UNIT – 2

PART – A

1. What do you understand by CSMA protocol?

Carrier-sense multiple access is a media access control protocol in which
a node verifies the absence of other traffic before transmitting on a shared
transmission medium, such as an electrical bus or a band of the electromagnetic
spectrum

2. Assess about Nodes and Links

Node is an individual processing unit , it has capabaility to communicate
with other nodes on demand , process the information it receives. The
communication channel that connects the adjacent nodes is known as links, and
in order to move the datagram from source to the destination, the datagram must
be moved across an individual link.

3.What is HDLC?
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol. HDLC
is used for communication over point-to-point and multipoint links. HDLC
implements the Stop-and-Wait protocol. Since it is a data link protocol, data is
organized into frames. A frame is transmitted via the network to the destination
that verifies its successful arrival

4. Outline the services provided by the Data link layer

Data Link Layer is generally representing protocol layer in program that
is simply used to handle and control the transmission of data between source
and destination machines. It is simply responsible for exchange of frames
among nodes or machines over physical network media.

5.What is flow control and error control

FLOW CONTROL:
If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the
rate produced in the sender ,the Data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism.

ERROR CONTROL:
Used for detecting and retransmitting damaged or lost frames and to
prevent duplication of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added at the
end of the frame.
6. Infer why the data link layer is subdivided into two sublayers.
The data link layer is divided into two sublayers: Thus, it controls the
synchronization, flow control, and error checking functions of the data link
layer. Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer provides control for accessing the
transmission medium.

7.Suppose the following sequence of bits arrives over a link

1101011111010111110010111110110. Show the resulting frame after any
stuffed bits have been removed .Indicates any errors that might have been
introduced into the frame.
The frame Flag of HDLC or PPP protocol is 01111110. Bit stuffing is
used to identify the start or the end of a frame by inserting additional 0. If there
are five consecutive 1, the sender will insert one 0 as stuffed bit. If the receiver
gets seven consecutive 1, there must be an error of the end of frame (EOF)We
indicate the 0 after five 1s with red color. Received
sequence: 1101011111010111110010111110110Removing stuffed 0:
1101011111^1011111^01011111^110

There is no seven consecutive 1 not interrupted by stuffed 0, so the receiver

does not detectany error

8. What are the three different configuration supported by HDLC?

HDLC generally explains different types of configurations for different
types of stations
 Primary station
 Secondary station
 Combined station

9. Define framing
Framing is a point-to-point connection between two computers or devices
consists of a wire in which data is transmitted as a stream of bits. Frames have
headers that contain information such as error-checking codes

10. Relate persistent CSMA with non-persistent CSMA

 Basis 1-persistent CSMA Non-persistent CSMA

Carrier When channel is idle it will When channel is idle it will

Sense send with probability 1. send frame.

It will continuously sense

channel for transmission of It will wait for random amount
Waiting frames. of time to check carrier.

In this method, chance of

Chance of In this method, there are highest collision are less than in 1-
Collision number of collisions observed. persistent.

It’s utilization is above ALOHA It’s utilization is above 1-

because frames are sent only persistent because in this all
when channel is found in idle stations constantly check for
Utilization state. channel at same time.

It is longer than 1-persistent as

Delay Low It is small because frames are it only checks randomly when
Load sent only in idle state. channel is busy.

11. Compose your view on why fragmentation is recommended in a

wireless LAN?
Fragmentation The wireless environment is very noisy; a corrupt frame
has to be retransmitted. The protocol, therefore, recommends fragmentation-the
division of a large frame into smaller ones. It is more efficient to resend a small
frame than a large one.

12. Analyze the role of 802.11

IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of local area network (LAN)
technical standards, and specifies the set of media access control (MAC) and
physical layer (PHY) protocols for implementing wireless local area network
(WLAN) computer communication.
13. What is meant by bit stuffing? Give an example
Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever five
consecutive 1s follow a 0 in the data, so that the receiver does not mistake the
pattern 0111110 for a flag.
Eg.
a standard HDLC packet begins and ends with 01111110. To make sure
this sequence doesn't appear again before the end of the packet, a 0 is inserted
after every five consecutive 1s.

