ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

( Secondary Teacher Education Department )

Course: Textbook Development Part-II (6553) Semester: Spring, 2021

Level: MA/M. Ed. Total marks: 100
Pass Marks: 40

Assignment No. 2
(Units: 5 - 9)
Total Marks 100
Pass Marks: 40

QUESTION: 01
What are qualities of good trainers at school level? How school trainings can be
made more beneficial for teacher? Give your suggestinos. (20)
ANSWER:

The core qualities of a good trainer

Effective trainers continuously practice and develop qualities that improve their
understanding of learner and organizational needs. They understand that the more
they exercise these qualities, the better equipped they’ll be to deliver training with
accuracy and engagement, create an active learning atmosphere, incorporate
current learning trends — and the list goes on.
Let’s take a closer look at what it takes to be a good trainer:

1. Be a good (and patient) listener

Some of the qualities of a good trainer are absolutely non-negotiable. The ability
to listen, ask the right questions, and understand the needs of the learner are at the
top of this list.

What is needs analysis if not the process of carefully listening to the target
audience and unpacking what they need most? A talented trainer is able to listen
so closely to what their audience thinks they need, that they can clearly see what
they actually need.
For example, a group of sales associates might report that they need product
training so they can close more deals per month. A good trainer might determine
that sales staff actually have sufficient product knowledge already, but really need
negotiation training to win over customers more quickly.

2. Approach training strategically

A strategic trainer knows that training is only effective if it’s within budget and
delivers a desirable return on investment (ROI). Sounds obvious, right? Well,
unfortunately, these factors are easy to forget once complex training tasks start to
pile up.

One of the most important qualities of a good trainer is their ability to keep their
eye on the goal and handle limitations without compromising on training quality.
This is best achieved through partnering with various roles within the
organization, such as department managers, operations, and human resources.

No strategic trainer will start a project without first understanding

the costs, desired ROI, and benchmarks involved. This knowledge arms them to
deliver the most effective training they can, with the full support of key
stakeholders.
 

You have the right skills, now you all need is the right tools
Deliver effective training with TalentLMS, the #1 Learning Management System

3. Encourage engagement
Turning training into a two-way street (rather than a one-person show) is at the
core of what makes a good trainer. Yes, being entertaining is a fantastic quality in
any trainer. But getting learners to absorb and retain new skills goes way beyond
entertainment.

For skill development to really happen, learners need opportunities to share their
ideas, answer questions, and practice what they’ve learned. The traditional “top-
down” lecture style simply isn’t effective for achieving meaningful learning, even
if the lecturer is a blast.
The best trainers encourage learners to ask questions, get involved in activities,
and be active in their learning rather than passively consuming the material.
4. Be organized
Some trainers are gloriously inspiring one day, and lackluster the next. This is
usually due to a lack of effective organization. Want to be consistently great?
Take time to plan your training materials and delivery carefully.

Well-organized lessons and materials help you to remain focused on the topic at
hand, instead of jumping around. This prevents facilitated sessions from becoming
dragged out and losing the audience’s attention.

The role of the trainer as a project manager shouldn’t be underestimated,

either. Keeping stakeholders up to date on the training project’s progress is
important to remaining strategic and delivering effective training.

5. Appreciate good instructional design

The ability to design well-structured courses and build fit-for-purpose content is
one of the frequently overlooked qualities of a good trainer. Rather, a trainer’s in-
person presence and delivery are often mistaken as the determining factor of their
effectiveness.

Truthfully, a lot of work goes into planning training programs that meet all the
organization’s training goals and create seamless learning experiences. But this
work can make all the difference to learners’ results and long-term behavioral
improvement.

A top-notch trainer will have the savvy to design courses that suit the mode of
delivery (e.g. face-to-face, blended, or fully online), and create a wide variety of
materials that engage and motivate all learners.

6. Have a finger on the pulse of learning trends

Another aspect of instructional design know-how that elevates a trainer from ‘just
okay’ to great, is an awareness of the latest training trends. Effective trainers
keep up with current research in adult education and digital delivery and look out
for opportunities to incorporate proven trends into their training.
Does this mean that knowing the difference between microlearning and
gamification is the be-all and end-all of how to be a good trainer? Not quite.
While exceptional trainers need to know which trends are gaining traction, it’s
much more important that they have the ability to be critical about which trends
they choose to incorporate.

For example, if you see that webinars are trending as a content format that boosts
collaboration over long distances, is it smart to incorporate a webinar in a one-
week face-to-face course? Incorporating trends just because they’re trendy is a
slippery slope, and easily undermines the effectiveness of training.

7. Analyze and improve again, and again, and again

Self-improvement is one of the most impactful qualities of a good trainer. Because
great trainers are not only focused on developing their learners, but also
developing themselves. You can improve your performance by taking advantage
of surveys and other forms of feedback. Don’t shy away from constructive
feedback but take it as an opportunity to re-examine your methods and do better
the next time around.

