is the criterion
for matter and condition, while reason is the criterion for form and cause. This is
because, generally speaking, discovering what is approximate and accepting what is
exact are characteristic of perception, while accepting what is approximate and dis-
covering what is exact are characteristic of reason.” Claudius Ptolemy, Harmonics,
trans. Jon Solomon (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 3–4].
17
Boethius, Arithmetica, 6, 42–43.
18
Dante Alighieri, De vulgari eloquentia, ed. Pier Vincenzo Mengaldo, Opere minori
5 vols. (Milan: Ricciardi, 1979), 2: 163.
19
See Lino Pertile, “‘Cantica’ nella tradizione medievale e in Dante,” in Rivista di
storia e letteratura religiosa 28 (1992): 389-412 for a philological and hermenutic ex-
position on the technical nomenclature of the poem, along with the preceding article,
~ 44 ~
The principal cipher, hidden in plain sight, is Beatrice’s

mathematical identity as the square of the Trinity declared by Dante
in VN 29.3, in conjunction with the poem’s symbolic representa-
tion of the Trinity, the terza rima. Beatrice’s mathematical identity
is the key to discovering the rationale for one of the fundamental
quantitative features of the poem which has to date confounded
scholars: namely, the thirteen distinct canto lengths variously allot-
ted to the poem’s one hundred canti, the frequencies of occurrence
of each of these thirteen canto lengths, and their distribution across
the poem. When the poem’s quantitative structure is analyzed in
terms of Pythagorean and Ptolemaic cosmic order and Boethian
musical mathematics, its fundamental quadrivial logic becomes
clear, further underscoring the cosmomimetic nature of Dante’s
compositional design. By this quadrivial logic, each of the thirteen
distinct canto lengths corresponds mathematically to a musical note
on the Guidonian hexachord. This in turn makes it possible to en-
code the quantitative structure of the entire poem as an easily ac-
cessible melody, allowing its performer to hold the mathematical
information accounting for all 14,233 verses of the poem in a brief
musical mnemonic.
Another hermeneutically striking discovery born of this anal-
ysis is that this mathematically encoded melody mimics a popular
plainchant specific to Paschal and Marian feasts recorded in manu-
scripts of secular liturgy in central Italy during Dante’s time. Cor-
relating the quantitative structure of the Commedia specifically to
liturgical feasts that are thematically congruous with the pilgrim’s
journey is significant for two immediately pertinent reasons: First,
it means that Dante effectively translates the mathematically abstract
design of his Commedia’s cosmomimetic structure conceptualized
as musica universalis into an audibly concrete and mnemonically
practical piece of musica instrumentalis. Secondly, it shows how, in
doing this, the poet is able to tie the Commedia’s quantitative struc-
ture to a liturgical melody that uniquely signifies not only the Vir-
gin Mary, the Queen of Heaven by whose intercession the pilgrim
undertakes and completes his journey, but also Eastertide, the pe-
riod in the liturgical calendar during which the journey takes place.
Through the musica instrumentalis synthesized from the mathe-
matical musica universalis, Dante further underscores the twin pri-
macy of Mother and Son in the structural hermeneutics of the
Commedia.
Lino Pertile, “Canto-cantica-comedia e l’Epistola a Cangrande,” in Lectura Dantis:

A Forum for Dante Research and Interpretation 9 (1991): 105-123.
~ 45 ~

…TUTTE LE CARTE ORDITE…

The quantitative blueprint of the Commedia that emerges in this
analysis will serve scholars who wish to put the congruous patterns
of disposition described in various fragmentary studies of the
poem’s structure into a unifying context. Furthermore, making the
poem’s rational design transparent sheds light on some of the poet’s
own references to said design. Consider, for example, the narrator’s
extradiegetic allusion, in direct address to his reader, to the limited
space available to him in the closing passages of Purgatorio:
S’io avessi, lettor, più lungo spazio

da scrivere, i’ pur cantere’ in parte
lo dolce ber che mai non m’avrìa sazio;
ma perché piene son tutte le carte
ordite a questa cantica seconda,
non mi lascia più ir lo fren de l’arte. (Purg. 33.136–141)
Masked by a thin veil of narrative reticentia, this passage

nonetheless appears to affirm the stringent demands of a meticulous
design to which the poet must adhere. It has traditionally been read
by commentators20 as a casual reference to the uniformity of the
poem’s gross proportions among the three cantiche. Yet the narra-
tor’s concerns about the limited availability of textual space in this
particular address to the reader is explicitly foreshadowd by another
in Purg. 29, when the narrator interrupts his demonstration of the
Bible’s internal exegetic mechanism using the winged creatures of
Ezechiel and John’s visions21 to declare that he is compelled to tell
of other things and cannot expend his rime on further details:
A descriver lor forme più non spargo

rime, lettor; ch’altra spesa mi strigne,
tanto ch’a questa non posso esser largo; (Purg. 29.97–99)
20
See the Dartmouth Dante Project for commentaries to this passage by Rev. H.F.
Tozer, An English Commentary on Dante’s Divina Commedia (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1901), Dante Alighieri and Robert Hollander, Purgatorio, trans. Jean Hollander
and Robert Hollander, 1st ed. (New York: Doubleday, 2003), and Giovanni Fallani,
La Divina Commedia a cura di Giovanni Fallani (Messina: G. D’Anna, 1965).
21
Refering his reader to Ezechiel’s divergent text for more details about the winged
creatures, the narrator then reiterates that John’s description will confirm what he has
just related. Contrary to the interpretation of critics dismayed by what they see as
Dante’s exaggerated estimation of his own power to arbitrate a textual inconsistency
in the Bible, the passage is less about the narrator’s authority than it is about John’s.
For drawing attention to the difference between these two ostensibly identical ele-
ments in the Old and New Testament iterations of a revelatory vision dramatically
illustrates the difference between revelation in prophecy as seen in Ezechiel’s Old
Testament text and revelation in fact as seen in John’s New Testament Apocalypse.
~ 46 ~
Here the commentators are all in agreement that the poet of

the Commedia is alluding to a fixed quota of verses which he must
devote to treating predetermined matters. Such a fixed quota, met-
onymically reasserted as “tutte le carte / ordite a questa cantica sec-
onda” in turn implies a compositional framework that is at least
measured in a preset quantity of pages. Given the absence of infor-
mation about the size or the rule dimensions of Dante’s “carte,” to
say nothing of the varied capacities of the pages of the myriad edi-
tions of the poem that have been published throughout its history,
the only stable units of measurement available for quantitative anal-
ysis of the Commedia are those to which the narrator explicitly
alludes:
. . . mi conven far versi