14. Assess the four types of S frames.

There are 4 types of S-frames:
 Receive ready (RR),
 Receive not ready (RNR),
 Reject (REJ) and
 Selective reject (SREJ).
15. Examine the access method used by wireless LAN?
IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs use a media access control protocol
called Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA).
While the name is similar to Ethernet's Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Detection (CSMA/CD), the operating concept is totally different.

16. Identify the hidden node problem

In wireless networking, the hidden node problem or hidden terminal
problem occurs when a node can communicate with a wireless access point, but
cannot directly communicate with other nodes that are communicating with that
AP.

17. Organize the role of error control?

Error control in data link layer is the process of detecting and correcting
data frames that have been corrupted or lost during transmission. Used for
detecting and retransmitting damaged or lost frames and to prevent duplication
of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added at the end of the frame.

18. Show the Ethernet frame format

 The 64-bit preamble allows the receiver to synchronize with the signal; it
is a sequence of alternating 0’s and 1’s.
 Both the source and destination hosts are identified with a 48-bit address.
 The packet type field serves as the demultiplexing key.
 Each frame contains up to 1500 bytes of data(Body).
 CRC is used for Error
 19. Compare Bit oriented versus Byte oriented protocol.

Bit-oriented framing
In bit-oriented framing, data is transmitted as a sequence of bits that can be
interpreted in the upper layers both as text as well as multimedia data.
Byte oriented protocol:
Byte-oriented framing protocol is "a communications protocol in which
full bytes are used as control codes. Also known as character-oriented protocol."
For example UART communication is byte-oriented. The term "character-
oriented" is deprecated, since the notion of character has changed

20. Write about the Hubs and switches

Hub Switch

They operate in the physical layer of the OSI They operate in the data link layer of the OSI
model. model.

It is a non-intelligent network device that sends It is an intelligent network device that sends
message to all ports. message to selected destination ports.

It primarily broadcasts messages. It is supports unicast, multicast and broadcast.

Transmission mode is half duplex. Transmission mode is full duplex.

Collisions may occurs during setup of Collisions do not occur since the
transmission when more than one computers communication is full duplex.
place data simultaneously in the corresponding
ports.
They are passive devices, they don’t have any They are active devices, equipped with
software associated with it. network software.

They generally have fewer ports of 4/12. The number of ports is higher – 24/48.

PART – B

1.(i)Explain the physical properties of Ethernet 802.3 with necessary

diagram of Ethernet transceiver and adaptor. (6)
An Ethernet segment is implemented on a coaxial cable of up to 500m. this
cable is similar to the type used for cable TV, except that it typically has an
impedance of 50 ohms instead of cable TV‟s 75 ohms. Hosts connect to an
Ethernet segment by tapping into it; taps must be at least 2.5 m apart.

A transceiver a small device directly attached to the tap detects when the line is
idle and drives the signal when the host is transmitting. It also receives incoming
signals. The transceiver is, in turn, connected to an Ethernet adaptor, which is
plugged into the host.

Multiple Ethernet segments can be joined together by repeater. A repeater is a

device that forwards digital signals, much like an amplifier forwards analog
signals. However, no more than four repeaters may be positioned between any
pair of hosts, meaning that an Ethernet has a total reach of only 2,500m.
 An Ethernet is limited to supporting a maximum of 1,024 hosts.
Terminators attached to the end of each segment absorb the signal and keep it
from bouncing back and interfering with trailing signals.

(ii) Assess and explain the Ethernet frame format (7)

FRAME FORMAT OF ETHERNET

The Ethernet frame is defined by the format given in the Fig.