Also, good trainers don’t just improve themselves. They evaluate their training
materials regularly, too. Old or irrelevant materials are phased out in favor of
content that is more engaging and aligned with learner feedback about the course.

8. Prize lifelong learning

If you’re wondering how to be a good trainer, you should know that,

unfortunately, there are no shortcuts. Don’t expect that you can take a single
course once and rest assured you reached your goal. The best trainers constantly
ask themselves: “what makes a good trainer?”. Because, who better to deliver
training than someone who is constantly learning themselves? That’s why
lifelong learning is one of the important characteristics of a good trainer.
Trainers who regularly undertake their own learning are more in touch with the
struggles and triumphs of the everyday adult learner. This makes them more
effective in choosing content types, topics, and convenience features like mobile
learning when planning a course.

Lifelong learners are also inherently inspirational. Their passion and thirst for
learning is infectious and can make all the difference when the topic they need to
teach is dry or obscure.
Equip great trainers with the best equipment
Each of the qualities of a good trainer can make a huge difference in the success
of the program and the engagement of learners.

Trainers who invest their time in developing these qualities, and put them into
practice too, are bound to see their course evaluations and learner results improve.
The right software can take them even further, through innovative features that
open up a world of design, content and delivery options.

Have a look at 7 advantages of teacher training programs and how to use full
use of it:

1. Nowadays teacher training programs offer teachers new methods to keep

their classroom and curriculum fresh, exciting and highly knowledgeable.
They also provide access to new styles of teaching. Teachers nowadays
become fully equipped with the skills by joining teacher training programs
and are able to effectively transfer their message to the students.

2. Teachers learn new and fun ways of teaching in these teacher training

programs. They should involve the new games and other methods of
teaching to make the concepts even clear to the students. Students would
be able to enjoy as well as learn.

3. Teacher training programs provide teachers with certifications which may

help them to get better salary packages in developed schools. Join the best
teacher training institute in Mumbai and get through all the hacks of
teaching.

4. Teachers learn to improve their educational skills, improve overall

organization, improve time management, improve technical knowledge
and learn better ways to motivate the students. If these skills are applied
effectively, grades of the students would increase definitely and would
help in the growth of teachers.

5. Teachers are taught to encourage the students to actively take part in the
activities conducted for their benefit and to ask questions. This would help
 in the overall development of the child and would also increase his
capability and finally his grades. Teacher training, Mumbai has divided its
curriculum into sub groups and provide the best training to the trainees.

6. The course makes sure that the teaching and learning the teachers receive
during the program should have a long lasting positive impact on their
mind. They should be able to inculcate the skills permanently and make
full use of the skills while teaching the students. Teachers should adopt the
same approach to teach their students as their teachers used to train them.

7. The teacher training programs encourage teachers to talk about what

makes good pedagogical practice i.e. the elements that need to be present
for effective teaching and successful learning to take place and how these
elements react. The programs help the teachers in developing a common
vocabulary to enable them to converse across all sectors, settings, and
phases. They are also taught to monitor the students when required. These
skills help the teachers in making the students more clear with their
concepts. With the help of the vocabulary, training teachers become better
communicators and good examples for their students.

QUESTION: 02
What are the main purposes of lesson planning? Also give some guidlines for
preparing lesson plan for biology textbooks. (20)
ANSWER:
A lesson plan:
 gives a clear idea of where you and the students are going;
 keeps a record of what you have done;
 is a helpful guide for anyone who has to take over the session;
 gives you a base from which to review your session; and
 provides the starting point for the next session.

Purpose of the Lesson Plan

Brilliance lie in not leaving the schedule at the mercy of shambolic planning and
fluctuating resources.  Teachers can re-direct their energy in designing an
effective curriculum.

The duties of school hours will  recline in the lap of this set up. The lesson plan
guides the direction in which the teacher can invest her efforts and resources for
the day.

On attaining the equilibrium, you can help drive student’s efforts on the right path
for the desired learning outcome.

A lesson plan details the content and sequence of the lesson, so when developing
learning tasks you will need to consider the following.
 How is this topic relevant for the students?
'[Avoid] trying to provide too much content for the working memory.   7 or
perhaps even just 5 things is as much you can do in an hour's session … I have
always hated the idea of text books that just go on and on and on.'
 What is their prior knowledge, experience and/or skills? Some examples
of methods to find out could be a quiz, a survey, or asking your students.
‘I’ve always tried not to make any assumptions about what the learners might
know. I have always tried to teach … so that ‘anyone can get in the door’. My
belief is that if you do that and do that well, then it is a revision for those who
have already got it, as long as you don’t take too long over it and then they know
that they know ... [it is like confirmation]  … that they have understood what was
in the lecture …’
 What must the students know, what should they know, and what could
they know? Of all the content that is available, identifying the must
know, should know, could know helps determine the priority of the
learning task and the allocation of time within the lesson.  
A lesson plan is the instructor’s road map of what students need to learn and how
it will be done effectively during the class time. Then, you can design appropriate
learning activities and develop strategies to obtain feedback on student learning.
Having a carefully constructed lesson plan for each 3-hour lesson allows you to
enter the classroom with more confidence and maximizes your chance of having a
meaningful learning experience with your students.
A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates three key components:
 Learning Objectives
 Learning activities
 Assessment to check for student understanding
A lesson plan provides you with a general outline of your teaching goals, learning
objectives, and means to accomplish them, and is by no means exhaustive. A
productive lesson is not one in which everything goes exactly as planned, but one
in which both students and instructor learn from each other. 

