Addis Ababa University

Chapter One

Civics and Ethics for Professionals

1.1 Definition of Civics
The term Civics is comes from the Latin words ‘civis’ which means a citizen and ‘civitas’ which
means ‘city state’. The two Latin words gave birth to the branch of social science known as
‘Civics’. Civics, as a branch of the social sciences, deals with the rights and responsibilities of
citizens. Civics and Ethical Education is an education for the citizens of a country. Citizens are
legal members of a politically organized community- state. Civics deals with the various aspects
of economic, political and social life of citizens. Civics studies every thing about citizens.

1.2 Rights and Responsibilities of Citizens

Needless to say citizens are endowed with different rights to enjoy and burdened with a numbers
of duties. Being duties and rights are the reverse sides of a coin. Some of the duties and rights of
citizens are mentioned as follows.

1.2.1 Rights of Citizens

A citizen is entitled to enjoy the following rights:
 The right to get necessary protection from the state
 The right to get social services that is having access to health, education, water, electricity,
housing and other facilities
 The right to enjoy human and democratic rights
 Right to work and employment
 The right to have clean environment
 Right to elect and be elected

1.2.2 Duties of Citizens

A person with some rights means he is also with some duties in view of the fact that rights
correspond with duties. Though in most developing countries citizens are well informed about
their rights than duties, citizens are expected to carryout the duties mentioned below. Every
citizen has the duty to
 Respect the constitution and other laws of the country

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 Take part in public affairs like political, economic and social activities
 Respect the rights of other people
 Serve in the national security and defense
 Bear duties in times of advertise
 Preserve historic and cultural heritages of the country
 Pay taxes
 Be hard worker
 Fight crimes like corruption, smuggling, black market, drug trafficking etc.
 Be free from any addiction
 Struggle all crimes against humanities
The intention behind this subject is to create active, competent and responsible citizens in the
country.

1.3 Evolution and Development of the Subject

Citizenship education was started by the Greeks (around the 5th century B.C.) and Romans.
During the medieval period in Europe it was given along with religious education. As the church
started to loose its former absolute dominance over the state during the Renaissance period, the
impact of religion in public education also declined in many countries. The impacts of the
English Revolution of the 17 th century, the American War of Independence and the French
Revolution of the 18th century were very strong and long lasting for the growth of the subject
matter of Civics and Ethical Education at the international level.

In Ethiopia, Civic Education was introduced into the school curriculum during the reign of
Emperor Haile Sellassie I called Moral Education. It was offered from grade 7-12. During that
time, the subject gave more emphasis to the glory and sacredness of the Emperor, his
unquestionable power, his hereditary rights and the like. In general, we can infer that there was
no separation between the subject Civics and Ethical Education and religion.

The Derg regime it was introduced as Political Education into the school curriculum. It was
offered from grade 4-12. The Marxist Leninist ideology was highly preached in that political
education for the sole reason that Ethiopia was by then a socialist oriented country.

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In order to produce a competent, active, informed and responsible citizens the current
government in Ethiopia has introduced Civic and Ethical Education into the Ethiopian schools
curriculum from grade 5 in the elementary up to the tertiary level. In a country where there is
prevalence of democracy, schools are free to teach students and students have the right to
criticize, or not to accept any ideology, which they do not favor. Students as part of a community
are expected to exercise plural and contradictory issues.

1.4 Multidisciplinary Nature of Civic and Ethical Education

1. Political Science: study of the state, forms and types of government, different political
ideologies like democracy, socialism etc.
2. Philosophy: the right and wrong, bad and good, responsibilities, justice and injustice.
3. Law: constitution, responsibilities and rights of citizens.
4. Sociology: studies cultures, values and norms of people/society.
5. History: past human experience at different times.

1.5 Objectives/Purposes of Civic and Ethical Education

1. To create competent and responsible citizens.
2. To inculcate citizens to take part in public affairs: political, social and cultural.
3. To make citizen aware of the fundamental rights and freedom.
4. To develop the culture of democracy: tolerance, cooperation and compromise.
5. To create well informed, conscious, responsive and active participant citizens.
6. To make citizens think rationally and critically.
7. To make citizens responsive to patriotism.
8. To develop the capacity of citizens to make sound judgment.

1.6 Citizenship
The concept of citizenship is rooted in the political thought of ancient Greece - city-cities. In the
ancient Greece a citizen was a person who lives in a town or city. In ancient Greece people and
the state had weak relationship. The people had needed little protection from the state and the
state gained little from the people. But as society developed and the population increased people
needed more protection from the state and this consolidated the relation between the state and
people. The link between the people and the state is called citizenship.

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Citizen is a person who has certain rights and privileges in a country and who is expected to
render services and to discharge duties. A citizen is an individual who is legally recognized
member of a given state. A Citizen could be a native of a country or is not born but naturalized to
that country. A citizen exercises certain rights and privileges which cannot be enjoyed by
foreigners. A citizen has duties and obligations towards the state that it has protected, nurtured
and cared for. A citizen has rights to claims against the state. A citizen is a member of political
community who is endowed with a set of rights and a set of obligations.

Citizenship is an official recognition of the individual to integrate into the political system. It
represents a relationship between the individual and the state in which the two are bounded
together by reciprocal rights and obligations. The status of citizenship gives a person his/her
official identity that distinguishes him from others.
National and Citizen
These terms have slight difference. National is a person who is citizen by birth. But citizen could
be a person who is either naturalized or born in the country. Thus we can say a national is a
citizen born in a specific country but a citizen may not be a national.
1.6.1 Way of Acquiring Citizenship
A person acquires citizenship of a state in different ways. Citizenship can be obtained by two
ways.

1. Citizenship by Birth
It is citizenship by nature. This type of citizenship can be acquired in the following ways.

1.1 Jus soli (the law of the soil) It is citizenship by birth place. Jus soli is citizenship by
birth place. Almost all persons who were born within the territory of that state are granted
citizenship of the country. This rule does not consider the origin or citizen of the child’s parent.
But there are also special conditions to which the laws of the soil dose not apply. It dose not
apply to the diplomats’ children. Since diplomats have privileges and immunities from the host
country. Immunities are two types:
1. Inviolability means diplomats, the embassy or legation quarters are inviolable.
2. Extraterritoriality means diplomats and their properties are considered as they are not in
the territory and under jurisdiction of the host country. The compound of the embassy is
considered as the land of the sending state.

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1.2 Jus sanguinis. It is citizenship by bloodline.

A person is given/granted citizenship based on the blood relation of his/her parents’. A person
granted citizenship if either of his parents is or both are citizens of a given country.

2. Citizenship by Naturalization
Naturalization is a process of obtaining citizenship if the applicant (person) fulfills the
political, legal and social which are set as prerequisites by the host country. It is granted upon the
application of the individual. Different countries set certain preconditions to grant citizenship
through naturalization. But preconditions vary from country to country. The following are few
examples:

 Residence- length of time one lives in the country

 Age of applicant
 Previous crime record- a person is needed to be free from genocide, drug smuggling,
hijacking, terrorism etc.
 Health status
 Good moral character
 Knowledge of language
 Knowledge of history
 Sufficient income and others.