The 64-bit preamble allows the receiver to synchronize with the signal;
it is
a sequence of alternating 0’s and 1’s.
Both the source and destination hosts are identified with a 48-bit
address.
The packet type field serves as the demultiplexing key.
Each frame contains up to 1500 bytes of data(Body).
CRC is used for Error detection

Ethernet Addresses
Every Ethernet host has a unique Ethernet address (48 bits – 6 bytes).
Ethernet address is represented by sequence of six numbers separated
by
colons.
Each number corresponds to 1 byte of the 6 byte address and is given
by
pair of hexadecimal digits.
Eg: 8:0:2b:e4:b1:2 is the representation of
00001000 00000000 00101011 11100100 10110001 00000010
Each frame transmitted on an Ethernet is received by every adaptor
connected to the Ethernet.
In addition to unicast addresses an Ethernet address consisting of all 1s
is
treated as broadcast address.
Similarly the address that has the first bit set to 1 but it is not the
broadcast
address is called multicast address.
2.Construct the comparison between different wireless technologies?
Enumerate 802.11 protocol stacks in detail. (13)
Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for
exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances using
UHF radio waves in the ISM bands, from 2.402 GHz to 2.48 GHz, and building
personal area networks.
Infrared:
Infrared (IR) is a wireless mobile technology used for device
communication over short ranges. IR communication has major limitations
because it requires line-of-sight, has a short transmission range and is unable to
penetrate walls. ... Thus, data transmitted between IrDA devices is normally
unencrypted.
Near Field Communication (NFC)
Near-Field Communication is a set of communication protocols for
communication between two electronic devices over a distance of 4 cm or less.
NFC offers a low-speed connection with simple setup that can be used to
bootstrap more-capable wireless connections.
Wireless-Fidelity:
IEEE 802.11 is part of the IEEE 802 set of local area network technical
standards, and specifies the set of media access control and physical layer
protocols for implementing wireless local area network computer
communication

The 802.11 architecture and protocol stack

802.11 networks can be used in two modes:

infrastructure mode and ad-hoc mode computer network. Infrastructure

mode uses an AP (Access Point) that is connected to the network. Clients send
and receive packets via the AP. Several APs can be connected to form an
extended network. The 802.11 physical layer corresponds to the OSI physical
layer, but the data link layer is split into multiple sublayers.

In 802.11 the MAC sublayer determines which channel gets to transmit next.
The sublayer above, the LLC (Logical Link Layer), hides the differences
between the varying 802.11 versions for the network layer

The 802.11 physical layer

“All 802.11 techniques use short-range radios to transmit signals in either 2.4-
GHz or 5-GHz ISM frequency bands”. These bands are unlicensed, and so are
shared by many other devices such as garage door openers, or microwave
ovens. Fewer applications tend to use the 5-GHz band, so 5-GHz can be better
for some applications despite shorter range due to higher frequency

All 802.11 transmission methods define multiple rates. Different rates can be
used depending on the current conditions. If the signal is weak, a low rate is
used. If the signal is clear, the highest rate is used. The process of adjustment is
called rate adaption.

3.Analyze the architecture of IEEE 802.11. (13)

IEEE 802.11 is a set of media access control (MAC) and physical layer
(PHY) specifications for implementing wireless local area network(WLAN)
computer communication in the 900 MHz and 2.4, 3.6, 5, and 60 GHz
frequency bands
The IEEE developed an international standard for WLANs. The 802.11 standard
focuses on the bottom two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer (PHY)
and data link layer (DLL).
The objective of the IEEE 802.11 standard was to define a medium access
control (MAC) sublayer, MAC management protocols and services, and three
PHYs for wireless connectivity of fixed, portable, and moving devices within a
local area.
The three physical layers are an IR base band PHY, an FHSS radio in the 2.4
GHz band, and a DSSS radio in the 2.4 GHz.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture:
The architecture of the IEEE 802.11 WLAN is designed to support a network
where most decision making is distributed to mobile stations. This type of
architecture has several advantages. It is tolerant of faults in all of the WLAN
equipment and eliminates possible bottlenecks a centralized architecture would
introduce. The architecture is flexible and can easily support both small,
transient networks and large, semipermanent or permanent networks. In
addition, the architecture and protocols offer significant power saving and
prolong the battery life of mobile equipment without losing network
connectivity
Two network architectures are defined in the IEEE 802.11 standard:
 Infrastructure network: An infrastructure network is the network
architecture for providing communication between wireless clients and
wired network resources. The transition of data from the wireless to wired
medium occurs via an AP. An AP and its associated wireless clients
define the coverage area. Together all the devices form a basic service set
(refer figure 1).
  Point-to-point (ad-hoc) network: An ad-hoc network is the architecture
that is used to support mutual communication between wireless clients.
Typically, an ad-hoc network is created spontaneously and does not
support access to wired networks. An ad-hoc network does not require an
AP.