BEFORE CLASS: STEPS FOR PREPARING A LESSON PLAN

Listed below are 6 steps for preparing your lesson plan before your class.
 
1. Identify the learning objectives
Before you plan your lesson, you will first need to identify the learning objectives
for the lesson. A learning objective describes what the learner will know or be
able to do after the learning experience rather than what the learner will be
exposed to during the instruction (i.e. topics). Typically, it is written in a language
that is easily understood by students and clearly related to the program learning
outcomes. The table below contains the characteristics of clear learning
objectives:

Characteristic Description

Clearly stated tasks Free from jargon and complex vocabulary; describe specific
and achievable tasks (such as ‘describe’, ‘analyse’ or
‘evaluate’) NOT vague tasks (like ‘appreciate’,
‘understand’ or ‘explore’).

Important learning goals Describe the essential (rather than trivial) learning in the
course which a student must achieve.

Achievable Can be achieved within the given period and sufficient

resources are available.

Demonstrable and Can be demonstrated in a tangible way; are assessable;

measurable achievement and quality of achievement can be observed.

Fair and equitable All students, including those with disabilities or constraints,
have a fair chance of achieving them.

Linked to course and Consider the broader goals - i.e. course, program and
program objectives institutional goals.

The Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Educational Objectives is a useful resource

for crafting learning objectives that are demonstrable and measurable.
 
2. Plan the specific learning activities
When planning learning activities you should consider the types of activities
students will need to engage in, in order to develop the skills and knowledge
required to demonstrate effective learning in the course. Learning activities should
be directly related to the learning objectives of the course, and provide
experiences that will enable students to engage in, practice, and gain feedback on
specific progress towards those objectives.
As you plan your learning activities, estimate how much time you will spend on
each. Build in time for extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to
move on quickly to different applications or problems, and to identify strategies
that check for understanding. Some questions to think about as you design the
learning activities you will use are:
 What will I do to explain the topic?
 What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?
 How can I engage students in the topic?
 What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can
help students understand the topic?
 What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better?
Many activities can be used to engage learners. The activity types (i.e. what the
student is doing) and their examples provided below are by no means an
exhaustive list, but will help you in thinking through how best to design and
deliver high impact learning experiences for your students in a typical lesson.

Activity Type Learning Description

Activity

Interaction with content Drill and Problem/task is presented

  practice to students where they are
asked to provide the
Students are more likely to retain
answer; may be timed or
information presented in these ways if they
untimed
are asked to interact with the material in
some way.
Lecture Convey concepts verbally,
often with visual aids (e.g.
presentation slides)

Quiz Exercise to assess the level

of student understanding
and questions can take
many forms, e.g. multiple-
choice, short-structured,
essay etc.
 Student Oral report where students
presentation share their research on a
topic and take on a position
and/or role

Interaction with digital content Game Goal-oriented exercise that

  encourages collaboration
and/or competition within
Students experiment with decision making,
a controlled virtual
and visualise the effects and/or
environment
consequences in virtual environments

Simulation Replica or representation

of a real-world
phenomenon that enables
relationships, contexts, and
concepts to be studied

Interaction with others Debate Verbal activity in which

  two or more differing
viewpoints on a subject are
Peer relationships, informal support
presented and argued
structures, and teacher-student
interactions/relationships
Discussion Formal/informal
conversation on a given
topic/question where the
instructor facilitates
student sharing of
responses to the questions,
and building upon those
responses

Feedback Information provided by

the instructor and/or
peer(s) regarding aspects
of one’s performance or
understanding

Guest Feelings, thoughts, ideas

Speaker and experiences specific to
 a given topic are shared by
an invited presenter

Problem solving and Critical thinking Case Study Detailed story (true or
  fictional) that students
analyse in detail to identify
Presenting students with a problem,
the underlying principles,
scenario, case, challenge or design issue,
practices, or lessons it
which they are then asked to address or
contains
deal with provides students with
opportunities to think about or use
knowledge and information in new and Concept Graphical representation of
different ways Mapping related information in
which common or shared
concepts are linked
together

Real-world Planned set of interrelated

projects tasks to be executed over a
fixed period and within
certain cost and other
limitations, either
individually or
collaboratively

Reflection Reflection Written records of

  journal students’ intellectual and
emotional reactions to a
The process of reflection starts with the
given topic on a regular
student thinking about what they already
basis (e.g. weekly after
know and have experienced in relation to
each lesson)
the topic being explored/learnt. This is
followed by analysis of why the student
thinks about the topic in the way they do,
and what assumptions, attitudes and beliefs
they have about, and bring to learning
about the topic.