For instance the following are some requirements used to get the Ethiopian citizenship by
naturalization: The applicant is expected to
 Attain the age of 18
 Live for five years in the country
 Have sufficient income
 Speak and write one of the local languages
 Free from crime or other related illegal maters
1.6.2 Compelling Factors to Change Citizenship

 Transfer of territory into another country: annexation, secession or independence or

Purchase arrangement
 Marriage to a foreigner

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 Grants of citizenship by a government to foreigners e.g. Diversified Immigrant Visa

(DIV) given by USA.
 Emigration- when a person leaves his country due to political, social or economic
reasons.

1.6.3 Dual Nationality and Statelessness

1. Dual nationality is happened when a person or citizen has two or more citizenship at
the same time.
1.1 A person is granted citizenship by blood relation and birth place in foreign country.
1.2 When a person is granted citizenship through naturalization.

2. Statelessness is a situation when a person doses not have any citizenship. Statelessness
happens by two conditions:

2.1 De facto Stateless Person

A person has citizenship but dose not get protection from his country. This happens when
individuals leave their country illegally. He is immigrated to foreign country due to political,
social and economical reasons. The person is called refugee.

2.2 De jure Stateless Person- is a situation when government deprives or lifts the citizenship
of a person due to serious crimes (National Treason). Such actions happen:

 When a citizen participates in elections of another country.

 When a citizen serves in the army of another country.
 When a citizen is found as spying agent of another country

1.6.4 Modes of Losing Citizenship

1. Renunciation (Expatriation) the 1948 Declaration of Human Rights endorsed by the United
Nations has guaranteed an individual the right to renounce his/her citizenship and seek
citizenship of some other states according to his/her choice.
2. Deprivation - a person who is found guilty of committing serious crimes against the state may
be deprived of his/her citizenship.
3. Substitution - citizenship may be lost when a person’s original citizenship is substituted by
another state through naturalization. This can be also happened when a particular territory is

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annexed by another state. In such cases the citizenship of the conquered people will be
replaced by the citizenship of the subjugator.
4. Lapse - citizenship may be lost if the person stays outside of his/her country for a long and
continues period. To indicate an example if an Indian citizen stays out of India continuously
for more than seven years, the person will be lost his/her Indian citizenship by the principle of
lapse.

1.7 Citizenship and Civic knowledge

In a democratic society, citizens are required to become familiar with civic dispositions and civic
commitments.

1.7.1 Civic Disposition refers to habits or characters of citizens that are conducive or helpful to
the healthy functioning and common good of a democratic system. Civic disposition includes all
the behaviors and actions that are good, desirable and acceptable. Such behaviors and habits are
expected from responsible citizens. Some of the elements of civic dispositions are the following:

1. Civility is a polite way of acting or behaving towards others. It is the need to respect others.
Civility includes respect and politeness to those with whom one may disagree. Civility requires
you to respect the rights of those who are in dispute with you. Civility is a way of peaceful living
and co-existence with others.

2. Self Discipline acting and behaving according to some acceptable standards without external
controls and impositions.

3. Civic mindedness is citizens’ readiness and desire to give concern to public interest. It is a
commitment to give priority to the common good than to our private interest. It is unselfish
behavior that enables us to do well and make sacrifice ourselves to the society and to our nation.

4. Open mindedness refers to our willingness to listen to the ideas, views and arguments of
others. It is the tolerance we show to carefully examine what others say or suggest. It is also our
ability to express what we feel what is in our mind.

5. Compromise is one form of behavior that should be observed in settling conflicts peacefully.
It involves the readiness and willingness to spare something on both sides of the conflict in favor
of the peaceful resolution of the problem and its outcome. Compromise requires giving up some

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of our positions or interests. However, compromise never allows abandoning basic principles and
interests.

6. Individual responsibility is fulfilling one’s own duties or obligations. As we would like to

demand and enjoy our rights and benefits, we should also be ready to discharge the
responsibilities that are expected from us.
7. Tolerance is the ability and willingness to accommodate differences in ideas, viewpoints,
views etc. Tolerance is the heart of peaceful co-existence in diversity. The first important step in
tolerance is to accept diversity as it is an asset than a curse. Tolerance involves recognizing,
appreciating, and being patient with others views, ideas, languages, beliefs etc.

8. Honesty is the behavior and attitude of not telling and not accepting lies. It is a habit of not
cheating or stealing. Honesty is being free from corruption and dishonesty.

9. Fighting crime means a citizen is obliged to detect and fight all forms of crimes. Citizens are
expected to report when crimes are committed to the concerned body.

10. Patriotism refers to a citizen’s ideal commitment to live in peace, freedom and dignity. It is
a love of and loyalty to one’s country. It is the individual that has the loyalty and devotion to the
country. It is one of the most valuable responsibilities expected from competent and responsible
citizens. The following are some attributes of patriotism.
A patriot is one who
 Is self-educated about his government
 Understands the constitution and the reason behind its evolution
 Fights to change the rules/laws/policies he disagrees within a constructive manner
 Is tolerant and has adherence to the culture of peace
 Feels happy when his country’s national anthem is played out/flag is flown
 Beliefs in peaceful conflict resolution
 Feels proud of his country’s history, culture and its standing in world affairs
 Defends his country
 Keeps state’s secret
 Beliefs in equality

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1.7.2 Civic commitment refers to the unreserved effort citizens are required to show for
maintaining the welfare of the society. It is about showing much effort to the implementation of
the rights of citizens. In a democracy the sovereign authority resides in the people. Since
democracy is self governance. The following are some examples of civic commitment:
1. Staying informed means updating oneself by reading different sources, listening radios and
watching television.
2. Paying taxes. Taxes are payments made by citizens for the smooth functioning of the
government and for the provision of public services. Importances of taxes are:
 Enables government to provide public services
 Enables government to pay salaries and other payments to employees
 Enables government to redistribute wealth or resources
 Enables government to buy necessary equipments and facilities like armaments
3. Participating in Public Affairs. This is to mean active participation in public affairs.
4. Developing empathy refers to developing feeling or interests and concern about others
problem.

1.8 Ethics of Citizens

Ethics is derived from a Greek word ethos meaning character. Ethics is a branch of philosophy
that studies what constitutes right and wrong, good and evil. Ethics tries to determine the good
and right thing to do; choices regarding right & wrong, good & evil; questions of obligation and
value. A central aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life worth living or life that is satisfying. It
is the analysis of concepts such as "ought" "right" and "wrong", "good" and "bad", duty,
responsibility, etc. Ethics is an inquiry into nature of morality or moral acts. Ethics is the search
for the morally good life.

1.8.1 Distinction: Moral and Ethics

Ethics and morals are respectively akin to theory and practice. Ethics denotes the theory of right
actions and the greater good, while morals indicate their practice. Ethics is not limited to specific
acts and defined moral codes, but encompasses the whole of moral ideals and behaviors, a
person's philosophy of life.