e dar matera al ventesimo canto
de la prima canzon . . . (Inf. 20.21–23)
Starting therefore with the versi, this study first draws upon
the Trinitary ontology of the poem’s terza rima based on its corre-
spondence to the scutum fidei symbol for the Athanasian Creed to
explore its radical function in the architecture of the text. The sec-
ond part of this analysis specifies gradually how the quadrivial foun-
dation of the canto lengths are contingent upon the particular dy-
namics of the terza rima in conjunction with the mathematical sym-
bol of Beatrice.22 Using the vocabulary of musica and arithmetica
defined by Boethius, the analysis demonstrates how applying Be-
atrice’s number, nine, to a simple arithmetic algorithm reveals the
correlation between each of the poem’s thirteen canto lengths and
a specific musical note across the three different registers of the hex-
achordum durum, #1, #4, and #7 in the musical scales popularized
by Guido d’Arezzo’s mnemonic device for teaching singers.23
22
VN 29.23.
23
See Stefano Mengozzi, The Renaissance Reform of Medieval Music Theory:
Guido of Arezzo between Myth and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2010), 2–5, and Karol Berger, “The Guidonian Hand,” in The Medieval Craft
of Memory: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures, ed. Mary Carruthers and Jan M.
Ziolkowski (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002). In her discussion
about solmization, Margaret Bent emphasizes the fundamentally menemonic function
of the Guidonian hexachord: “Hexachords are intervallically identical, and would
have been pointless as tools for classification; pieces are not “in” hexachords, as they
maybe conceived in keys or classified by modes. The only point of hexachords lies in
their flexible mutual relationship. [. . .] Hexachords are means of articulating decisions
made on other grounds; they are descriptive, not prescriptive, as Cross agrees (1990:
181). The practical and pedagogical language of solmisation is the principal or only
means by which theoretical writers can specify and name semitone inflections in the
~ 47 ~

DANTE’S TERZA RIMA AND THE TRINITY

Among the structural elements of the Commedia that seamlessly
integrate form and signification, the Trinitary symbolism of the
poem’s ternary architecture is the most axiomatic. The poem’s dis-
tinctive rhyme scheme, in particular—variously emulated by poets
and extensively contemplated by scholars—has for so long been
seen to represent the Trinity without examination throughout the
life of the Commedia that the empirical foundation for this inter-
pretation remains unexplained by the commentary tradition. Even
in his essay “The Significance of the Terza Rima,” John Freccero
acknowledges that although the terza rima “has seemed too obvi-
ously to represent the Trinity,” it may be read as an inherently fal-
lacious axiom since “everything represents God in this poem; the
abstraction is so remote as to be meaningless.”24 Some scholars have
even gone as far as to question the viability of the Trinitary sym-
bolism of the terza rima because of what they consider to be an
important structural inconsistency. The rhyme scheme begins each
canto with the pattern A2 B1 A3 | B2 C1 B3 | C2 D1 C3 . . . and
continues through an unbroken series of tercets concatenated by
interwoven triad rhymes that conclude with . . . X2 Y1 X3 | Y2 Z1
Y3 | Z2. In his analysis, Freccero affirms that the seemingly “arbi-
trary” duality of the opening and closing rhymes, A2–A3 and Z1–Z2,
has provoked some disquiet among theorists concerned that the
rime rilevate subvert the form’s triadic integrity, making it seem-
ingly “incompatible with the idea that it might represent the Trin-
ity.”25 In light of these concerns, it is incumbent upon any analysis
of the poem’s architecture to interrogate this hermeneutic axiom
and, if possible, articulate the concrete foundation for correlating
between the terza rima and the Trinity in order to ensure the in-
tegrity of the study’s outcome. To do so, one need only follow
Gorni’s suggestion and approach the poem on its own terms: “la
poesia reclama sempre un’adesione, prima che un giudizio. Bisogna
farsi un po’ gli apostoli del testo che si legge, che si è scelto di leg-
gere.”26
In that spirit, this analysis accepts the Commedia’s represen-
tations of the Trinity, which not only observe the exacting criteria
context of counterpoint teaching.” Margaret Bent, Counterpoint, Composition, and

Musica ficta (New York: Routledge, 2002), 8.
24
John Freccero, “The Significance of Terza Rima,” in Dante: The Poetics of
Conversion, ed. Rachel Jacoff (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986),
260.
25
Ibid., 261.
26
Guglielmo Gorni, Dante nella selva: il primo canto della Commedia (Parma:
Pratiche, 1995), 25.
~ 48 ~
for mathematical language and geometric iconography, but also

succeed in dramatizing the doctrine of the Trinity. The clearest
such example is the poem’s purely quantitative characterization of
a creator who contains and permeates all creation:
Quell’uno e due e tre che sempre vive

e regna sempre in tre e ’n due e ’n uno,
non circunscritto, e tutto circunscrive . . . (Par. 14.28–30)
When asked later by Saint Peter to articulate his faith, the

pilgrim Dante echoes the doctrine of the Trinity in plainly ortho-
dox terms:
[. . .] Io credo in uno Dio

solo ed etterno, che tutto ’l ciel move,
non moto, con amore e con disio;
[. . .]
e credo in tre persone etterne, e queste
credo una essenza sì una e sì trina,
che soffera congiunto ‘sono’ ed ‘este’. (Par. 24.130–141)
Both these representations pithily synthesize the Trinitary

doctrine as it is articulated in the Athanasian Creed:
we venerate one God in the Trinity, and the Trinity in oneness; nei-
ther confounding the persons, nor dividing the substance; for there is
one person of the Father, another of the Son, (and) another of the
Holy Spirit [. . .] and nevertheless there are not three eternals, [. . .]
thus the Father is God, the Son is God, (and) the Holy Spirit is God;
and yet there are not three gods, but there is one God. 27
27
The complete text enumerating the doctrine of the Trinity in the Athanasian Creed
is hereby abridged to highlight the passages immediately pertinent to this study’s ob-
servations about the structure of the terza rima: “Fides autem catholica haec est: ut
unum Deum in Trinitate, et Trinitatem in unitate veneremur. Neque confundentes
personas, neque substantiam seperantes. Alia est enim persona Patris alia Filii, alia
Spiritus Sancti: [. . .] Aeternus Pater, aeternus Filius, aeternus [et] Spiritus Sanctus. Et
tamen non tres aeterni, sed unus aeternus. [. . .] Ita Deus Pater, Deus Filius, Deus [et]
Spiritus Sanctus. Et tamen non tres dii, sed unus est Deus. [. . .] Pater a nullo est
factus: nec creatus, nec genitus. Filius a Patre solo est: non factus, nec creatus, sed
genitus. Spiritus Sanctus a Patre et Filio: non factus, nec creatus, nec genitus, sed
procedens. Unus ergo Pater, non tres Patres: unus Filius, non tres Filii: unus Spiritus
Sanctus, non tres Spiritus Sancti. Et in hac Trinitate nihil prius aut posterius, nihil
maius aut minus: Sed totae tres personae coaeternae sibi sunt et coaequales. Ita, ut per
omnia, sicut iam supra dictum est, et unitas in Trinitate, et Trinitas in unitate vene-
randa sit. Qui vult ergo salvus esse, ita de Trinitate sentiat.” Heinrich Denzinger,
Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum
(Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder, 1911), 17–18 [“But the Catholic faith is this, that we
venerate one God in the Trinity, and the Trinity in oneness; neither confounding the
persons, nor dividing the substance; for there is one person of the Father, another of
~ 49 ~