It is important that each learning activity in the lesson must be (1) aligned to the
lesson’s learning objectives, (2) meaningfully engage students in active,
constructive, authentic, and collaborative ways, and (3) useful where the student is
able to take what they have learnt from engaging with the activity and use it in
another context, or for another purpose.
 
3. Plan to assess student understanding
Assessments (e.g., tests, papers, problem sets, performances) provide
opportunities for students to demonstrate and practice the knowledge and skills
articulated in the learning objectives, and for instructors to offer targeted feedback
that can guide further learning.
Planning for assessment allows you to find out whether your students are learning.
It involves making decisions about:
 the number and type of assessment tasks that will best enable students to
demonstrate learning objectives for the lesson
o Examples of different assessments
o Formative and/or summative
 the criteria and standards that will be used to make assessment judgements
o Rubrics
 student roles in the assessment process
o Self-assessment
o Peer assessment
 the weighting of individual assessment tasks and the method by which
individual task judgements will be combined into a final grade for the
course
o information about how various tasks are to be weighted and combined into
an overall grade must be provided to students
 the provision of feedback
o giving feedback to students on how to improve their learning, as well as
giving feedback to instructors how to refine their teaching
 
4. Plan to sequence the lesson in an engaging and meaningful manner
Robert Gagne proposed a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which
is useful for planning the sequence of your lesson. Using Gagne’s 9 events in
conjunction with Bloom’s aids in designing engaging and meaningful instruction.
1. Gain attention: Obtain students’ attention so that they will watch and
listen while the instructor presents the learning content.
o Present a story or a problem to be solved
o Utilize ice breaker activities, current news and events, case studies,
YouTube videos, and so on. The objective is to quickly grab student
attention and interest in the topic
o Utilize technologies such as clickers, and surveys to ask leading questions
prior to lecture, survey opinion, or gain a response to a controversial
question
2. Inform learner of objectives: Allow students to organize their thoughts
regarding what they are about to see, hear, and/or do.
o Include learning objectives in lecture slides, the syllabus, and in
instructions for activities, projects and papers
o Describe required performance
o Describe criteria for standard performance
3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge:
o Help students make sense of new information by relating it to something
they already know or something they have already experienced.
 o Recall events from previous lecture, integrate results of activities into the
current topic, and/or relate previous information to the current topic
o Ask students about their understanding of previous concepts
4. Present new content: Utilise a variety of methods including lecture,
readings, activities, projects, multimedia, and others.
o Sequence and chunk the information to avoid cognitive overload
o Blend the information to aid in information recall
o Bloom's Revised Taxonomy can be used to help sequence the lesson by
helping you chunk them into levels of difficulty.
5. Provide guidance: Advise students of strategies to aid them in learning
content and of resources available. With learning guidance, the rate of
learning increases because students are less likely to lose time or become
frustrated by basing performance on incorrect facts or poorly understood
concepts.
o Provide instructional support as needed – as scaffolds (cues, hints,
prompts) which can be removed after the student learns the task or content
o Model varied learning strategies – mnemonics, concept mapping, role
playing, visualizing
o Use examples and non-examples
To find out more about scaffolding student learning, click here
6. Practice: Allow students to apply knowledge and skills learned.
o Allow students to apply knowledge in group or individual activities
o Ask deep-learning questions, make reference to what students already
know or have students collaborate with their peers
o Ask students to recite, revisit, or reiterate information they have learned
o Facilitate student elaborations – ask students to elaborate or explain details
and provide more complexity to their responses
7. Provide feedback: Provide immediate feedback of students’ performance
to assess and facilitate learning.
o Consider using group / class level feedback (highlighting common errors,
give examples or models of target performance, show students what you
do not want)
o Consider implementing peer feedback
 o Require students to specify how they used feedback in subsequent works
8. Assess performance: To evaluate the effectiveness of the instructional
events, test to see if the expected learning outcomes have been achieved.
Performance should be based on previously stated objectives.
o Utilise a variety of assessment methods including exams/quizzes, written
assignments, projects, and so on.
9. Enhance retention and transfer: Allow students to apply information to
personal contexts. This increases retention by personalising information.
o Provide opportunities for students to relate course work to their personal
experiences
o Provide additional practice
 
5. Create a realistic timeline
A list of ten learning objectives is not realistic, so narrow down your list to the
two or three key concepts, ideas, or skills you want students to learn in the lesson.
Your list of prioritized learning objectives will help you make decisions on the
spot and adjust your lesson plan as needed. Here are some strategies for creating a
realistic timeline:
 Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some
extra time for each
 When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how
much time you expect it will take
 Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions
and to sum up key points
 Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time left
 Be flexible – be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students’ needs and
focus on what seems to be more productive rather than sticking to your
original plan
 