Morality refers to the conduct or rule of conduct by which people live, while ethics refers to the
study of moral conduct or of the code that one follows; moral problems are specific while ethical

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problems are more general and theoretical. Moral is the code of accepted behavior within a
group.
1.8.2 Ethical Theories

1.8.2.1 Consequentialism (Teleological Ethics). This theory believes consequences determine

the rightness/wrongness of an action. All Consequentialist theories of ethics share common
feature, they all maintain that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by the
consequences which follow from the act. If good consequences follow, then the action is
determined to be 'good'. If bad consequences follow, then the action is determined to be bad.
Consequentialist normative principles require that we first tally both the good and bad
consequences of an action. Second, we then determine whether the total good consequences
outweigh the total bad consequences. If the good consequences are greater, then the action is
morally proper. If the bad consequences are greater, then the action is morally improper.
Consequentialist theories are sometimes called teleological theories, from the Greek word telos,
or end, since the end result of the action is the sole determining factor of its morality. Another
way of looking at consequentialism is referred to as the ends justify the means. Means refer
always to existing conditions as they are while the end refers to how things ought to be.

1.8.2.2 Deontological Ethics

Deontology argues that decisions should be made considering the factors of one's duties and
other's rights. Deontological theories base morality on specific, foundational principles of
obligation. These theories are sometimes called deontological, from the Greek word deon, or
duty, in view of the foundational nature of our duty or obligation. They are also sometimes called
non-consequentialists since these principles are obligatory, irrespective of the consequences that
might follow from our actions.

1.8.2.3 Virtue Ethics

Virtue is moral excellence of a person. A virtue is a trait valued as being good. The conceptual
opposite of virtue is vice. In its widest sense virtue refers to excellence, just as vice, its contrary,
denotes the absence of such. In its strictest meaning, however, as used by moral philosophers and
theologians, virtue is an operative habit essentially good, as distinguished from vice, an operative
habit essentially evil. The four cardinal (hinge) virtues are:

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1. Courage, also known as bravery, will and fortitude, is the ability to confront fear, pain,
risk/danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. "Physical courage" is courage in the face of physical
pain, hardship, or threat of death, while "moral courage" is the courage to act rightly in the face
of popular opposition, shame, scandal, or discouragement.

2. Prudence is often associated with wisdom, insight, and knowledge. In this case, the virtue is
the ability to judge between virtuous and vicious actions, not only in a general sense, but with
regard to appropriate actions at a given time and place. Although prudence itself does not
perform any actions, and is concerned solely with knowledge, all virtues had to be regulated by
it. Conventionally, prudence is the exercise of sound judgment in practical affairs.

3. Temperance is the practice of moderation. For Aristotle it is called the golden mean. The
golden mean is the desirable middle between two extremes, one of excess and the other of
deficiency. Classically, temperance was defined as governing natural appetites for the pleasure of
senses according to the bounds of reason. No virtue could be sustained in the face of inability to
control oneself, if the virtue was opposed to some desire. The virtues of abstinence, chastity, and
modesty are considered sub-classes of the virtue of temperance, as it governs the practice of
eating and drinking, practice of sexual intercourse, and the restraint of vanity.

4. Justice is a collective name which can be divided into two broad perspectives. Just behavior
concerns for genuine respect and treatment which is to be regarded as fair and equal. The
Administration of Law; which proclaims legislation composed by a judge or magistrate of a
supreme court to a country or state, with objectives to protect the victims and pursue the
perpetrators lawfully. Prosperity and distribution of wealth towards the common people, is the
most important aspect of justice which greatly contributes to the wellbeing of society.

1.8.2.4 Applied Ethics

Applied ethics is a discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply 'theoretical' ethics, such as
consequentialism, utilitarianism, social contract theory, and deontology, to real world dilemmas.
Topics falling within the discipline include medical ethics, legal ethics, environmental ethics,
computer ethics, professional ethics, business ethics etc.

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Professional Ethics
Professional Ethics concerns one's conduct of behavior and practice when carrying out
professional work. Such work may include consulting, researching, teaching and writing. The
institutionalization of codes of conduct and codes of practice is common with many professional
bodies for their members to observe. Professional ethics would help them establish certain rules
and procedures. Any code may be considered to be a formalization of experience into a set of
rules. No two professional ethics are identical. This it to mean all professions do not have the
same set of values and standards in absolute terms. But there are common standards that could be
followed by all people irrespective of their professions, this is called work ethics. Work ethics
helps professionals to have desirable relations with their fellow workers or with other people
working in the same career in other places. It also creates conducive environment for work. The
following are some of the common standards to all professions:
 Punctuality is an important value to all workers. It refers being available in office
working hours, arriving on time, submitting and doing assignments on time.
 Respecting one’s job and work industriously
 Properly utilizing of equipment and resources
 Established harmonious relation and work cooperatively with fellow workers(colleagues)
 Developing one’s skill to do work effectively.

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Chapter Two
Perspectives on Society, State and Government in Ethiopia
2.1 The State
The state is often confused with government; the two terms being used interchangeably. Human
history has witnessed the existence of some form of government. However, the state in its
modern form did not emerge until about the fifteenth century. Government has existed before the
state, government has precedence. Government is part of the state and is probably the most
important than the other elements. The government is an element with a much larger and
powerful entity.

2.1.1 Definition of the State

The terms “state” can be used to refer a collection of institution, territorial unit, a historical
entity, a philosophical idea and so on. The state is a community of persons, permanently
occupying a definite portion of territory, independent from external control and possessing an
organized government to which the great body of inhabitants renders habitual obedience. This
definition has addressed the four essential elements of the state. The state is a sovereign political
association operating in a defined territorial entity. Simply the state is also defined as a political
entity that possesses population, government, sovereignty and territory. For Marx the state is
politically organized society.

2.1.2 Essential Elements of the State

In order for a term to be considered as a state in a strict sense, the state must have the following
essential elements.

1. Population
People (population) are the basic requirement for the existence of the state. Individuals are part
of the political community; population refers to living in defined territory of the state. A state is a
human institution created by people to serve some of their particular needs. With regard the size
or number of people no limit how large the populations are going to be. The size of population
varies from state to state. Hence in reality there are states with larger population above a billion
and also with very small that is in thousands.

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2. Territory
The state has a vital territorial component, its authority being confined to a precise geographical
area. The state is essentially territorial in character which is a defined territory. The territory
refers to the land mass and its resources administered by the state. The territory refers to
recognized limits. The territory of the state requires a recognized boundary which is accepted by
international agreements. Not all the boundaries, but most of its boundary must be defined and
undisputed.

3. Government
The people living with in a territory must have some sort of administrative system to perform
functions needed or desired by the people. Without a political organization, there can be no state.
The state exercises its sovereign authority by the government. The state uses government to
dictate and control the other elements. No state without government.

4. Sovereignty
Sovereignty means independence from any higher authority and legal equality among states. It
implies the final authority of the state overall matters. The defining feature of the state is
sovereignty. It is absolute and unrestricted power over its internal and external affairs.
Independence is the central element of sovereignty. The state commands supreme power in that
it stands above all other associations and groups in society. Sovereignty has two dimensions
external and internal.
I. Internal Sovereignty is to mean there must not be any rival or parallel authority which can
challenge its supreme power within the territory. Accordingly, everyone living within the state is
subject to its authority. Its laws demand the compliance of all these who live within the territory.

II. External Sovereignty refers to the independence of the state from foreign control and
imposition on international issues. The state is an independent and autonomous actor in the
international system. It implies equality. No state has authority over other states.

2.2 Theories on the Origin of the State

There are different theories on the origin of the state, how the states come into existence. Each
theory has its own justification. It is very difficult to point out any exact period of history when
the state might be said to have come into existence.