For Scholastic theologians of the thirteenth century, the lan-

guage most suitable for representing the Holy Trinity is that of Ge-
ometry. Following a passage comparing God to light, and the glo-
rified and the damned to refracting and reflecting bodies, Bacon
spells out the semiotic demands of representing the Trinity in his
Opus majus:
It is impossible for the blessed trinity and unity of essence to be repre-
sented more aptly by us in an example [. . .] perceptible to the senses
than by means of matters pertaining to geometry. For in the triangle
alone among all things made is there found a unity of essence with the
distinction of three embracing the same essence. Since each of the three
angles occupies the same identical space and the whole of it, as is evident
to the sense, and yet they are in fact distinct angles, which is wonderful
in a creature, nor is it found elsewhere except in the supreme Trinity.
And when on a given line it is required to construct an equilateral trian-
gle, as the first proposition of Euclid states, what can be assumed more
properly in order that we may perceive that if God the Father be granted,
a trinity of equal persons presents itself?28
the Son, (and) another of the Holy Spirit; [. . .] the Father is eternal, the Son is eternal,
(and) the Holy Spirit is eternal: and nevertheless there are not three eternals, but one
eternal; [. . .] thus the Father is God, the Son is God, (and) the Holy Spirit is God;
and nevertheless there are not three gods, but there is one God; [. . .] The Father was
not made nor created nor be-gotten by anyone. The Son is from the Father alone,
not made nor created, but begotten. The Holy Spirit is from the Father and the Son,
not made nor created nor begotten, but proceeding. There is therefore one Father,
not three Fathers; one Son, not three Sons; one Holy Spirit, not three Holy Spirits;
and in this Trinity there is nothing first or later, nothing greater or less, but all three
persons are coeternal and coequal with one another, so that in every respect, as has
already been said above, both unity in Trinity, and Trinity in unity must be venerated.
Therefore let him who wishes to be saved, think thus concerning the Trinity.”]
Heinrich Denzinger, The Sources of Catholic Dogma, trans. Roy J. Deferrari
(Fitzwilliam, NH: Loreto Publications, 2013), 15–16]
28
Roger Bacon, The Opus Majus of Roger Bacon, trans. Robert Belle Burke
(Philadelphia; London: University of Pennsylvania Press; Oxford University Press,
1928), 240. [“impossibile est beatam trinitatem et essentiae unitatem aptius a nobis
repraesentari in exemplo creaturae sensibilis quam per res geometricas. Nam in solo
triangulo inter omnes res factas invenitur unitas essentiae cum distinctione trium
occupantium eandem essentiam. Quoniam idem spatium numero et totum capit
quilibet de angulis trianguli, ut patet ad sensum, et tamen veraciter sunt anguli
distincti, quod est mirabile in creatura, nec alibi reperitur nisi in summa trinitate. Et
cum super datam lineam necesse est triangulum aequilaterum collocare, ut prima
propositio Euclidis denunciat, quid magis proprie potest assumi ut intelligamus quod
data persona Dei patris necesse est trinitatem personarum aequalium exhiberi?” Roger
Bacon, “Pars quarta, Mathematicae in divinis utilitas,” in The ‘Opus majus’ of Roger
Bacon, ed. John Henry Bridges (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1897), 1.217].
~ 50 ~
Like Dante’s “tre giri / di tre colori e d’una contenenza,”

(Par. 33.116–117) Bacon’s three equal yet distinct angles unify to
contain a single space. The appeal for geometric rigor is answered
by a simple triangular icon that illustrates the oneness of the three
Persons in the Triune God, the scutum fidei.30 Evolving over sev-
eral centuries, it draws inspiration from Paul’s call to the faithful
that they gird themselves with the arms of faith. Also known as the
“Shield of the Trinity,” this popular icon for the doctrine of the
Trinity not only enjoys circulation in illustrated manuscripts, it is
also extensively applied in church architecture during the Middle
Ages from at least the eleventh century and well into the fourteenth
century and beyond.
Figure 3. Petrus Picatviensis Figure 4. Modern diagram of

(1130–1215)29 scutum fidei
29
London, British Library, MS Cotton Faustina B. VII, fol. 42v.
30
“propterea accipite armaturam Dei ut possitis resistere in die malo et omnibus per-
fectis stare state ergo succincti lumbos vestros in veritate et induti loricam iustitiae et
calciati pedes in praeparatione evangelii pacis in omnibus sumentes scutum fidei in
quo possitis omnia tela nequissimi ignea extinguere et galeam salutis adsumite et
gladium Spiritus quod est verbum Dei per omnem orationem et obsecrationem
orantes omni tempore in Spiritu et in ipso vigilantes in omni instantia et obsecratione
pro omnibus sanctis et pro me ut detur mihi sermo in apertione oris mei cum fiducia
notum facere mysterium evangelii pro quo legatione fungor in catena ita ut in ipso
audeam prout oportet me loqui.” Ephesians 6. 13–20. [“Therefore take unto you the
armour of God, that you may be able to resist in the evil day, and to stand in all things
perfect. Stand therefore, having your loins girt about with truth, and having on the
breastplate of justice, And your feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of peace
In all things taking the shield of faith, wherewith you may be able to extinguish all
the fiery darts of the most wicked one. And take unto you the helmet of salvation,
and the sword of the Spirit (which is the word of God). By all prayer and supplication
praying at all times in the spirit; and in the same watching with all instance and sup-
plication for all the saints: And for me, that speech may be given me, that I may open
~ 51 ~