6. Plan for a lesson closure
Lesson closure provides an opportunity to solidify student learning. Lesson
closure is useful for both instructors and students.
You can use closure to:
  Check for student understanding and inform subsequent instruction (adjust
your teaching accordingly)
 Emphasise key information
 Tie up loose ends
 Correct students’ misunderstandings
 Preview upcoming topics
Your students will find your closure helpful for:
 Summarizing, reviewing, and demonstrating their understanding of major
points
 Consolidating and internalising key information
 Linking lesson ideas to a conceptual framework and/or previously-learned
knowledge
 Transferring ideas to new situations
There are several ways in which you can put a closure to the lesson:
 state the main points yourself (“Today we talked about…”)
 ask a student to help you summarize them
 ask all students to write down on a piece of paper what they think were the
main points of the lesson
 
BIOLOGY LESSON PLAN:

 A Biology Game To Promote Classification And Observation- Students

should learn to observe with an eye to noticing differences and salient
characteristics. Also students should be able to communicate these
observations in a brief manner.
 A Demonstration of Photo-and Geotaxes in nauplii of Artemia salina-
Students are presented with an easily observed orientation behavior of
small crustaceans with respect to light and gravity, given some description
of the habitat and feeding behavior of the organisms and encouraged to
relate the phenomena observed to the needs of the organisms in terms of
adaptation.
 Biology Lessons- 12 very basic lessons.
 Biology Trivia- 100 questions for grades 2-10.
 Biology Trivia- 101 general trivia questions.
1. Biology Trivia Questions- 71 general questions for trivia.
2. Careers in Vet.& Animal Science - The students will be able recognize
careers in the field of animal science and veterinary science.
3. Cells Are Us- The main objectives of this mini-teach are to show that the
cell is the basic unit of life; that cells divide slowly to become mass of
cells (mitosis); and that there is a gradual loss of cells throughout life.
4. Characteristics of living things- Know the different characteristics of
living things. Understand the definition of an organism.
5. Classification- The students will observe various apples, contrasting them,
and classifying the apples based on structure and color.
6. Communities, Biomes, and Ecosystems - Limiting factors and ranges of
tolerance are factors that determine where terrestrial biomes and aquatic
ecosystems exist.
7. Cooperative Learning in Biology - At the end of this cooperative lesson,
the students should be able to compare and contrast between the different
types of seed dispersal that they have came across and to justify their
answer.
8. Diffusion- Understand the movement of liquid molecules in a solid.
9. Diffusion- Demonstrate diffusion of molecules of matter in various states.
10. Enquirer-type Newspapers Have Many Uses- Using this high interest
reading students will learn about animals, including humans and their care
and feeding, photography and how to make false photos, critical thinking
skills, weighing of evidence skills, research skills, the journalism
techniques, citation exactness, increased judgment and scientific method
skills, especially making conclusions.
11. Food Chain- Create different types of food chains. Compare a balanced
food chain to an unbalanced food chain.
12. Food For Energy: Four Food Groups- Teach the students the importance
of eating properly with a balanced diet.
13. Freshwater Sharks Bite Children at 35th Beach. A Play- Students will
learn about the many different scientific occupations as well as some
possible specialization therein, and perhaps a little bit of other life
considerations, ecological, financial, educational, sociological, and
emotional as to greed, avarice, truth justice and the American Way. It
 integrates biology, physics, drama, chemistry, genetics engineering areas,
etc.
14. Introduction to Biology - Appreciate the value of using the scientific
method and be able to design an experiment using the scientific method.
15. Introduction to the Scientific Method- The main objective of this lesson is
to get the students involved in a class activity while introducing the
process of the scientific method.
16. Living and Non-Living- The main objective of this mini-teach is to
generalize that all living things need air, water, food and shelter.
17. Mammals- Students will be able to understand that mammals have
distinctive features which help us identify them. Students will be able to
familiarize themselves with different types of animals.
18. Memory and Learning- The teacher will introduce primary students to the
various parts of the brain and provide specific activities and a plastic
model designed to help improve memory.
19. Nutrition- To identify and describe the main nutrients in our diets that are
needed by the body as a source of energy.
20. Nutrition Awareness- Estimate the basic metabolic rate (BMR), energy for
voluntary activities and the energy to process food.
21. Observations (collecting data)- To determine the effects of light and
incline on the behavior of the earthworm.
22. Problem Solving: Dots, Symbols, Words, and Proteins- Students will learn
that the number and sequence of amino acids identify the protein.
23. The Characteristics of Living Things- The students will identify the
characteristics of living things using the method of observations.
24. Watercycle- To become aware of the natural circulation of water from
oceans, lakes and rivers by evaporation into the air.