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2.2.1 Theory of Divine Origin

Divine Origin theory is one of the earliest theories regarding the origin of the state. This theory
assumes the state is the creation of God. The king is representative of God on earth. The King
derives his authority from God; the king is not responsible to the people on earth. This theory has
been reinforced by the Divine Right of Kings. The King is considered as only accountable to
God. Hereditary right is unquestionable /indefeasible to the kingship. Moreover, resistance to the
king is sinful.

2.2.2 The Force Theory

This theory holds that the state is the outcome of naked force applied by the strong over the week
one and their consequent subjugation. The primitive society was marked by conflicts and wars
between different classes and tribes. The victorious class or tribe established its authority over
the defeated ones. The successful tribe extends its territory of a considerable size and then the
state emerged. The state has come into existence through physical coercion or compulsion.
Simply believes the state as a result of war.

2.2.3 The Genetic Theory

The genetic theory assumes that the state is the product of a natural expansion of family.
Family→ Several families→ Kinship → Village → Community →Society →State.

2.2.4 The Social Contract Theory

This theory has played a great role in the political thought of Europe. This theory contributes a
crucial task in modern political theory and practice. It starts with assumption that prior to the
formation of the state, man lived in a state of nature. In the state of nature, there was no political
authority to make and enforce laws. Rules regulating human conduct were in the form of the so
called natural law. Each man led life of his own and obeyed such rules of behavior as he thought
fit to obey. However, the various exponents of this theory do not agree regarding the conditions
of man in the state of nature.
2.2.4.1 Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Hobbes holds the view that the state of nature was in the anarchy of the worst kind, a condition
of violent stagnation. There is no way for any man to secure himself. In the state of war, such
war is of every man against every man. Every person is the enemy of every other. Accordingly,

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Hobbes explains life in the state of nature was being solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. The
reason for Hobbes is that human beings are power-seeking and selfish creatures. Hobbes
forwards if human beings are not restrained by law they seek to advance their own interests at
the expense of fellow human. In the state of nature Hobbes perceives the strongest were never
being strong enough to live in security and without fear. The weakest would unite against them
before turning upon one another.

He concludes without a government to restrain self impulses, order and stability would be
impossible. Hence he assumes by understanding the circumstances of the state of nature, rational
individuals who seek to escape from chaos and disorder enter into agreement with one another
that is the social contract. In this contract all individuals surrender their right to do whatever is
necessary to defend themselves from others and agree to the protection provided by a sovereign.
The sovereign mean ruled by a common power. The sovereign is thereby empowered to make
laws and enforce them. The sovereign is the state.

2.2.4.2 John Locke (1632-1704)

He is confident enough about human beings the ability to use their reason. Locke supposes the
state of nature was a state in which men were equal and free to act as they thought fit within the
bounds of the law of nature. Men were enjoyed liberty and endowed with natural rights. Men
have a law of nature to govern it i.e. reason. The state of nature was not pre-social with full of
lawlessness. The state of nature was a condition in which peace and reason prevailed. Locke
imagined people can live in the state of nature without government peacefully and sociably.
However, conflicts over property make life in the state of nature difficult. In the state of nature
conflict over property hinder and obstruct peaceful existence. It is for the protection of property
that makes life hard in the state of nature. It is for the protection of property (liberty, life,
possessions) that men abandoned the state of nature and create a political society.

Both Locke and Hobbes argued that the state had arisen out of a voluntary agreement or social
contract. The social contract is made by individuals who recognized that only the establishment
of a sovereign power could safeguard them from the insecurity, disorder and brutality of state of
nature.

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2.2.4.3 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

The social contract of Rousseau is different from Hobbes and Locke. Rousseau held a far more
optimistic view about human nature. The root of injustice lays not in the human individual rather
in the society itself. Rousseau’s state of nature is very different from Hobbes. For him in the state
of nature there was a primitive man (as nature formed him) roams the forest, all wants readily
supplied because his needs are very simple. He called the state of nature as Noble Savage-living
at peace with all other creatures. All men are equal and all are free in the state of nature.

According to Rousseau in the course of time, a political society emerged as something created by
those with property wishing to protect it from those without. He believes that the state is created
to act in the real interests of each its members. The state is created based upon what he called
General Will- reflecting the common interests of society as opposed to the private will (selfish
wishes of each member). The general will is sovereign which tends always to be the preservation
and welfare of the whole. The general will represents the collective interests of society, it
benefits all citizens.

2.2.5 Purposes of the State

With the exception of anarchists most political thinkers have regarded the state as, in some
sense, a worth while or necessary association. However, thinkers profoundly disagreed about the
exact role that the state should play for the society. For example classical liberals have argued
that individuals should enjoy the widest possible liberty and have therefore insisted that the state
be confined to a minimum role, only to provide a framework of peace and social order. They
want the state to act as a night watchman whose services are only when orderly existence is
threatened.

Socialists have consequently argued for an extension of the state’s responsibilities. They
portrayed (like Hegel) the state as an ethical, ideal, morally superior to individuals or society. For
totalitarians like Fascist and Nazis, understand the states responsibilities in its extreme form as
everything for the state, nothing against the state, nothing outside the state. They want the state
to be an all embrace state, whose influence penetrates every aspect of human existence, the
economy, religion, family life and so forth. By socialists individuals are supposed to serve the
state while liberals believe that function of the state is to serve the interests of individuals.

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Having the above variations with regard the exact functions of the state, it is possible to say the
state performs the following functions:

2.2.5.1 Maintenance of Law and Order

The state is directly responsible for the maintenance of law and order. This is to mean the
maintenance of domestic order. The state protects individual citizens from one another-by
resolving conflicts. All states possess some kind of machinery for upholding law and order. The
state is the only that possesses power and authority. Power refers to the implementation of
decision through force. The force ultimately involves physical coercion. Authority implies
consent. Decisions implemented with authority do not involve force. People willingly obey or
accept decisions made by it. Authority is essential to the maintenance of ordered, stable and
healthy society. It is the right to influence others.

2.2.5.2 Provides Protection and Security to Citizens

The state is responsible for providing national security and common defense. The state ensures
the security of its citizens against collective threats and dangers of aggression that is against
attacks from other nations (foe states).

2.2.5.3 Provides Services and Welfare to Citizens

The state is responsible for providing public services. The state provides economic redistribution.
The state undertakes public services that individuals could not do on their own. Such as building
and maintaining roads, providing welfare programs, operating public schools, health cares and
provides services like law enforcement, fire protection and safety programs.

2.2.5.4 Setting Goals for Public Policies

The state sets goals and policies to improve the lives of citizens. The state sets policies that affect
the people at local, regional and national level. The goals and polices can be made through short,
medium and long terms. For instance, in short term goals the state may try to improve and
expand city education by adding new classes. In long term goals the state may intend to discover
new energy sources, eliminating discrimination and to cleanup the environment.

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2.2.5.5 Preserving Culture The state preserves custom, language, values and beliefs of
people.

2.2.5.5 An Overview of the State-Society Relations

Society encompasses or includes the entire associated life and the whole range of human
relations. It is to mean human race as a whole and groups ranging from family to modern nations
with hundreds of millions of people. The state is one of the organized units of the society. The
state exists within the society. The society creates the state. The state is the most crucial and
influential institution of the society. The society organized politically and formed the state.
However, society and the state are two very different things.
Society The State

1. It is the web of social relationship. 1. It is an instrument to serve the purpose of

its members.
2. It is prior to the state.
2. It comes into existence at certain stage of
3. It has no reference to any particular human development.
territory.
3. It is a territorial in character.
4. It is natural to human beings. Man cannot
live outside the society. 4. Man can live without state.

