Debre Markos University Institute of Technology

Department: Construction Technology and Management

Course Note: Highway Design and Engineering

Chapter 2
2. Design Control & Criteria
The elements of design are influenced by a wide variety of design controls, engineering criteria, and
project specific objectives which include:
 Functional Classification of the road
 Design Traffic Volume & Composition
 Nature of terrain
 Design Speed
 Vehicle classification
 Density and character of adjoining land use
 Economic & Environmental Considerations
 Road users characteristics
 Level service to be provided
 Available fund
 Safety, etc.

2.1 Functional Classification of the Road

Functional classification is the process by which highways are grouped into classes, or systems,
according to the purpose, or the character of service they are intended to provide
In general, the two basic functions of a highway are:
i. Access to property: The ability to reach desired destination,
ii. Travel mobility: The ability to move goods and passengers to their destination. (in a reasonable time)
Almost all highways perform both of these functions, but in varying combinations

Compiled By: Mr. Zinabu W. (MSc.)

Academic Year: May, 2022 Page 1
 Debre Markos University Institute of Technology
Department: Construction Technology and Management
Course Note: Highway Design and Engineering

o Arterials : -
 Provide highest level of mobility
 At the highest Speed
 For long, uninterrupted travel
 Have highest design standards than others
 Are with multiple lanes & some Access control
o Collectors: -
 Provide lower level of mobility
 Provide larger level of property access
 Designed for lower speed & shorter distance
 They are typically two lane highways that gather & distribute traffic to & from arterial & local
Systems
o Locals: -
 Emphasize high level of land access
 Provide highest level of property access at the lowest speed & lowest level of mobility.
 Have lowest design standard
 They are typically two lane highways with no striping or other painted markings
 They represent the bulk of the mileage in the public highway network

 Roads generally serve a multitude of purposes:

 As through route - for long distance traffic
 As local route – for local traffic
 In urban and rural areas –urban roads/rural roads
 For fast and slow vehicles – 2 wheels to 10+ wheels
 As servicing/access roads
 For use by pedestrians
 For parking areas
 For Street Vendors, etc
 Such a mix of uses Reduces SAFETY, EFFICIENCY, and CAPACITY Hence, a hierarchical road
system is necessary. Roads are therefore classified according to their respective functions in terms
of the character of services they are providing.

Compiled By: Mr. Zinabu W. (MSc.)

Academic Year: May, 2022 Page 2
 Debre Markos University Institute of Technology
Department: Construction Technology and Management
Course Note: Highway Design and Engineering

Determination of functional classification establishes the basic roadway cross section in terms of lane
width, shoulder width, type and width of median area, and other major design features.

Compiled By: Mr. Zinabu W. (MSc.)

Academic Year: May, 2022 Page 3
 Debre Markos University Institute of Technology
Department: Construction Technology and Management
Course Note: Highway Design and Engineering

2.2. Design traffic volume and composition

Factual information on expected traffic volume is an essential input to design. Traffic volume directly
affects the geometric features such as no of lanes, widths, alignment and grades
The design elements which are based on the traffic volume are:
 Pavement type and thickness
 Drainage systems and structures
 Geometric elements of the road
 Design speed.

The traffic analysis is carried out to determine the pavement component required to resist the traffic load
during the design period. The structural parameters required to determine the traffic load are
o Select design period
o Estimate initial traffic volume (initial AADT) per class of vehicle.
o Estimate traffic growth.
o Determine cumulative traffic volume over the design period.
o Obtain mean equivalent load.
o Estimate cumulative ESA over the design period (in one direction).
o Select appropriate traffic class (based on ESA) for flexible pavement design.
A. Design Period
The length or duration of time during which the pavement structure is expected to function satisfactorily
without the need for major intervention (rehabilitation such as overlays or reconstruction) or the duration
in time until the pavement structure reaches its terminal condition (failure condition). Selecting
appropriate design period depends on
• Functional importance of the road
• Traffic volume
• Location and terrain of the project
• Financial constraints
• Difficulty in forecasting traffic
Longer Design Period - for important roads, high traffic volume, roads in difficult location and terrain
where regular maintenance is costly and difficult due to access problems or lack of construction material
Short Design Period - if there is problem in traffic forecasting, financial constraints, etc.

Compiled By: Mr. Zinabu W. (MSc.)