IEEE 802.11 supports three basic topologies for WLANs, the independent basic
service set (IBSS), the basic service set, and the extended service set (ESS). The
MAC layer supports implementations of IBSS, basic service set, and ESS
configurations.
Independent basic service set: The IBSS configuration is referred to as an
independent configuration or an ad-hoc network. An IBSS configuration is
analogous to a peer-to-peer office network in which no single node is required
to act as a server. IBSS WLANs include a number of nodes or wireless stations
that communicate directly with one another on an ad-hoc, peer-to-peer basis.
Generally, IBSS implementations cover a limited area and are not connected to
any large network. An IBSS is typically a short-lived network, with a small
number of stations, that is created for a particular purpose.
Basic service set: The basic service set configuration relies on an AP that acts as
the logical server for a single WLAN cell or channel. Communications between
station 1 and station 4 actually flow from station 1 to AP1 and then from AP1 to
AP2 and then from AP2 to AP4 and finally AP4 to station 4 (refer to Figure 2).
An AP performs a bridging function and connects multiple WLAN cells or
channels, and connects WLAN cells to a wired enterprise LAN.

Extended service set: The ESS configuration consists of multiple basic service
set cells that can be linked by either wired or wireless backbones called a
distributed system. IEEE 802.11 supports ESS configurations in which multiple
cells use the same channel, and configurations in which multiple cells use
different channels to boost aggregate throughput. To network the equipment
outside of the ESS, the ESS and all of its mobile stations appear to be a single
MAC layer network where all stations are physically stationary. Thus, the ESS
hides the mobility of the mobile stations from everything outside the ESS.

5.Explain in detail about the Point to point Protocol (PPP) with neat sketch.
(13)

 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) was devised by IETF (Internet

Engineering
Task Force) in 1990 as a Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP).
 PPP is a data link layer communications protocol used to establish
a direct
connection between two nodes.
 It connects two routers directly without any host or any other
networking
device in between.
  It is used to connect the Home PC to the server of ISP via a
modem.
 It is a byte - oriented protocol that is widely used in broadband
communications having heavy loads and high speeds.
 Since it is a data link layer protocol, data is transmitted in frames.
It is also known as RFC 1661.
Services Provided by PPP:
The main services provided by Point - to - Point Protocol are −
1. Defining the frame format of the data to be transmitted.
2. Defining the procedure of establishing link between two points and
exchange of data.
3. Stating the method of encapsulation of network layer data in the frame.
4. Stating authentication rules of the communicating devices.
5. Providing address for network communication.
6. Providing connections over multiple links.
7. Supporting a variety of network layer protocols by providing a range
os
services.

PPP Frame
PPP is a byte - oriented protocol where each field of the frame is
composed of one
or more bytes.

1. Flag − 1 byte that marks the beginning and the end of the frame. The
bit
pattern of the flag is 01111110.
2. Address − 1 byte which is set to 11111111 in case of broadcast.
3. Control − 1 byte set to a constant value of 11000000.
4. Protocol − 1 or 2 bytes that define the type of data contained in the
payload
field.
5. Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. The maximum
length of the payload field is 1500 bytes.
6. FCS − It is a 2 byte(16-bit) or 4 bytes(32-bit) frame check sequence for
error detection. The standard code used is CRC.
Byte Stuffing in PPP Frame
Byte stuffing is used is PPP payload field whenever the flag sequence
appears in
the message, so that the receiver does not consider it as the end of the frame.
The
escape byte, 01111101, is stuffed before every byte that contains the same byte
as
the flag byte or the escape byte. The receiver on receiving the message removes
the escape byte before passing it onto the network layer.

Transition Phases in PPP

The PPP connection goes through different states as shown in a transition
phase
diagram.