5. It is loosely organized. 5. It is always organized.

6. It does not use force or compulsion. 6. It uses the method of coercion or

compulsion.
7. It acts for a variety of purposes. 7. It is a single purpose the enforcement of
its system of law and order.

2.3 Government
To govern in its broader sense is to rule or exercise control over others. Thus, government exists
whenever and wherever ordered rule occurs.
2.3.1 Definition of Government
Government is an agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and
realized. The sovereign power is exercised by the government. The government dictates and
controls the other elements of the state. Government refers to formal and institutional process by
which rule is exercised at community, national and international levels. The government is
identified with a set of established and permanent institutions whose function is to maintain
public order and undertake collective actions. The institutions of government are concerned with

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law making, law implementation and law interpretation; law being set enforceable rules that are
binding upon society.

2.3.2 Purposes of Government

All governments encompass three major functions: law making law implementation and law
interpretation.

2.3.3 Organs of Government

The three major functions of a government are performed either in separated institutions by the
legislative, the executive and the Judiciary or under responsibility of a single body-such as ruling
party, a single individual (few groups) and a dictator.

2.3.4 Separation of powers

Separation of powers is a term ascribed to French Enlightenment political philosopher Baron
de Montesquieu, is a model for the governance of democratic states. He holds the view that it is
only in moderate governments that liberty is to be found and there is too only when there is no
abuse of power. He opposes concentration of all authorities in the same person or a body of
persons. To prevent this abuse it is necessary that power should be a check to power. Democratic
governments separate their power (three major functions) into their three organs: executive,
legislative and judiciary.

Separation of powers means

 The three functions of the government should be performed by different bodies of persons
 Each organ should be limited to its own sphere of action/jurisdiction.
 Within it sphere it should be independent and supreme.

Montesquieu suggested the three functions of the government to be entrusted to different

personnels, distributed among rival authorities. His theory on the separation of powers has
greatly influenced the fathers of the American constitution. Moreover, Locke confirms the
sovereign power to be divided or distributed among different hands rather than concentrated in
one institution. The reason for him is that dispersion lessens the temptation to use power
arbitrarily. This becomes influential among designers of liberal constitution.

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2.3.5 Checks and Balances System

To prevent one branch from becoming supreme, and to induce the branches to cooperate,
governance systems employing a separation of powers typically are created with a system of
checks and balances, a term which, like separation of powers itself, is specifically credited to
Montesquieu. Checks and balances system refers to the various procedural rules that allow one
branch to limit another.

2.3.6 Separation versus Fusion of Powers

In democratic systems of governance, a continuum exists between Presidential government and
Parliamentary government. Separation of powers is a feature more inherent to presidential
systems, whereas fusion of powers is characteristic of parliamentary ones. Mixed systems fall
somewhere in between, usually near the midpoint; the most notable example of a mixed system
is France's Fifth Republic.

2.4 Dynamics of Civics and Ethics in Socio-economic and Political Transformations

2.4.1 Presidential System

The president is resulted from popular election. He is directly elected by the people. He is not
member of the legislature and responsible to the legislature. He is head of the state and
government. The president has the power to appoint the highest officials of the government. The
executive is not drawn from the legislature. Members of the cabinet are appointed by the
president and cannot be member of the legislature. Cabinet members are responsible to the
president. There is no vote of confidence and thus no principle of responsible government. The
executive is not responsibilities to the legislature. Neither the legislature nor the president has the
power to dismiss the other and call election. The system is characterized by clear separation of
powers.

2.4.2 Parliamentary System

A parliamentary system is a system of government in which the executive is dependent on the
direct or indirect support of the legislature (the parliament), often expressed through a vote of
confidence. The executive retain the support (confidence) of a majority in the legislature. The
cabinet is responsible to the legislature. The cabinet has collective responsibility to the
legislature. Parliamentary systems are characterized by no clear-cut separation of powers

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between the executive and legislative branches, leading to a different set of checks and balances
compared to those found in presidential systems. Parliamentary systems usually have a clear
differentiation between the head of government and the head of state.

The Prime minster is elected by the parliament and member of the parliament. The prime
minister is head of government and chief of the executive. The prime minister exercises political
authority. The president is head of the state. The role of the president is largely formal that he
plays ceremonial and procedural functions (figurehead role). Parliamentary systems also vary in
the role performed by the head of state. In constitutional monarchies the monarch occupies office
by virtue of heredity. In parliamentary republics the head of state is usually a president.

Presidents in parliamentary systems may be elected:

 By direct popular vote (e.g., Ireland),

 By the legislature (e.g., the Czech Republic and Israel),

 By an electoral college that consists of members of the legislature as well as

delegates of regional assemblies (e.g., Germany, India, and Italy).

They usually serve for fixed terms that are longer than the term of the parliament, and they may
have some discretion in the appointment of a prime minister or the dissolution of the parliament.

2.4.3 Federal Government

Federalism is a system of shared power and decision-making between two or more freely
elected governments with authority over the same people and geographical area. Federalism is
the relationship between the center and periphery to guarantee the autonomy of both levels of
government, a written constitution is required to articulate and entrench the autonomy. Federal
systems are often established in societies where a substantial degree of linguistic, religions or
cultural diversity exists. Federalism is one way to resolve the problem of enlarging governments.
Federal systems are alternatives to large empires established by imperial force. Federalism is
important when diverse groups of free people - with different languages, religious faiths, or
cultural norms choose to live under an agreed constitutional framework; they expect a degree of
local autonomy and equal economic and social opportunities.

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In a federal system there must be a written constitution that explicitly assigns power to the two
levels of government. The constitution must enumerate the power of either level of government.
Constitutionally sovereignty is divided between the two levels of government.
 Sovereignty is not concentrated in central government

 Neither levels can unilaterally modify or abolish the other

 Both levels have their own ability to make laws in certain fields i.e. jurisdictions.

The division of power in federal system is called the federal bargain. Neither level of
government can alter the federal or states bargain without the consent of the other level. In a
federal system, the written constitution enumerates three types of power. These are:

1. Exclusive Powers

The constitution enumerates powers given to either level. The constitution clearly and explicitly
assigns these powers to either the federal or states (regions). This varies from country to country.
For instance we can take the case of Ethiopia and Canada. In Ethiopia, the FDRE Constitution
clearly enumerates powers which are granted to the federal government. In Canada the
constitution clearly enumerates powers which are granted to the provinces.

2. Concurrent Powers

These powers are assigned to both levels of government. These powers are exercised jointly by
both levels.

3. Residual Powers

These are powers of government that are not specifically mentioned in the constitution. These
are powers not clearly mentioned in the constitution. These powers are not explicitly give to
either level. These powers are reserved to either level. In Ethiopia residual powers are given
to the states/regions.

There are certain structural features that are universal to federal systems. These are:
I. Written Constitution, the FDRE constitution explicitly assigns powers to the two levels of
government.