The iconographic conventions of the scutum fidei make it

readily legible as a symbol of the Athanasian Creed. The three ver-
tices of the triangle are each designated Pater, Spiritus Sanctus and
Filius respectively, with the phrase “non est” appearing between
each vertex. A fourth node at the center of the triangle represents
the boss of the shield (umbo) and is designated Deus. Finally, the
shared identity of the three Persons with the Godhead is affirmed
by connecting the three vertices to the central umbo with “est.”
Thus it appears—albeit in an isosceles triangle—in a ca. 1208–1216
copy of Peter of Poitier’s Compendium with clearly designated
nodes, “non est” articulating the perimeter and “est” the bridges to
the boss at the center.
Unlike modern versions of the scutum fidei, medieval illus-
trations place the Father and the Holy Spirit on the upper edge of
the shield while the Son appears at the bottom along with an image
of the crucifix. In the Chronica Majora Matthew Paris juxtaposes
this version of the scutum fidei with a corresponding illustration of
Augustine’s scutum animae.
Predating Roger Bacon’s concerns about the exigencies of
representing the Trinity by several centuries, Augustine had argued
in the De Trinitate that it is impossible to talk about the Trinity
except by analogy to a trinity of the mind, “memoria et intelligentia
et voluntate”31 (Figure 5):
Figure 5. Matthew Paris (1200–1259) 32
This arrangement also appears in John of Wallingford’s Mis-

cellanae and William Peraldus’s Summa contra vitiis:
my mouth with confidence, to make known the mystery of the gospel. For which I
am an ambassador in a chain, so that therein I may be bold to speak according as I
ought.” Douay-Rheims Bible http://www.drbo.org/. Emphasis added].
31
Augustine, De trinitate, ed. Occidentalium Centre Traditio Litterarum (Turnhout:
Brepols Publishers, 2010), Bk. 14.10–12.
32
Cambridge, Parker Library, MS Corpus Christi College 16II, fol. 49v.
~ 52 ~
Figure 6. John of Wallingford Figure 7. William Peraldus

(ca.1200–1258) 33 (1190–1271) 34
An illustration in the Durham Cathedral manuscript contain-

ing Robert Grosseteste’s Dicta underscores the scutum fidei’s con-
ventional appeal. An avid natural philosopher and renowned scien-
tist, the Bishop of Lincoln’s notes on the semiotics of representing
the Trinity provide a clarifying lens through which to appreciate
the significance of the scutum fidei as an icon with ready popular
currency. Grosseteste’s interpretation35 of the scutum fidei as sym-
bol of the Trinity in scientific and metaphysical terms is particularly
illuminating. Among the variety of symbolic scuti he annotates in
his Dicta, Grosseteste dedicates Dictum 95 soley to describing the
four nodes of the scutum fidei (see Figure 8) in terms of the creative
virtues of the Trinity that account for the qualities of intelligibility
in the creation of the universe.36
33
London, British Library, MS Cotton Julius D. VII, fol. 3v.
34
London, British Library, MS Harley 3244, fol. 28r. The allegorical illustration in
William Peraldus’s Summa contra vitiis dramatizes of Paul’s admonition to the faithful
to take up the Shield of Faith, the Helmet of Salvation and the Sword of the Spirit
(verbum Dei) for their protection from the fiery arrows of the Enemy. See also
Suzanne Lewis, The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora, (Berkeley:
University of California Press in collaboration with Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, 1987), 194 and 494 n.118.
35
Scholastic scientists like Grosseteste, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Witelo and
Theodoric of Freiberg used not only mirrors and quartz prisms, but also spherical
beryll crystals and water filled medical flasks to simulate magnified versions of
raindrops to observe the effects of light refraction and reflection in nature John Gage,
Color and Meaning: Art, Science, and Symbolism (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1999), 123–125.
36
See Augustine, De natura boni, ed. Joseph Zycha (Vienna: F. Tempsky, 1892), 15–
18.
~ 53 ~

Figure 8. Robert Grosseteste (1168–1253)37
The boss of this shield gleams with inaccessible light. The corner where
‘Father’ is written is figured with the virtue of universal power; the
corner where ‘Son’ is written with the image of universal beauty; and
the corner where ‘Holy Spirit’ is written with the most suitable bond-
ing of the order of universal things. This shield, engraved in trustfulness
operating in love, is the shield of faith.38
Applying his observations in experimental optics about the

properties and behavior of luminosity, Grosseteste elaborates a
37
MS DCL A.III.12, fol. I4v. Also in Gage, Color and Meaning, 125.
38
Robert Grosseteste, Robert Grosseteste: the Complete Dicta in English, trans.
Gordon Jackson, 15 vols. (Lincoln: Asgill Press, 2005), 8: 28 [“Umbo huius scuti
fulget luce inaccessibili. Angulus ubi scriptus est ‘Pater’ picturatur universe potencie
virtute; angulus vero ubi scriptus est ‘Filius,’ universe pulcritudinis specie; angulus
vero ubi scriptus est ‘Spiritus Sanctus,’ ordinis universorum aptissime connexione. [.
. .] Hoc scutum, impressum in credulitate per dilectionem operante, scutum est fi-
dei.”] Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodley 798 (SC 2656), fol. 74ra and Durham,
Durham Cathedral Library, MS Cotton Faustina A.III.12, fol. I4v.
~ 54 ~
metaphysics of light wherein “God is light,”39 both the point that

begets radiating splendor and the spherical volume into which this
begotten splendor propagates. In a remarkably cogent synthesis of
scientific and theological concern in figuratively representing the
Trinity, the most significant concept in this philosophy is the mu-
tual reflectivity of the Three Persons in which:
. . . one expresses from himself a second; but the second reflects himself
back into the first and expresses his own reflection out of himself into
the first. Or rather, the first is reflected through the second [back] into
himself, and this reflection proceeds at once from the first and from the
second.40
This mutual reflectivity of the Father and the Son from

whom the Holy Spirit proceeds is clearly represented by Dante the
pilgrim’s vision at the end of Paradiso. In that vision of the Trinity,
two Persons of the Triune God, the sources of “l’Amore / che
l’uno e l’altro etternalmente spira” (Par. 10.11–12) appear to reflect
each other and the Holy Spirit proceeds from the two of them to-
gether:
l’un dall’altro come iri da iri

parea riflesso, e ’l terzo parea foco
che quinci e quindi igualmente si spiri. (Par. 33.115–120)
The conceptual parallel in these closely contemporaneous