QUESTION: 03
Discuss the computer aids for writing text. Also highlight its components for
writing task. (20)
ANSWER:
WRITING THEORY
Prewriting, doing the first draft, and the subsequent draft phases of writing include
numerous activities and require long periods of time to complete, sometimes
months or even years. Current theories of the writing process find it useful to
categorize these various activities as examples of collecting information (reading,
listening, and searching bibliographic sources), planning text (creating ideas,
organizing ideas, and setting goals), translating plans into text (creating acceptable
sentences- ac tuallanguage production), and reviewing text (reading, evaluating,
editing errors). A central and well-documented fact is that collecting, planning,
translating, and reviewing generally do not occur in a simple linear sequence.
Instead, the processes occur recursively during prewriting and on drafts. Any
process can call any other process during any phase of writing. Detailed
theoretical accounts ofthese processes and evidence on their recursive nature are
available from several sources
Another central fact is that collecting, planning, translating, and reviewing
seriously strain the limitations of cognitive effort and working memory. These
processing limitations are seen most easily in children who have not yet
developed ways of coping with these demands (Daiute, 1984). Yet, even relatively
experienced writers find writing effortful. This is so in spite of the skills that such
writers have for reducing writing demands, such as performing subprocesses
automatically, concentrating on only a single process at a time, and using external
representations to ease the load on working memory. Case studies of individuals
suffering from "writer's block" (Boice, 1982), as well as interviews with novelists
(Cowley, 1957) and surveys of academic writers (Green & Wason, 1982), suggest
that writing is effortful. I recently tried to measure in the laboratory this
investment of cognitive effort in planning, translating, and reviewing. Collecting
was not examined because the subjects were required to write from memory only.
In a single setting, college students wrote a persuasive essay concerning the
United Nations. Directed introspection was used to track the occurrence of each
process, and secondary task reaction times were collected to measure the degree
of cognitive effort given to each process. On a variableinterval schedule, the
subjects heard an auditory signal while writing.

EFFECTIVENESS OF COMPUTER AIDS

Computers will undoubtedly be used for preparing documents even ifthey do not
effectively aid writers. An organization gains by automating secretarial and
typesetting functions in publishing documents. Moreover, the thrust of office
automation is to integrate office functions, including writing, into a computerized
workstation But what about the overworked writer? Is there evidence that
computer aids help? As one would expect, the extent to which the products and
approaches listed in have been evaluated vary considerably. Some have been
developed by software companies that do not conduct psychological research,
whereas others come from large researchoriented organizations. Some are still in
the early stages of development; others have been on the market for years. This
mix is presented to show the wide range of aids available for writers. It is difficult
to draw conclusions about effectiveness that apply to all of these aids. However,
two observations are generally applicable.
Little Evaluation
The first observation is that remarkably little evaluation research has been
reported, especially work that combines field and laboratory methods. Whether a
writing aid improves the efficiency ofthe writer or the quality ofthe resulting
document is chiefly a matter ofspeculation. Efficiency can be measured by the
amount of time and effort required to produce a document of a given type and
length. Quality is difficult to measure, but judgments by readers and analyses of
text characteristics can be fruitfully employed. In examining the effects of
computer aids on writing efficiency and quality, converging evidence from field
studies and laboratory studies is needed. Case studies (interviews and laboratory
observations), surveys, informal field experiments, and formal laboratory
experiments provide corroborative evidence that is critical in studying complex
cognitive tasks such as writing. Formal laboratory experiments are necessary to
allow the drawing of causal conclusions. By necessity, however, such experiments
are artificial-they do not match the task environment of workaday writing. The
deadlines and competing demands on a writer's time illustrate the real-world
constraints that are difficult to simulate in the laboratory. Informal field
experiments are less controlled but offer greater realism than those conducted in
the laboratory. Surveys are also useful in establishing the generality of
conclusions based on the experimental method. Lastly, case studies reveal what
are likely to be enormous individual differences in the effectiveness of computer
aids for writing. To substantiate this first observation, consider these facts. The
most common type of evaluation of computer aids is what I call a testimonial case
study. A writer uses a product and describes his/her impressions for potential
users (Hershey, 1984; Moran, 1983; Zinsser, 1983). For example, Moran (1983, p.
113) evaluated word processing in the following way: You can imagine what the
word processor has done for me. Now the words fly up the screen, not ink on
paper but images that, with a single keystroke can be erased, filed, moved,
changed. "Nothing permanent here," I feel. "What I'm putting up on the screen is
just images; no need to worry." And so the editor retires to the sidelines, allowing
the creator to produce language, both good and bad. The editor is recalled later, at
the appropriate time, to cut, paste, add, delete I produce more, and I produce that
more with less effort.
QUESTION: 04
What are technical aspects of editing a textbook? How these aspects are helpful in
editing textbook of science at secondary level? (20)
ANSWER:
Overview of technical editing
You may find that technical editing is very different from what you expect. When
people hear the word "edit," they think of rewriting an author's words; working
with authors on issues such as character plot, and storyline; suggesting the most
appropriate word in order to make a manuscript "sing." That's not technical
editing. Instead, technical editing is a highly rhetorical, detail-oriented process of
ensuring that specialized information appears so that it is appropriate for end
users, and technical editors make informed, thoughtful suggestions for
improvement toward that purpose. Technical editing is a collaborative process
with authors, who are often subject-matter experts (SMEs, pronounced "smees"),
to check correctness of such things as chemical formulas, specialized terminology,
equations, and matchups between textual and visual elements, as well as more
traditional aspects of writing. Technical editing is a recursive process, not a one-
and-done routine. Technical editors often review the same materials multiple
times and have their edits reviewed before the materials are printed or posted
online. Only rarely will technical editors make changes and then publish the
materials immediately.