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II. Dual sovereignty. Absolute power is not concentrated only in the federal government. Both
the regional and federal levels have sovereign power. That is sovereignty of the country is
divided among the federal and regional governments.
III. The Ethiopian law-making body is bicameral (two legislative houses: the house of people’s
representative and house of federation).

2.4.4 Unitary System

Unitary system is a system where powers and responsibilities are concentrated within the central
government. Constitutionally the central government is sovereign. Regional functions and
powers are more of administrative than legislative. Sovereign power is retained in central
government. Regional units are changed at will. The territorial subdivisions are not permanently
fixed. The central government can eliminate, enlarge and reduce regions as it deems appropriate.
Pre 1991 Ethiopia has been under unitary system.

2.5 From Mono-cultural to Multiculturalism

2.5.1 Mono-culturalism
In the past diversity was seen as a threat to the unity of Ethiopia. Accordingly regimes had tried
to promote and develop homogeneity. Except few cultures others were not recognized. For
instance during the H/slassie I regime Christianity was a state religion. Moreover, Amharic was
the only language used as a school language throughout the country including in the Derg
regime.

2.5.2 Multiculturalism
After the fall of Derg and EPRDF captured state power, Ethiopia has become introduced
multiculturalism. This was reinforced in the 1995 FDRE constitution which guarantees all
languages, religions and other cultures are equal. Today in Ethiopia diversity is believed to be a
beauty that reinforces the unity of the country. Multiculturalism focuses on cultural diversity,
celebrating ethnic variety, and teaching tolerance. It assumes the existence of pre-existing
cultures, which relate to, and interact with each other, but does not examine the hierarchies of
power underpinning these interactions. Several ethnic groups or nations live together through a
system of power sharing. It is insisting on the plurality and equality of culture. It is the renewed
importance of national, ethnic, racial and religious identities. Multiculturalism is about cultural

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diversity, coupled with equal opportunity in an atmosphere of mutual tolerance. Minority groups
are thought of as having the right to:
 Speak their own language
 Practice their own religion
 Have their own domestic and communal cultures

2.5.3 Single Party System/ mono party centralism

Single party system is a type of party system in which a single political party forms the
government and no other parties are permitted to run candidates for election. In a single party
system there is only one legal political party. One party cannot produce any other system other
than autocratic/dictatorial power. One of the more common features of a one-party state is that
the position of the ruling party is guaranteed in a constitution like in the Derg regime and all
forms of political opposition are banned by law. The ruling party controls all aspects of life
within that state. Elections only offer the electorate a choice of candidate from the ruling party
that is intra-party competition. The Ethiopian Workers’ Party during the Derge was ideological
based that is marx-Leninist party.

2.5.4 Multiparty System

The FDRE constitution guarantees multiparty system. This is a system where more than two
parties have some impact in a state’s political life and parties are serious contenders to
participate in ruling. Under this system all parties have an opportunity to run for and win
elections. The parties have a realistic chance of participating in government. The party that wins
the most votes forms the government. In this type of system a coalition government can
sometimes be formed if no party gains an outright majority of seats in the legislature. In doing so
the strongest party attempts to form a coalition government. In coalition two or more parties
agree to form a government together in order to command majority support in the legislature.

2.5.5 From Constitution to Constitutionalism

Constitution is set of fundamental rules, principles and values, beliefs that lay down the basis/
foundation upon which government is organized and operates. It is the highest and fundamental
law of the state containing basic principles and rules:

 That guide the deliberation between the rulers and the ruled

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 That determine the organization of government by defining key institutions

 Distribute power to various institutions/organs of government and determine their

relationships

 Define and guarantee the rights and freedom of citizens

 Define the limits of state power.

This type of constitution can be democratic or undemocratic. Mere existence of a constitution

cannot guarantee democracy. Being both democratic and undemocratic governments can have
constitutions. We can consider the 1931 and the 1955 constitutions of the monarchy during
H/slassie I and the 1987 of the Derg constitution, these constitutions did not guarantee basic
human and democratic rights. Moreover, there was no strict observance of the constitutions
while implementing.

Constitutionalism
Constitutionalism implies all civil and political rights are best protected in the constitution in
which the rights and duties of citizens and of the different organs of the government are
explicitly defined and publicly known. This is true for the FDRE constitution. From the
beginning, the constitution is based on the will of the people. Thus, democratic constitutionalism
is based on ideals of individual freedom, community rights, and limited government power
which create the framework for governing a democracy.

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Chapter Three

Ethics and Civic Depositions in Ethiopia

3.1 Bureaucracy

The term ‘bureaucracy’ is derived from the Latin word ‘bureau’ which means a writing table or
desk. In the eighteenth century the term bureau used to refer a place where officials work. The
Greek suffix Kratia or Kratos means power or rule. In short bureaucracy means office power or
rule. There are different understandings of bureaucracy. In the field of politics bureaucracy refers
to the administrative machinery of the state- the civil service and public officials who are
charged with the execution of government business. Bureaucracy means a government agency,
established in departments, agencies and bureaus that carryout government activity according to
fixed rules. For Max Weber and his followers bureaucracy is a distinctive form of organization
found in all spheres of modern society. The increase of government responsibilities has brought
bureaucracy to play important role in political life.

Weber described an ideal-type bureaucracy as one charactering by

1. Officials organized in fixed jurisdictional areas

2. A hierarchical arrangement of office

3. Written documents that contain the rules to be applied in every case

4. Full-time employment by experts in administration

5. Impersonality in applying rules uniformly

Bureaucracy in the state administration is divided into two types. These are:

3.1.1 Political Bureaucracy. This is the upper bureaucracy. This is referred as political
executive which includes the president or prime minster and deputy prime minister, ministers
and other positions that are filled by appointment. It is the non-permanent bureaucracy. This is
temporary, which it comes and goes according to the change in the political climate. It rises and
falls with the swing of political climate in the country. The office life is short and limited.
Officials fill the offices can be elected and non-elected.

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3.1.2 Permanent Bureaucracy- Civil service/administrative executive/the lower layer of

bureaucracy. The Civil service is established in a system under which employees are classified
according to experience and performance in tests. It also set objective ground rules according to
which governmental employees can be promoted, paid, disciplined and faired. Bureaucrats are
selected or recruited on the basis of merit and promoted from time to time on the basis of merit
and efficiency. Individuals’ advancement is made based upon merit than political connections.
They are full-time policy advisers. They are permanent in the sense that they remain in office.
They are supposed to be neutral in the politics of the country and expert in the field of
administration.

3.2 Evolution of the Ethiopian Civil Service

Modern Administrative system in Ethiopia is believed to have been established on the turn of the
first decade of the 20th century during the time of Emperor Minilk II. The Civil Service was
established formally during the reign of Menelik II in 1907, with the aim of ensuring orderly and
efficient arrangements for the workings of government. The Emperor is known to have appointed
nine Ministers. The time marked the beginning of Modern Administration of the European style
in Ethiopia. The establishment of the modern administration had not been accompanied by
personnel rules and regulations as such. The absence of personnel rules and regulations led the
administration of government offices to be based on the goodwill of each government official of
the time. This situation prevailed for about half a century. When the situation necessitated the
establishment of an organ of a government that could define the right and obligation of
government personnel and also a homogeneous administrative order; the "Central Personnel
Agency" (CPA) was established pursuant to order No. 23 of 1961 and started functioning as of
June 1963. Public Service Order No.23 of 1961 as amended by Legal Notice No.28 of 1962,
which created the Central Personnel Agency. The Central Personnel Agency was established to
give central leadership under uniform rules and directives to all public servants in Ethiopia.