representations of the Trinity indicates that understanding the
structural correspondence between the Commedia’s terza rima and
the scutum fidei icon will render the Trinitary ontology of the
poem’s prosody empirically transparent. This, in turn, is crucial to
discerning the structural hermeneutics of the Commedia’s quanti-
tative design as will become apparent shortly.
Like Grosseteste, Dante describes God as light, and he, too,
perceives the creator of the universe, who contains all and is con-
tained by none, as both a point and a volume.41 In the final stage of
the pilgrim’s journey, where the poet’s diction is increasingly satu-
rated with the language of geometry, this paradox is ostensibly ir-
reconcilable. However, following Bacon’s lead to consult Euclid’s
Elements shows the progressive definitions of fundamental geomet-
ric entities that Euclid enumerates can rationally resolve the
39
Robert Grosseteste, On the Six Days of Creation: A Translation of the Hexameron,
trans. Christopher Martin, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 224.
40
Ibid., 226.
41
For the punto in which all contingencies are present, see Par. 17.17, 28.16, 28.41,
28.95, 29.19. For the volume that contains all of creation, see Par. 33.85–93.
~ 55 ~

apparent paradox. The point, the first fundamental geometric entity

defined by Euclid, is without dimension (A in Figure 9). The sim-
ple straight line 𝐵𝐶 extends between two points and has one di-
mension: length. The plane surface has two dimensions—length
and breadth—and its simplest form is the triangle, constructed by
connecting a third discrete point A mutually to two other points
lying on a discreet line 𝐵𝐶, resulting in △ABC. The last funda-
mental geometric entity defined in the Elements is the volume
which has length, breadth, and depth, and is therefore three dimen-
sional. The volume, of which the tetrahedron is the first basic Pla-
tonic solid, evolves from the plane by connecting all three vertices
of △ABC to a fourth point, D, that is located on a separate plane.42
Figure 9. Point, line, plane and volume.
Seen through a Eucledian geometric lens, therefore, the “punto” is

the dimensionless point of origin, the alpha from which all of cre-
ation springs, while the “volume” is the omega, the complex vol-
ume where all of creation, time, and substance is contained. The
tetrahedron is thus the ideal three-dimensional model for the uni-
fied “trinity of equal persons” in Bacon’s equilateral triangle, each
one discreet yet dimensionally indistinguishable within the com-
plex whole, while also comprising an identical, equally situated
fourth vertex for the boss of the scutum fidei: Deus.
Applying this three-dimensional tetrahedral configuration to
the Trinity represented by the scutum fidei resolves the structural
concern of critics who consider the duality of the rime rilevate (A2–
A3 and Z1–Z2) to be a structural flaw of the terza rima.43 Rather,
these opening and closing rhymes are in fact an integral part of a
robust closed structure with no loose ends. In the illustrations be-
low, the scutum fidei is presented in a three-dimensional rendering
42
Euclid, The Thirteen Books of Euclid’s Elements, trans. Thomas Little Heath, 2nd
ed. (New York: Dover Publications, 1956), Bk. 1 and Bk. 11.
43
Freccero, “Terza Rima,” 261.
~ 56 ~
to effectively make use of the icon’s tetrahedral form in the analysis

that follows.
Figure 10. Scutum fidei Figure 11. Scutum fidei

as tetrahedron Progressive sequence
In Figure 11, a path at the edges of the tetrahedron adjoining

the vertices traces a linear reading of the diagram with vectors from
left to right starting with the Pater (P) to the Spiritus Sanctus (SpS),
then turning to go from the Spiritus Sanctus to the Filius (F), and
finally, angling upward from the Filius to the central vertex, where
the essential Godhead, Deus (D), is at the boss of the shield. In this
tetrahedral construction, beginning with the Pater is by no means
arbitrary. Grosseteste’s emphasis on the self-propagating activity of
light reflected and reflecting within itself44 underscores the concept
that the Pater is the absolutely originative God from whom the
second Person is generated.
Figure 12. Scutum fidei - 2nd cycle Figure 13. Terza rima (ABA BCB C)
J. J. McEvoy, Robert Grosseteste (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 92–95;

44
Grosseteste, Hexameron, 226.
~ 57 ~

Once the initial path around the scutum fidei has been traced
through the four vertices, the essential identity of all Three Persons
to the centrally located Deus vertex makes it possible to simply
continue forward, this final vertex now becoming a new expression
of the Pater that leads to a new iteration of both the Filius and the
Spiritus Sanctus as shown in Figure 12.
The sequential pattern thus established, the iteration (P) →
p
(S S) → (F) → may continue for as long as necessary, with the ever-
present possibility of closing with a final arrival at the central vertex,
(D), thus generating the pattern of the terza rima that cycles
through each canto.
Figure 13 illustrates how in the resulting iterative expression
of the Trinity, each of the three Persons corresponds to one of three
axes. Translated into a pattern of versification, each instant repre-
sents the rhyme of a verse and all the rhymes in a canto are ex-
pressed on the axis that begins with the Pater and concludes with
the Deus. The Filius, begotten of the Father and mutually reflective
with the Father, mirrors the Father, resulting in the same rhyme.
The Spiritus Sanctus, which emanates equally from the Father and
the Son, yet is also distinct from them, appears in the third axis, its
distinct characteristics manifesting as the new rhyme in the second
verse of every terzina. The essential identity of the three Persons,
Deus, includes and expresses the characteristics of the newly intro-
duced rhyme, poised to begin yet another cycle.
As a recursive iteration of the scutum fidei throughout the
pilgrim’s journey, the terza rima’s structural consistency and ubiq-
uity is a signifier for the Commedia’s mimetic representation of
Divine order and omnipresence in all of Creation. Three quantita-
tive components of this structure are integral to the musico-math-
ematical architecture of the poem: (#1), the singular point, or
verse; (#4), the four-point tetrahedral scutum fidei; and (#7), the
seven-point iteration of the scutum fidei that establishes the pattern
of the terza rima along the axes of the three Persons of the Trinity.
Together with Beatrice’s mathematical identity, these three pro-
sodic units decrypt the rationale for the canto lengths of the Com-
media, revealing a design that has confounded critics for seven hun-
dred years.
BEATRICE AS MATHEMATICAL ABSTRACTION