The technical editor’s first priority is the reader; and in this course, you will learn
the basics of how to be the reader’s advocate. To properly serve your readers, a
technical editor must make an effort to see technical documentation from the
reader’s perspective. You will work to understand a document’s purpose—why do
readers need the document, and how are they going to use it—to help you with
your craft. This skill also involves writing author queries and creating style sheets
to communicate with authors and other editors during the editing process. In this
Basics of Technical Editing course you will gain a perspective on the field of
Technical Communication, and use tools and techniques of technical editing on
both the written and visual aspects of documents. You will practice identifying
indisputable errors in technical documentation, including using standard editing
marks to edit a hard copy manuscript, and using Microsoft Word and Adobe
Acrobat to edit an electronic manuscript. You will apply basic copyediting to a
document by correcting errors in spelling, grammar, punctuation, and syntax. In
addition, you also will learn how to comprehensively edit a document, identifying
contextual errors, reorganizing content, and editing tables and illustrations. Course
assignments will help you understand how to apply technical editing skills and
tools in a variety of ways. Whether new or seasoned, after completing this
introductory course, you will be equipped to implement technical editing skills
and tools in a myriad of work situations. 

Technical editing covers a surprisingly wide variety of subjects, contexts, and

materials. Job ads for technical editors seek people who can comment on—and
create new—paper documents, electronic documents, images, visual designs,
websites, audio and video files, and multimedia presentations, just to name a few
examples. This chapter will focus on editing text on hard copy, soft copy, and
websites, but it will also provide you with concepts and techniques that you can
use in graphics-heavy and multimedia editing tasks.

General procedure for editing

The way you go about editing technical materials will depend on multiple factors.
You will need to consider the artifact you are editing—is it mostly text? does it
contain visuals? is it mostly visuals? is it paper-based or in electronic format?
does it contain multimedia content? is it static or interactive?—and the type of
edits that you are responsible for making. Even so, you can use the same general
strategy when approaching most technical editing projects:
1. Analyze the materials' purpose, audience, format, and uses.
2. Evaluate the materials to see if they fit. In particular, consider the materials'
contents
 completeness; appropriateness organization
 order of contents; signals about order visual design
 text; lists; tables; aesthetic appearance navigability
 findable, working hyperlinks; section breaks style
 writing style; authorial persona; sentence structures;
 cultural biases; grammar; mechanics illustrations
 type; construction; placement accessibility
 ADAcompliance
3. Set up objectives and plan your project's sequence.
4. Review the plan with the author.
5. Edit the materials.
6. Evaluate the outcome

QUESTION: 05
Explain some activities that may be carried out for the future needs of textbooks
and electronic tutoring in Pakistan. (20)
ANSWER:
A

The tools are out there. Teachers are using them. We need them integrated
into a textbook that doesn’t look a thing like what we have today.

Here’s how the publishers should do it (in case they ever ask me):

1. They must improve the user interface. Efficient page-flipping in digital

textbooks is not a reality yet. Finding something in a paper book involves a few
seconds of flipping. Digital texts need to evolve.

2. They must facilitate peer collaboration. Digital textbooks should be a center

for class discussion. In-line comments, links and replies should be seamless and
real-time.

3. They must link to the world. Hyperlinks should abound – links to research, to

studies, to homepages of organizations. Digital texts don’t need to house all the
information – just point to it.

4. They must include a world forum for opinion. Students can so easily

communicate and share opinions with peers around their countries and the world.
An chat/discussion board option should exist to expose students to other
worldviews and get them in the conversation.

5. They must be everywhere. Facebook. Twitter. Google+. Instagram.

Podcasts. Pat Flynn’s “be everywhere” slogan fits well here. Go where the
students are.

6. They must be timely. Updates should be constant (i.e. Wikipedia model).

Twitter, Facebook and Google+ feeds should be updated regularly. How? By
using money they save from paper and printing costs to hire a social media team.
7. They must be accessible. Large print options. Audio versions of texts. Various
languages. No disabilities or disadvantages get in the way.

8. They must encourage work in various media. Audio assignments. Photo

assignments. Video assignments. Website creation. Written text shouldn’t be the
only option.