Academic Year: May, 2022 Page 4
 Debre Markos University Institute of Technology
Department: Construction Technology and Management
Course Note: Highway Design and Engineering

2.3. Nature of terrain

The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through which the road passes.
Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:
A) Flat: - Flat or gently rolling country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road, having
continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (the transverse terrain slope is up to 5
percent).
B) Rolling: - Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately and
where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions in alignment (transverse
terrain slope vary from 5%-25%).
C) Mountainous: - Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain
imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep
grades and limited sight distance. (Transverse terrain slope from 25 percent to 50 percent).
D) Escarpment: Escarpment include situations where switchback roadway sections are used or side hill
transverse sections which cause considerable earthwork quantities, with transverse terrain slope in
excess of 50 percent.
 In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and higher
standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads in either flat
or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and therefore adjust their
driving accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will therefore vary with transverse
terrain.
2.4. Design speed
The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the design
parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a reasonably consistent
speed environment. Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, Superelevation,
sight distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all of the geometric
design parameters of a road are directly related to the selected design speed. The design speeds given in
Table below have been determined in accordance with the following guidelines:

 Drivers on long-distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local traffic.
 On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are undesirable.
 Drivers usually adjust their speeds to physical limitations and prevailing traffic conditions.

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Academic Year: May, 2022 Page 5
 Debre Markos University Institute of Technology
Department: Construction Technology and Management
Course Note: Highway Design and Engineering

 Economic considerations (road user savings vs. construction costs) may justify a higher design
speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than for a less heavily trafficked road in similar
topography.
 Change in design speed, if required due to a change in terrain class, should not be effected
abruptly, but over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed gradually. The change in
design speed should not be greater than one design speed step.
 It is often the case that the physical terrain changes two steps, i.e. - from mountainous to flat
terrain. Where possible in such circumstances, a transition section of road shall be provided with
limiting parameters equivalent to the rolling terrain type. Where this is not possible, i.e. a
Departure from Standards, special attention shall be given to the application of warning signs
and/or rumble strips to alert the driver to the changing conditions.
 It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed should
ensure a safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced way,
avoiding the application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a particular
location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum requirements. The speed
that a driver adopts on a road depends on:
 Physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings
 Weather conditions of the area
 Presence of other vehicles and the nature of these vehicles, and
 Speed limitations placed upon the vehicles either by law or by mechanical
devices fitted in vehicles

As these factors usually vary along a route of some length, the design does not have to be constant for the
whole length of a road.

2.5 Design Vehicle

Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in geometric design.
Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to weight ratio, minimum turning
radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road elements affected include the
selection of maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal curve widening, and junction design.
Note: The present vehicle fleet in Ethiopia includes a high number of four-wheel drive utility vehicles and
overloaded trucks. Until information that is more detailed becomes available regarding the makeup of the
vehicle fleet in Ethiopia, the four design vehicles indicated in Table 5-3 should be used in the control o1f
geometric design: ERA Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics are:

Compiled By: Mr. Zinabu W. (MSc.)

Academic Year: May, 2022 Page 6
 Debre Markos University Institute of Technology
Department: Construction Technology and Management
Course Note: Highway Design and Engineering

2.6. Effect of Highways on the Environment

Highway and traffic have earned the dubious distinction of being the worst defilers of the environment.
They have a direct impact on social and community values, the environment and the ecology. In view of
the growing awareness of the community and the government to preserve and enhance the environmental
values, highway engineers have to plan, construct and maintain highways with this special requirement in
mind. Before the highway engineer prepares any scheme, he should prepare an environmental impact
statement. The environmental impact statement containing an assessment of the anticipated significantly
effects that the proposed action may have on the quality of the environment. The purpose of the
environmental impact statement is to ensure that careful attention is given to environmental matters and
that such matters are appropriately considered in the highway agency’s decision

Contents of an Environmental Impact Statement

 Description of the proposed action and alternatives considered
 Location, type, and length of facility, termini, number of lanes, right-of-way width.
 Other design features such as general horizontal and vertical alignment, structures, etc.
 Deficiencies of existing facilities, anticipated benefits
 Land use planning: description of planning processes for the area
 Probable impact of proposed action on the environment
 Natural, ecological, scenic resource impacts
 Relocation of individuals and families
 Social impacts
 Air quality impacts
 Noise impacts
 Water quality impacts
 Construction impacts
 Alternatives to the proposed action
 Probable adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided.
 The relationship between local short-term uses of man’s environment and the maintenance and
enhancement of long-term productivity.
 Irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources.
 The impact on properties and sites of historic and cultural significance
 The effect of highways and traffic on the environment will be the following type:

Compiled By: Mr. Zinabu W. (MSc.)

Academic Year: May, 2022 Page 7
 Debre Markos University Institute of Technology
Department: Construction Technology and Management
Course Note: Highway Design and Engineering

 Noise pollution
 Air pollution
 Visual intrusion and degrading the aesthetics
 Community impact: relocation of individuals and families.

2.7. Economic Evaluation of Highways

• Economic evaluation is a rational approach at quantifying the future benefits and costs of
proposed highway improvements with a view to determine to what extent the schemes will
contribute to the goal of raising the living standard of the people and their general welfare.
• The economic evaluation of highway schemes is generally done by computing the total transport
cost which consists of the following components:
 Cost of construction of the facility
 Cost of maintenance of the facility
 Road user cost
 Cost to the society

Compiled By: Mr. Zinabu W. (MSc.)

Academic Year: May, 2022 Page 8