Reflecting on the semiotics of the number nine in Beatrice’s life in
the Vita nova, the young Dante contemplates its recurrung ubiq-
uity in the story of his love for her, invoking the authority of both
~ 58 ~
Ptolemey and Christian doctrine.45 Much like the host of angels

concertedly singing Osanna in the poet’s fevered dream of Be-
atrice’s death,46 the nine heavens aligned perfectly at her birth. Ac-
cording to Dante, however, that only approximates the true signif-
icance of the number nine.
For in reality, Beatrice is a divine miracle and identifying her
with nine (9) is not merely numerological but rather mathematical:
f(x) = x2, where x is 3, the Trinity, and the value of x2 is 9. Beatrice
(9) is a pristine product of her divinely immaculate factor (3).47 The
entire passage spelling out this mathematical abstraction of Beatrice
can be expressed as a series of simple reiterative equations and al-
gebraic statements that come full circle, as illustrated in the follow-
ing diagnostic diagram:
Because her number corresponds to cosmic order, Beatrice effec-

tively manifests as one of the key organizing principles of Dante’s
cosmomimetic poem, determining the pace of the itinerary and the
narrative and thematic arrangement of the text, among a variety of
other elements. This organizing function is transparent when the
thirteen canto lengths of the Commedia are expressed as multiples
45
VN 29.22.2.
46
VN 23.27.7.
47
The raised letters in brackets in the passage below correspond to discrete algebraic
expressions. See the analysis below for the English translation. “. . . più sottilmente
pensando, e secondo la infallibile veritade, questo numero fue ella medesima; per
similitudine dico, e ciò intendo così. [a]Lo numero del tre è la radice del nove, però
che [b]sanza numero altro alcuno, per se medesimo fa nove, sì [c]come vedemo mani-
festamente che tre via tre fa nove. [d]Dunque se lo tre è fattore per sè medesimo del
nove, [e]e lo fattore per sè medesimo de li miracoli è tre, cioè Padre e Figlio e Spirito
Santo, li quali sono tre e uno, questa donna fue accompagnata da questo numero del
nove a dare ad intendere [f]ch’ella era uno nove, cioè uno miracolo, [g]la cui radice,
cioè del miracolo, è solamente la mirabile Trinitade” (VN 29.23.3).
~ 59 ~

of 9. The results show that each canto length can exceed ano one
of six enneads by +1, +4, or +7.
Table 1. Canto length enneads (N)
Sorted accordingly, the outcomes of this operation fall into

three distinct groups in the decidedly Pythagorean proportions of
3:4:6. The first group has three consecutive multiples of 9 plus a
single verse (+1v). The second are four consecutive multiples of 9
plus 4 verses (+4v). The third group has six consecutive multiples
of 9 plus 7 verses (+7v). Each of the six enneads in turn correlates
to a note on the corresponding degree of the Guidonian scala and
consists of 7 hexachords successively overlapping across a range of
3 octaves:
Figure 14. The Guidonian scala Figure 15. Canto lengths

on the Guidonian scala
~ 60 ~
The seven Guidonian hexachords all use the same series of

mnemonic syllables (ut–re–mi–fa–sol–la) to identify the scale of
pitches. The three scales that begin on Γ (Gamma), G and g, #1,
#4, and #7, are designated hexachorda dura, while the scales that
begin on C, #2 and #5, are designated hexachordum natural, and
those that begin on, F, #3 and #6, are designated hexachordum
molle. Figure 15 correlates the canto length ennead sets +1v, +4v,
and +7v to the corresponding three hexachorda dura #1, #4, and
#7.
Table 2. Canto length frequency of occurrence by hexachordum durum
Table 2 provides a comprehensive look at the number of

times each canto length is used in the poem. Noteworthy here is
the detail that although the number of notes in each hexachordum
group differs (i.e. 3:4:6), each group is equally represented. Thirty-
three (33) canto lengths correspond to notes in the lowest register
hexachord, (#1) 𝚪–E; thirty-four (34) canto lengths to notes in the
middle register hexachord (#4) G–e; and another thirty-three (33)
canto lengths to notes in the highest register hexachord (#7) g–ee,
bringing the total number to one hundred canti.
The canto lengths in each hexachordum group are in turn
distributed across the poem, resulting in a proportional cross-cor-
relation with the cantiche that offers further empirical evidence of
the compositional unity and rational design of the Commedia’s
quantitative structure. Since this design accounts for the poem’s
canto lengths and allots a fixed number of verses to each realm,
discerning it illuminates the poet’s logistical concern that “piene
son tutte le carte / ordite a questa cantica” (Purg. 33.139–140). In
this light, the poet’s decision to curtail further details about the
winged creatures of the procession in Terrestrial Paradise—“più
non spargo / rime, lettor; ch’altra spesa mi strigne” (Purg. 29.97–
~ 61 ~

98)—is not merely a rhetorical conceit, but rather a matter of prac-

tical constraint.
Table 3. Canto lengths in each hexachordum group
Collating the musical notes corresponding to each canto

length according to the number of times they occur in the Com-
media reveals intervallic relationships of a distinctly Pythagoraean
nature: the octave, the 5th, the 4th, and the 2nd.48 The notes of the
canto lengths that occur only once, namely e, aa, and ee (160, 124,
and 157), together form intervals of the octave, the 4th and the 5th
on the musical scale. The double instance of g (115), the seven
instances of E (154), and the nine instances of dd (151) all occur as
discrete unisons. The four-fold instances of b and bb (130 and 133)
and the sixteen-fold instances of c and cc (139 and 142), form un-
adorned octaves. The thirteen instances of the C, D, and d (136,
145, and 148) also create an octave, albeit one accompanied by the
interval of a 2nd at C–D.
Figure 16. Canto lengths sorted by frequency of use in the Commedia
The series of canto length frequencies is also by no means

arbitrary. Rather, it closely follows Boethius’s process for generat-
ing inequalities from equalities to create geometric series.49 Alt-
hough two of the values (7 and 13) in the Commedia’s series of
48
Boethius, Musica, 1.10–11, 17–19.
49
Boethius, Arithmetica, 6, 1.33. For his enumeration see ibid., 1.32, and ibid., 2.2.
~ 62 ~
canto length frequencies (1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 13, 16) vary from their coun-
terparts in the Boethian sequence (1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 16), the internal
proportions of the geometric series of the sesquialter (2:3 ratio) and
the sesquitetius (3:4 ratio) are consistent.
Figure 17. Conventional multiplex series Figure 18. Series of canto length instances
Not only do the binary (1, 2, 4), the ternary (1, 3, 9) and the
quadruple (1, 4, 16) multiplex series remain intact, the sesquialter
(2:3) or (3:2) and sesquitertius (3:4) or (4:3) proportions of the dif-
ferences between the squares and the intermediate values also re-
main constant in the modified series. The mathematical consistency
of this new series further underscores the rational unity of the
Commedia’s quantitative design.
Table 4. Intermediate intervals of the sesquialter and sesquitertius (2:3:4) ratios.
Boethius explains, as illustrated in Table 4, that in order to

generate the square of any whole number, it is enough to know the
square of the number immediately preceding or following it. Given
cosecutive numbers A and B, where A is less than B, the sum of A
+ B plus the square of A yields the square of B: A2 + [A + B] = B2,
hence 22 + [2 + 3] = 32. Adding only the smaller number to its
square, A2 + [A], or subtracting only the larger number from its
square B2 – [B], yields the intermediate rectangular numbers: 22 +
[2] = 6 and 32 – [3] = 6.
~ 63 ~