9. They must allow for teacher modification. Teachers know their students

better than publishing companies. They should have the power to modify, move
and delete content to suit their needs.

10. They must be note-taking friendly. Incorporating note apps

like Evernote (for typers) and Penultimate (for hand writers) should mesh in the
learning experience easily.
The concept I’ve described here isn’t exactly a file you download and peruse on a
device. These “textbooks” are a learning experience. They’re an all-in-one-place
learning hub. They take the best of the Web’s tools and use them for a single
purpose – education.

Even as developing countries catch up on digital learning, the good old physical

textbook should have a key role.

In 2009, the New York Times published an article titled: In a Digital Future,
Textbooks are History. Since then, many have queried whether textbooks are
needed in a digital world, given that extensive and often free on-line resources are
now available.

The digital era has challenged conventional practices on textbooks. Should

physical textbooks be replaced by packaged digital materials? With free on-line
resources, should governments stop allocating budgets to textbooks? Are schools
in developing countries using digital sources to improve learning?  
The answers to these questions are not binary, but depend on the development
context of countries including their digital infrastructure availability, affordability
and capacity. Even as developing countries catch up on the digital curve, the good
old physical textbook cannot be debunked.  

Digital learning materials are indispensable in the modern era. But it’s just as
important that they be supported by next-generation physical textbooks that guide
and amplify their impact.
Here are 5 ways in which policy-makers can deliver textbooks that work with
digital learning to boost student performance in developing countries.
1. Make textbooks more “real-time” to help navigate the curriculum.
Textbooks are still crucial to the education process, and provide a roadmap for
grade and subject-specific learning attainments. A 2016 study by the Harvard
Education Policy Research Center found high achievement gains for students
using top-quality textbooks. 

The policy paper Why Textbooks Count by Cambridge Assessment was influential

in bringing attention back to textbooks in England by finding that England’s poor
performance in math compared to star performers like Finland and Singapore can
be attributed to the fact that only 10% of teachers in England used textbooks.
  
However, the pace of change calls for developing countries to ensure that
textbooks are dynamic and updated faster to reflect guiding principles on
knowledge and skills that are important for the future.

2. Blending digital resources with physical textbooks for the millennials.

Even advanced nations such as the Republic of Korea (which had an explicit
target to go fully digital in textbooks by 2015) or the United States (where states
like California and Texas favor digital books) have not yet gone fully digital.
But developing countries, even though faced with challenges on basics like
teachers, classrooms and toilets, can and should blend videos, simulations, and
multimedia materials with textbooks to meet the learning needs of current
generation students.

The real power of digital resources lies in transforming how students are taught to
make learning more suited to millennials in being interactive, personalized, and
self-directed. 

3. Re-position the role of the teacher to go beyond textbooks.

The digital era has brought in diverse learning materials and tools. The teacher’s
role today is to be a coach rather than simply a purveyor of knowledge. Next-
generation textbooks promoting independent and project-based study demand
teachers who are more proactive and creative.  

This is happening in Nepal, where ADB is helping the Curriculum Development

Center develop online materials for teaching science, math and English in middle
school so that teachers become adept in using e-content. In the a2i program in
Bangladesh, teachers form an online community to create and share learning
materials in the Teachers’ Portal.

In Bhutan and Sri Lanka ADB helped to pilot the ‘Math Cloud’ program, an
adaptive learning tool which tailors the learning pathways to the specific level of
each student. Teachers use the tool to help students at different stages of learning
to master concepts through independent study.

4. Invest jointly in next-generation textbooks and digital materials.

Some believe that with free online resources, governments can do away with
textbooks and save money. The reality is quite the contrary. To upgrade static and
old-fashioned textbooks, governments need to invest substantially in developing
newer models of textbooks that are reliable and efficient navigating tools in a
digital world, and which can also be paired with their digital twins.

The developing world faces many paradoxes – it is not uncommon to find a well-
resourced school with smart classrooms and digital resources in an urban setting
and traveling two hours away, see a rural school without proper classrooms,
electricity and teachers. Budget allocations from government need to cater to the
different realities.

Continued need for high-quality textbooks and digital learning tools and systems
call for more rather than less investment by governments.

5. Improve school connectivity for multiple sources of on-line learning.

Computers began to permeate the school during the ICT era. But now the game-
changer is connectivity. In Nepal, which is implementing a $6.4 billion School
Sector Development Plan (in partnership with ADB and other development
partners), only 4,000 of about 32,000 schools have connectivity.

Better connectivity is a must. It opens the way for e-libraries and e-learning
platforms to be established to supplement textbooks and update schools on latest
educational trends and innovative teaching methods.

The role of textbooks is even more relevant in the digital world.  They can
provide an underlying blueprint to help navigate the vast jungle of open resources
and online materials to attain specific learning goals.

But we must innovate and re-position textbook policy and practice for the global
digital era. Only then can digital resources and technology tools be integrated
with textbook content to improve student learning.