During the military regime its name was changed to Public Service Commission (P.S.C.) with a
new organizational structure. After the downfall of the military regime and the establishment of
the Provisional Government, proclamation no 41/93 which redefined duties and responsibilities
of the commission was issued. Later on, with the establishment of the F.D.R.E, the Federal Civil
Service Commission (F.C.S.C.) was reestablished by proclamation No. 8 of 1995. Later on as
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decided by House of People Representatives on October 1, 1998 E.C - proclamation no. 471/98
the Commission was renamed to Federal Civil Service Agency.

The Federal Civil Service Agency as an organ of the Federal Government Administration is
responsible in all matters related to Organizational Structure, salary increment, position
classification, salary scale and exclusive right to issue regulations to Federal Civil Service
Institutions, after approval by the council of ministers.

The above statement does not mean that the Agency is unbridled. In fact, proclamation
No.41/1993 the instrument by which the Agency and the civil service offices of regions are
created categorically lay down the scope and functions of both the Agency and the Regional
Civil Service Bureaus. Thus, both the Agency and the Regional Bureaus have enjoyed executive,
legislative, and judicial powers vested in them by proclamation to establish homogenous and
efficient public service which is the sole objectives for their establishment. At Regional State
level the Bureaus of Public Administration have similar powers in theirs state and have more or
less the same legal base adopted to their specific conditions.

3.3 Civil Service Ethics laws and Codes of Ethics

Most modern Civil Service Ethics laws, and Codes of Ethics for civil servants and public
officials, endorse the following minimum set of principles:

Serving the Public Interest

Civil servants and public officials are expected to maintain and strengthen the public's trust and
confidence in government, by demonstrating the highest standards of professional competence,
efficiency and effectiveness, upholding the Constitution and the laws, and seeking to advance the
public good at all times.

Transparency

Civil servants and public officials are expected to use powers and resources for public good,
under government policy. They should be accountable for the decisions they make, and prepared
to justify their actions.
Integrity
Civil servants and public officials are expected to make decisions and act solely in the public
interest, without consideration of their private interests. Public employment being a public trust,
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the improper use of a public service position for private advantage is regarded as a serious breach
of duty.

Legitimacy
Civil servants and public officials are required to administer the laws, and to exercise
administrative power on behalf of the Government, or the Parliament, or other such authority.
That power and authority should be exercised legitimately, impartially and without fear or favor,
for its proper public purpose as determined by the Parliament or their employer.

Fairness
Civil servants and public officials should make decisions and act in a fair and equitable manner,
without bias or prejudice, taking into account only the merits of the matter, and respecting the
rights of affected citizens.

Responsiveness
As agents and employees of the elected Government, Civil servants and public officials are
required to serve the legitimate interests and needs of the Government, other civil servants, and
all citizens, in a timely manner, with care, respect and courtesy.

Efficiency and Effectiveness

Civil servants and public officials are required to obtain best value for public assets deployed in
or through public management, and to avoid waste and extravagance in expenditure and the use
of public assets.

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Chapter Four
Democracy and Good Governance in Ethiopia

4.1 Definitions of Democracy

Democracy is derived from a Greek word demockratia; the word ‘demos’ stands for the people
and ‘kratos’ means rule. In short, democracy means rule by the people. However, this definition
is very general because it fails to define who ‘the people’ are. For instance, in the Greek City-
states people permitted to go to the assemblies excluded women, slaves and foreigners.
Similarly, in modern times, young children (minors), recent immigrants, and aliens both illegal
and those who have no citizenship are excluded. So, it is wise to define democracy in terms of
the system of a government.

Democracy is a form of government where all state’s decisions are exercised directly or
indirectly by a majority of its citizens through a faire elective process. Simply democracy means
majority rule. In a democracy, the exercise of political power must respect the law, the
constitution, and the will of the people, through the decisions of their [elected] legislative
representatives.
Democracy is a system of government in which a country’s political leaders are chosen by the
people in regular, free, and fair elections. In a democracy, people have a choice between
different candidates and parties who want the power to govern. The people can criticize and
replace their elected leaders and representatives if they do not perform well. The people are
sovereign - they are the highest authority - and government is based on the will of the people.
Elected representatives at the national and local levels must listen to the people and be
responsive to their needs.

4.2 Forms of Democracy

There are two forms of democracies: direct and indirect.
4.2.1 Direct (Participatory) Democracy
Direct democracy has existed in the Greek and Roman City-states in the ancient period. Direct
democracy is a form of democracy in which the citizen exercises political power without
representatives acting on their behalf.

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Direct Democracy is literally rule of the people; as interpreted in Athens, all decisions emanated
from popular assembly without intermediation of elected representatives.

 In this type of democracy decisions are made directly by citizens meeting in an assembly
or voting by ballot.

 All citizens directly participate in the political decision making process.

In the modern age, direct democracy survives in the institutions of referendum, initiatives,
recall and replacement of representatives, electing the president or representatives. As it is in
the ancient form, it is only possible in a small size of population. In modern age, direct
democracy rarely applies, because modern states are huge in size and population.

4.2.2 Indirect (Representative) Democracy

Indirect Democracy is a form of democracy in which power is held by the people and exercised
indirectly through elected representatives who make decisions. Indirect Democracy is a form of
democracy, which derives its authority from the people and governs according to the will of the
majority, but in which the people elect individuals to represent their will. In this type of
democracy, people govern the state or their country indirectly, through the popular elected
representatives. The representatives are elected periodically and are responsible to the people
elected them. The representatives can be both from political parties and independents. In the
modern age, this type of democracy is exercised throughout the world.

4.3 Fundamental Principles of Democracy

Democracies are diverse, which reflects each nation's unique political, economic and social life.
It is difficult to have identical practices. But democracy has certain principles and practices
distinguish democratic government from other forms of government. Therefore, democracy has a
set of principles and practices that protect human freedom. Accordingly, all democracies rest
upon the principles of Majority Rule and Minority Rights, The Rule of Law, Free and Fair
Elections, Multiparty System, Free Press, Freedom of Speech/Expression, Constitutionalism,
Independent Judiciary and Separation of Powers.

Having in mind the above principles, democracy is a process, a way of living and working
together. It is evolutionary, not static. It requires cooperation, compromise, and tolerance among
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all citizens. Making it work is hard, not easy. Freedom means responsibility, not freedom from
responsibility.

4.4 Good Governance

Recently the terms "governance" and "good governance" are being increasingly used in
development literature. Bad governance is being increasingly regarded as one of the root causes
of all evil within societies. Good governance has long been a topic of discussion in the
international arena, and particularly in the field of development assistance. Indeed, good
governance is pivotal to the development process.