The intermediate values (7 and 13) in Dante’s series of fre-

quencies are the result of altering a step in Boethius’ equation. In-
stead of adding the smaller number to its square A2 + [A], Dante
instead adds the larger number to the square of the smaller number
thus: A2 + [B]. As a result, the relatively stable intermediate rectan-
gular values in Boethius’ multiplex series give way to irregular, un-
stable prime numbers 22 + [3] = 7 and 32 + [4] = 13.
Table 5. Reformulated intermediate intervals for canto length frequencies
THE MUSIC OF THE COMMEDIA

When the results of this analysis are transcribed following the
order of canto lengths as they occur in the Commedia, the outcome
is striking. The transcription in Figure 19 presents the sequence of
notes in two parallel staves: the grand staff with each note in its
native hexachordum register shows a dramatically disjunct contour,
while the lower staff in which the same notes have been consoli-
dated by virtue of their solfége identity into a single common reg-
ister presents a conjunct monophonic contour that is therefore
readily available to be sung, heard, and memorized. Where the
grand staff annotates the mathematical abstraction of musica uni-
versalis, the solfége synthesis translates it into musica instrumentalis.
The notes on the grand staff are color coded to distinguish
each of the hexachorda dura by range: the canto lengths in group
+1v in red, those in group +4v in green, and those in group +7v
in black.
Maintaining the principle of organization of Beatrice’s num-
ber, the canto lengths are here transcribed on nine measures. The
cantos of Inferno therefore appear in the first three measures, Pur-
gatorio on the next three measures, and Paradiso on the final three.
The symmetrical arrangement of canto lengths discussed by
~ 64 ~
Singleton50 and subsequently debated by Pegis51 and Logan52 are

clearly visible in the middle measure of Inferno (16, 17, 18) and in
the first and second measures of Purgatorio (3–9 and 14–20) in the
completed transcription.
Figure 19. Canto length transcription: Guidonian scala and five-line staff
A search of the Commedia’s conjunct melodic contour in

the Cantus Database (CD) reveals a strong concordance with four
liturgical chants particular to Paschal and Marian feasts. This corre-
lation opens a path of inquiry that is currently beyond the scope of
this study, although it does invite collaboration with scholars to
develop new perspectives on Dante’s poetics. Nevertheless, a brief
summary of the search results will serve well to draw the present
analysis to a harmonious conclusion.
50
Singleton, “Poet’s Number.”
51
Pegis, “Numerology and Probability.”
52
Logan, “Poet’s Central Numbers.”
~ 65 ~

Of the two melodically concordant antiphons designated for

Eastertide, “Erat autem aspectus ejus sicut” (CantusID 002647) 53 is
specifically designated for Easter Sunday.
Figure 20. CantusID 002647: Erat autem aspectus ejus sicut
An overview of manuscripts containing this melody during

Dante’s time provides a window into its popular currency for Pas-
chal office in the secular cursus. As of this writing, there are 142
concordances documented in Cantus Database records for Can-
tusID 002647 in breviaries and antiphones from the 10th through
the early 14th centuries from various libraries and monasteries in
Europe, many of them Carolingian. Fifteen of these manuscripts
are of Italian provenance, originating in Rome, Pozzeveri, Assisi,
Florence, and Vallombrosa in central Italy, as well as Aosta, Chia-
venna, Milan, Pavia and Venice to the north, Benevento to the
south, along with a handful more simply described as “Franciscan
breviary from central Italy.”
Figure 21. CantusID 001333: Alleluia54
The “Alleluia” (CantusID 001333) antiphon is designated

for several Paschal offices including Easter Sunday, Easter Monday,
Easter Wednesday, the Octave of Easter, and Paschal feasts in gen-
eral. It is more widespread with 495 concordances in the Cantus
Database to date. In this case, the manuscripts of Italian provenance
53
Debra Lacoste and Jan Koláček, Cantus: A Database for Latin Ecclesiastical Chant,
http://cantus.uwaterloo.ca/, Cantus ID 002647. The text of the chant is based on a
passage from Matthew 28.3: “1. Vespere autem sabbati, quae lucescit in prima sabbati,
venit Maria Magdalene, et altera Maria, videre sepulchrum. 2. Et ecce terraemotus
factus est magnus. Angelus enim Domini descendit de caelo : et accedens revolvit
lapidem, et sedebat super eum : 3. erat autem aspectus ejus sicut fulgur : et vestimen-
tum ejus sicut nix.” [“1. And in the end of the sabbath, when it began to dawn
towards the first day of the week, came Mary Magdalen and the other Mary, to see
the sepulchre. 2. And behold there was a great earthquake. For an angel of the Lord
descended from heaven, and coming, rolled back the stone, and sat upon it. 3. And
his countenance was as lightning, and his raiment as snow.” Douay-Rheims. Empha-
sis added.]
54
Cantus, Cantus ID 001333.
~ 66 ~
in which it is found are both monastic and secular. In addition to

the locations mentioned in the previous summary, these manu-
scripts also originate in Montecassino and Piacenza.
The next concordance is a responsory verse, “Et praeparabi-
tur in misericordia solium” (CantusID 006639b), sung on the sec-
ond Sunday of Advent, the feast anticipating Christ’s birth to the
Virgin Mary.
Figure 22. CantusID 006639b: Et praeparabitur in misericordia55
Although there are but sixty-two melodic concordances cur-

rently in the Cantus Database, the fourteen manuscripts of Italian
provenance containing this chant melody make up a significantly
higher percentage of sources than in the previous two examples.
The fourth concordance is “Aquae multae non potuerunt
extinguere caritatem” (CantusID 001470), sung on the feasts of the
Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, the birth of the Virgin
Mary, and the Assumption of the Virgin Mary, as well as the feasts
of other virgins including those celebrating Mary’s mother Anna,
Lucia, and Mary Magdalene.
Figure 23. CantusID 001470: Aquae multae non potuerunt extinguere caritatem56
The manuscripts of Italian provenance containing this chant