Dead:
In dead phase the link is not used. There is no active carrier and the
line is quiet.
Establish:
Connection goes into this phase when one of the nodes start
communication. In this phase, two parties negotiate the options. If
negotiation is successful, the system goes into authentication phase or
directly to networking phase.
Authenticate:
This phase is optional. The two nodes may decide whether they
need this phase during the establishment phase. If they decide to proceed
with authentication, they send several authentication packets. If the result
is successful, the connection goes to the networking phase; otherwise, it
goes to the termination phase.
Network:
In network phase, negotiation for the network layer protocols takes
place.PPP specifies that two nodes establish a network layer agreement
before data at the network layer can be exchanged. This is because PPP
supports several protocols at network layer. If a node is running multiple
protocols simultaneously at the network layer, the receiving node needs
to know which protocol will receive the data.
 Open:
In this phase, data transfer takes place. The connection remains in
this phase until one of the endpoints wants to end the connection.
Terminate: In this phase connection is terminated.

Components/Protocols of PPP
Three sets of components/protocols are defined to make PPP powerful:

Link Control Protocol (LCP)

Authentication Protocols (AP)
Network Control Protocols (NCP)
Link Control Protocol (LCP)
− It is responsible for establishing, configuring, testing, maintaining and
terminating links for transmission. It also provides negotiation mechanisms to
set options between the two endpoints. Both endpoints of the link must reach an
agreement about the options before the link can be established.
Authentication Protocols (AP)
− Authentication means validating the identity of a user who needs to
access a set of resources. PPP has created two protocols for authentication
-Password Authentication Protocol
Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol.
PAP:
The Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) is a simple authentication
procedure with a two-step process:
a. The user who wants to access a system sends an authentication
identification (usually the user name) and a password.
b. The system checks the validity of the identification and password and
either accepts or denies connection.
CHAP:
The Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) is a three-
way handshaking authentication protocol that provides greater security than
PAP. In
this method, the password is kept secret; it is never sent online.
a. The system sends the user a challenge packet containing a challenge
value.
b. The user applies a predefined function that takes the challenge value
and
the user’s own password and creates a result. The user sends the result in
the response packet to the system.
c. The system does the same. It applies the same function to the password
of
the user (known to the system) and the challenge value to create a result.
If the result created is the same as the result sent in the response packet,
 access is granted; otherwise, it is denied.

CHAP is more secure than PAP, especially if the system continuously

changes the
challenge value. Even if the intruder learns the challenge value and the result,
the
password is still secret.

Network Control Protocols (NCP)

− PPP is a multiple-network-layer protocol. It can carry a network-layer
data packet from protocols defined by the Internet. PPP has defined a specific
Network Control Protocol for each network protocol. These protocols are used
for negotiating the parameters and facilities for the network layer. For every
higher-layer protocol supported by PPP, one NCP is there.

6. (i) Analyze the flow and error control in DLC

Flow Control

Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of

data that the sender can send before waiting for acknowledgment.
o The receiving device has limited speed and limited memory to store the
data.
o Therefore, the receiving device must be able to inform the sending
device to stop the transmission temporarily before the limits are reached.
o It requires a buffer, a block of memory for storing the information until
they are processed.

Two types of mechanisms can be deployed to control the flow:

 Stop and Wait

This flow control mechanism forces the sender after transmitting a data
frame to stop and wait until the acknowledgement of the data-frame sent
is received.
 Sliding Window
In this flow control mechanism, both sender and receiver agree on the
number of data-frames after which the acknowledgement should be sent.
As we learnt, stop and wait flow control mechanism wastes resources, this
protocol tries to make use of underlying resources as much as possible.
Error Control

Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication, errors

must be detected and corrected. Error Control is a technique of error detection
and
retransmission.
Requirements for error control mechanism:
 Error detection - The sender and receiver, either both or any, must
ascertain that there is some error in the transit.
 Positive ACK - When the receiver receives a correct frame, it should
acknowledge it.
 Negative ACK - When the receiver receives a damaged frame or a
duplicate frame, it sends a NACK back to the sender and the sender must
retransmit the correct frame.
 Retransmission: The sender maintains a clock and sets a timeout period.
If an acknowledgement of a data-frame previously transmitted does not
arrive before the timeou
 t the sender retransmits the frame, thinking that the frame or it’s
acknowledgement is lost in transit.
(ii) Examine the various issues in the Data link layer. (6)
Issues in Data Link Layer:
• The main job of the data link layer is to make the communication on the
physical link reliable & efficient.
Issues,
– Provide interface to the network layer services.
– Framing
– Flow Control
– Error Control
– Synchronization
– Link Configuration Control.
Issues in Data Link Layer Services provided to Network layer
 Virtual Communication
 Actual Communication
Types of services provided to the Network Layer:
 Unacknowledged Connectionless service
 Acknowledged Connectionless service
 Acknowledged Connection oriented service
Framing:
• Translation of physical layer’s raw bits into a larger aggregate (or)
discrete units called frames.
• Here beginning and end of the data are marked to recognize the frame &
used in synchronization. Issues in Data Link Layer

Synchronization:
• Receiver must know, when the data begins & when it ends and also
receiver should be able to distinguish between each bit in the frame of data.
Flow Control
• Refers to the mechanisms that make sure that the sending station cannot
overwhelm the receiving station.
• Preventing the buffer overflow.
 Eg., Sliding Window. Issues in Data Link Layer

Error Control:
• All transmission media have potential for introduction of errors.
• Error control mechanisms can detect as well as correct errors.
Link Configuration Control
• Link Topology
 Physical arrangement of the connection between the devices.
• Link Duplexity
  Simplex – only one device can transmit to other. (ie., one
direction transmit) Issues in Data Link Layer
 half duplex – Both device can transmit to each other, but not
simultaneously.
 full duplex – Both device can transmit simultaneously. Issues in
Data Link Layer

7. What is the need for error detection? Explain with typical examples.
Explain methods used for error detection and error correction. (13)
Error Detection
When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system
does not guarantee whether the data received by the device is identical to the data
transmitted by another device. An Error is a situation when the message received
at the receiver end is not identical to the message transmitted.
Types Of Errors
Errors can be classified into two categories:
o Single-Bit Error
o Burst Error
Error Detecting Techniques:
The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:
o Single parity check
o Two-dimensional parity check
o Checksum
o Cyclic redundancy check
Single Parity Check
o Single Parity checking is the simple mechanism and inexpensive to detect
the errors.
o In this technique, a redundant bit is also known as a parity bit which is
appended at the end of the data unit so that the number of 1s becomes even.
Therefore, the total number of transmitted bits would be 9 bits.
o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is appended and if the
number of 1s bits is even, then parity bit 0 is appended at the end of the
data unit.
o At the receiving end, the parity bit is calculated from the received data bits
and compared with the received parity bit.
o This technique generates the total number of 1s even, so it is known as
even-parity checking.

Two-Dimensional Parity Check

 o Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity
Check which organizes the data in the form of a table.
o Parity check bits are computed for each row, which is equivalent to the
single-parity check.
o In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows, and
the redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits
computed from the received data.

Checksum
A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.
It is divided into two parts:
Checksum Generator
A Checksum is generated at the sending side. Checksum generator subdivides the
data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together
by using one's complement arithmetic. The sum is complemented and appended
to the original data, known as checksum field. The extended data is transmitted
across the network.
1. The Sender follows the given steps:
2. The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits.
3. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get t
he sum.
4. The sum is complemented and it becomes the checksum field.
5. The original data and checksum field are sent across the network.
Checksum Checker
A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the
incoming data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added
together, and then this sum is complemented. If the complement of the sum is
zero, then the data is accepted otherwise data is rejected.
1. The Receiver follows the given steps:
2. The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.
3. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement algorith
m to get the sum.
4. The sum is complemented.
5. If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the da
ta is discarded.
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.
Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:
 o In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this n
number is less than the number of bits in a predetermined number, known
as division which is n+1 bits.
o Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a process
is known as binary division. The remainder generated from this division is
known as CRC remainder.
o Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the
original data. This newly generated unit is sent to the receiver.
o The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The
receiver will treat this whole unit as a single unit, and it is divided by the
same divisor that was used to find the CRC remainder.
If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the
data is accepted.
If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of
an error. Therefore, the data is discarded.