4.4.1 Governance
The concept of "governance" is not new. It is as old as human civilization. Governance is the
exercise of economic, political and administrative authority to manage a country’s affairs at all
levels. It comprises mechanisms, processes and institutions through which citizens and groups
articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their
differences” Simply put "governance" means: the process of decision-making and the process
by which decisions are implemented (or not implemented). Since governance is the process of
decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented, an analysis of governance
focuses on the formal and informal actors involved in decision-making and implementing the
decisions made and the formal and informal structures that have been set in place to arrive at and
implement the decision. Government is one of the actors in governance. Other actors involved in
governance vary depending on the level of government that is under discussion. In rural areas,
for example, other actors may include associations of peasant farmers, cooperatives, NGOs,
research institutes, religious leaders, finance institutions, political parties, the military etc. The
situation in urban areas is much more complex. Figure 1 provides the interconnections between
actors involved in urban governance. At the national level, in addition to the above actors, media,
lobbyists, international donors, multi-national corporations, etc. may play a role in decision-
making or in influencing the decision-making process.

All actors other than government and the military are grouped together as part of the "civil
society." In some countries in addition to the civil society, organized crime syndicates also
influence decision-making, particularly in urban areas and at the national level. Similarly formal

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government structures are one means by which decisions are arrived at and implemented. At the
national level, informal decision-making structures, such as "kitchen cabinets" or informal
advisors may exist. In urban areas, organized crime syndicates such as the "land Mafia" may
influence decision-making. In some rural areas locally powerful families may make or influence
decision-making. Such, informal decision-making is often the result of corrupt practices or leads
to corrupt practices.

Figure 1: Urban actors

4.4.2 Good Governance

It has become a truism to say that ‘good governance is essential for successful development’.
Governance is about processes, not about ends. Common definitions describe governance as a
process by which power is exercised without explicitly stating the ends being sought.

Good governance is, among other things, participatory, transparent and accountable, effective
and equitable, and it promotes the rule of law. It ensures that political, social and economic
priorities are based on broad consensus in society and that the voices of the poorest and the most
vulnerable are heard in decision-making over the allocation of development resources.

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Good governance has eight major characteristics. It is participatory, consensus oriented,

accountable, transparent, responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and follows
the rule of law. It assures that corruption is minimized, the views of minorities are taken into
account and that the voices of the most vulnerable in society are heard in decision-making. It is
also responsive to the present and future needs of society.

Figure 2: Characteristics of good governance

1. Participation
Participation by both men and women is a key cornerstone of good governance. Participation
could be either direct or through legitimate intermediate institutions or representatives. It is
important to point out that representative democracy does not necessarily mean that the concerns
of the most vulnerable in society would be taken into consideration in decision making.
Participation needs to be informed and organized. This means freedom of association and
expression on the one hand and an organized civil society on the other hand.

2. Rule of law
Good governance requires fair legal frameworks that are enforced impartially. It also requires
full protection of human rights, particularly those of minorities. Impartial enforcement of laws
requires an independent judiciary and an impartial and incorruptible police force.

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3. Transparency
Transparency means that decisions taken and their enforcement are done in a manner that
follows rules and regulations. It also means that information is freely available and directly
accessible to those who will be affected by such decisions and their enforcement. It also means
that enough information is provided and that it is provided in easily understandable forms and
media.

4. Responsiveness
Good governance requires that institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a
reasonable timeframe.

5. Consensus Oriented
There are several actors and as many view points in a given society. Good governance requires
mediation of the different interests in society to reach a broad consensus in society on what is in
the best interest of the whole community and how this can be achieved. It also requires a broad
and long-term perspective on what is needed for sustainable human development and how to
achieve the goals of such development. This can only result from an understanding of the
historical, cultural and social contexts of a given society or community.

6. Equity and Inclusiveness

A society’s well being depends on ensuring that all its members feel that they have a stake in it
and do not feel excluded from the mainstream of society. This requires all groups, but
particularly the most vulnerable, have opportunities to improve or maintain their well being.

7. Effectiveness and Efficiency

Good governance means that processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of
society while making the best use of resources at their disposal. The concept of efficiency in the
context of good governance also covers the sustainable use of natural resources and the
protection of the environment.
8. Accountability
Accountability is about power-about people having not just a say in official decisions but also
the right to hold their rulers to account. Accountability is a key requirement of good governance.
Not only governmental institutions but also the private sector and civil society organizations
must be accountable to the public and to their institutional stakeholders. Who is accountable to
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whom varies depending on whether decisions or actions taken are internal or external to an
organization or institution. In general an organization or an institution is accountable to those
who will be affected by its decisions or actions. Accountability cannot be enforced without
transparency and the rule of law.

4.5 Human Rights

Rights for all members of the human family were first articulated in 1948 in the United Nations’
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The goals of Article 1 of the Charter are of a
general nature. For those goals to be achieved, specific "human rights and freedoms" needed to
be defined first. Then laws and procedures had to be drawn up that would promote and protect
those rights and freedoms. Following the horrific experiences of the Holocaust and World War
II, and amid the grinding poverty of much of the world’s population, many people sought to
create a document that would capture the hopes, aspirations, and protections to which every
person in the world was entitled and ensure that the future of humankind would be different. The
UDHR, which serves to define the basic human rights and freedoms to which all individuals are
entitled. Once the UDHR was drafted and adopted by the UN General Assembly, work began to
codify the rights it contained into a convention. For political and procedural reasons, these rights
were divided between two separate covenants, each addressing different categories of rights. The
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) articulates the specific, liberty-
oriented rights that a state may not take from its citizens, such as freedom of expression and
freedom of movement. The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR) addresses those articles in the UDHR that define an individual’s rights to basic
necessities, such as food, housing, and health care, which a state should provide for its citizens,
in so far as it is able. Both covenants were adopted by the UN in 1966.

Ethiopia has fully accepted the human rights provision of the UDHR of the 1948. The present
day constitution of Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia has incorporated the fundamental
and basic freedoms and rights that are found in the UDHR and in others.

4.5.1 Definition of Human Rights

Human rights are the rights a person has simply because he or she is a human being. Human
rights are held by all persons equally, universally, and forever. Human rights are the basic

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entitlements that belong to all of us just because we are human beings. Human rights are those
basic standards without which people cannot live in dignity.
4.5.2 Features of Human Rights
Human rights have the following basic features.

 Human rights are natural insofar as they are not invented or created by governments,
they are endowed from nature.
 Human rights are universal insofar as they do not change from country to country.
Everyone has the same human rights entitlements; men, women and children, rich and
poor, black and white, all nationalities and faiths.
 Human rights are equal in the sense that rights are the same for all people, irrespective of
gender, race, or handicap.
 Human rights are inalienable which means that I cannot hand over my rights to another
person, such as by selling myself into slavery. You cannot lose these rights any more than
you can cease being a human being.
 Human rights are indivisible: you cannot be denied a right because it is "less important"
or "non-essential."
 Human rights are interdependent: all human rights are part of a complementary
framework. For example, your ability to participate in your government is directly
affected by your right to express yourself, to get an education, and even to obtain the
necessities of life.
 Human rights are not given by governments.
4.5.3 Democratic Governance: Good governance from a human development perspective
At its core, democratic governance means:
 People’s human rights and fundamental freedoms are respected, allowing them to live
with dignity.
 People have a say in decisions that affect their lives.
 People can hold decision-makers accountable.
 Inclusive and fair rules, institutions and practices govern social interactions.
 Women are equal partners with men in private and public spheres of life and decision-
making.
 People are free from discrimination based on race, ethnicity, class, gender or any other
attribute.
 The needs of future generations are reflected in current policies.
 Economic and social policies are responsive to people’s needs and aspirations.

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