once again make up a significant proportion in this set of sixty con-
cordances, and they all indicate that, at least in Italy, the chant was
sung for the Common of Virgins celebrating that category of saints
as a whole. An antiphoner from Piacenza assigns this chant to the
55
Cantus, Cantus ID 006639b. The passage is from Isaiah 16.5: “Et praeparabitur in
misericordia solium, et sedebit super illud in veritate in tabernaculo David, judicans
et quaerens judicium, et velociter reddens quod justum est.” [“And a throne shall be
prepared in mercy, and one shall sit upon it in truth in the tabernacle of David, judg-
ing and seeking judgment and quickly rendering that which is just.” Douay-Rheims.
Emphasis added.]
56
Cantus, Cantus ID 001470. The passage is from Song of Songs 8.7: “Aquae multae
non potuerunt extinguere caritatem, nec flumina obruent illam. Si dederit homo
omnem substantiam domus suae pro dilectione, quasi nihil despiciet eam.” [Many
waters cannot quench charity, neither can the floods drown it: if a man should give
all the substance of his house for love, he shall despise it as nothing.” Douay-Rheims.
Emphasis added]
~ 67 ~

feast of Mary Magdalene, while another from Sant’Orso in Aosta,

along with several German manuscripts and four Carolingian an-
tiphoners, assign the chant and its melody to the feast of the As-
sumption of the Virgin Mary.
What conclusion might be drawn from the melodic affinity
of the Commedia’s musically expressed mathematical architecture
with Paschal and Marian liturgical plainchant remains to be seen.
For now, this much is certain: After 700 years, the mathematical
rationale for the canto lengths in Dante’s Commedia has finally
been decrypted through an empirical analysis of the poem’s quan-
titative structure. The results of this analysis illuminate how the
meticulous, systematic care Dante put into elaborating the design
of the poem’s quantitative framework accounts for the myriad in-
ternal dispositional congruencies that have for decades been sepa-
rately identified and documented by scholars working in frag-
mented solitude on questions about the poem’s configuration. The
comprehensive manner in which Dante integrates all the artes lib-
erales, especially the quadrivium, in the compositional framework
of the Commedia further illuminates the empirical significance of
“fictio rhetorica musicaque poita” in his poetics. Even Dante’s
choice to write his magnum opus in the vernacular, which he de-
scribes as the language of the hearth,57 is mirrored in the orthodoxy
and popular currency of both the scutum fidei and the liturgical
chants, whose melody the musical incipit of the poem’s canto
lengths echoes. The accessibility of the Commedia’s mathematical
blueprint as musica instrumentalis, which appeals to material sen-
sory perception through hearing, endows it with the added benefit
of being an efficient memory aid, especially for a poet in exile who
spent nearly two decades of his life completing this singular work.
It is difficult to affirm whether the reader of the Commedia
is meant to discern any of these architectural elements, since by
definition, musica universalis, the musico-mathematical abstrac-
tion, eludes sensory perception. The recurring declarations by
scholars and commentators about the ineffable sense of the poem’s
comprehensive structural harmony over seven centuries attest to
the effects of an exacting rational design that is at once complex,
subtle, and eloquently lucid. Apprehending the semiotic coherence
of the poem’s mathematical architecture, readers who thereby rec-
ognize the authorial transparency of the narrator’s assertions about
the quantitative bounds that constrain him to brevity can appreciate
the veiled candor and aspirational intimacy with which he addresses
his audience. Rather, in tempering and attuning the poem to the
57
DVE 1.1.2.
~ 68 ~
Pythagorean harmony of the Ptolemaic cosmos, the musica univer-

salis in the textual architecture of the Commedia appeals to the
reader’s intellectual perception of a unitary order of all things in
Dante’s mimetic craft.
~ 69 ~

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Bibliotheca Dantesca: Journal of Dante

Volume 1 Dante and Music Article 3

DANTE DECRYPTED: MUSICA UNIVERSALIS IN THE TEXTUAL

Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/bibdant

This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/bibdant/vol1/iss1/3

DANTE DECRYPTED: MUSICA UNIVERSALIS IN THE

C. S. ADOYO, Georgetown University

Keywords: Trinity, Scutum fidei, Terza rima, Architecture, Boethius, Pythag-

S’IO AVESSI, LETTOR, PIÙ LUNGO SPAZIO . . .

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 1

Commedia is “l’opera più saldamente unitaria d’ogni tempo”3 but

like the one exemplified in Figure 1, that challenge the curious

Figure 1. Concentric recursive symmetries at the midpoint of the Commedia

The most granular element of symmetry in this illustration

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 3

Figure 2. Maria and the Beatitudes in the symmetrical structure of Purgatorio.

For just as the pilgrim’s arrival in each terrace is greeted with an

study’s findings before it delves into the technical details of the

…FICTIO RHETORICA MUSICAQUE POITA

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 5

through the mathematical liberal arts Musica and Arithmetica in

specifically mentions the Timaeus in both Par. 4 and Convivio

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 7

and intellectual perception may be read as that between inference

The principal cipher, hidden in plain sight, is Beatrice’s

Lino Pertile, “Canto-cantica-comedia e l’Epistola a Cangrande,” in Lectura Dantis:

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 9

…TUTTE LE CARTE ORDITE…

S’io avessi, lettor, più lungo spazio

Masked by a thin veil of narrative reticentia, this passage

A descriver lor forme più non spargo

Here the commentators are all in agreement that the poet of

. . . mi conven far versi

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 11

DANTE’S TERZA RIMA AND THE TRINITY

context of counterpoint teaching.” Margaret Bent, Counterpoint, Composition, and

for mathematical language and geometric iconography, but also

Quell’uno e due e tre che sempre vive

When asked later by Saint Peter to articulate his faith, the

[. . .] Io credo in uno Dio

Both these representations pithily synthesize the Trinitary

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 13

For Scholastic theologians of the thirteenth century, the lan-

Like Dante’s “tre giri / di tre colori e d’una contenenza,”

Figure 3. Petrus Picatviensis Figure 4. Modern diagram of

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 15

The iconographic conventions of the scutum fidei make it

Figure 5. Matthew Paris (1200–1259) 32

This arrangement also appears in John of Wallingford’s Mis-

Figure 6. John of Wallingford Figure 7. William Peraldus

An illustration in the Durham Cathedral manuscript contain-

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 17

Figure 8. Robert Grosseteste (1168–1253)37

Applying his observations in experimental optics about the

metaphysics of light wherein “God is light,”39 both the point that

This mutual reflectivity of the Father and the Son from

l’un dall’altro come iri da iri

The conceptual parallel in these closely contemporaneous

Published by ScholarlyCommons, 2018 19