8.(i). Summarize Cyclic Redundancy Check. Show an example of a CRC

code. (7)
Cyclic codes refers to encoding messages by adding a fixed-length check
value.
CRCs are popular because they are simple to implement, easy to
analyze
mathematically and particularly good at detecting common errors caused in
transmission channels.
Steps Involved :
Consider the original message (dataword) as M(x) consisting of ‘k’ bits
and
the divisor as C(x) consists of ‘n+1’ bits.
The original message M(x) is appended by ‘n’ bits of zero’s. Let us
call
this zero-extended message as T(x).
Divide T(x) by C(x) and find the remainder.
The division operation is performed using XOR operation.
The resultant remainder is appended to the original message M(x) as
CRC
and sent by the sender(codeword).
Example 1:
Consider the Dataword / Message M(x) = 1001
Divisor C(x) = 1011 (n+1=4)
Appending ‘n’ zeros to the original Message M(x).
The resultant messages is called T(x) = 1001 000. (here n=3)
Divide T(x) by the divisor C(x) using XOR operation

(ii). Explain and solve CRC division using polynomials. (6)

Data word to be sent: 100100
Key – 1101 [Or generator polynomial x3+x2+1]
Sender side:
Therefore, the remainder is 001 and hence the encoded data sent is 100100001.
Receiver’s side:
Code word received at the receiver side 100100001

The remainder is zero so the data received has no error

9. Discuss the different ways to address the framing problem. (13)

Frames are the units of digital transmission particularly in computer

networks and telecommunications. Frames are comparable to the packets of
energy called photons in case of light energy. Frame is continuously used in
Time Division Multiplexing process.
Framing is a point-to-point connection between two computers or devices
consists of a wire in which data is transmitted as a stream of bits. However,
these bits must be framed into discernible blocks of information. Framing is a
function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set
of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. Ethernet, token ring, frame relay,
and other data link layer technologies have their own frame structures. Frames
have headers that contain information such as error-checking codes.

At data link layer, it extracts message from sender and provide it to receiver by
providing sender’s and receiver’s address. The advantage of using frames is
that data is broken up into recoverable chunks that can easily be checked for
corruption.
Problems in Framing –
 Detecting start of the frame: When a frame is transmitted, every
station must be able to detect it. Station detect frames by looking out
for special sequence of bits that marks the beginning of the frame i.e.
SFD (Starting Frame Delimeter).
 How do station detect a frame: Every station listen to link for SFD
pattern through a sequential circuit. If SFD is detected, sequential
circuit alerts station. Station checks destination address to accept or
reject frame.
 Detecting end of frame: When to stop reading the frame.
Types of framing – There are two types of framing:
1. Fixed size – The frame is of fixed size and there is no need to provide
boundaries to the frame, length of the frame itself acts as delimiter.
 Drawback: It suffers from internal fragmentation if data size is less
than frame size
 Solution: Padding
2. Variable size – In this there is need to define end of frame as well as
beginning of next frame to distinguish. This can be done in two ways:
1. Length field – We can introduce a length field in the frame to
indicate the length of the frame. Used in Ethernet(802.3). The
problem with this is that sometimes the length field might get
corrupted.
2. End Delimeter (ED) – We can introduce an ED(pattern) to indicate
the end of the frame. Used in Token Ring. The problem with this is
that ED can occur in the data. This can be solved by:

1. Character/Byte Stuffing: Used when frames consist of character. If

data contains ED then, byte is stuffed into data to diffentiate it from
ED.
Let ED = “$” –> if data contains ‘$’ anywhere, it can be escaped
using ‘\O’ character.
–> if data contains ‘\O$’ then, use ‘\O\O\O$'($ is escaped using \O
and \O is escaped using \O).

Disadvantage – It is very costly and obsolete method.

2. Bit Stuffing: Let ED = 01111 and if data = 01111
–> Sender stuffs a bit to break the pattern i.e. here appends a 0 in
data = 011101.
–> Receiver receives the frame.
–> If data contains 011101, receiver removes the 0 and reads the
data.
 Examples –
 If Data –> 011100011110 and ED –> 0111 then, find data
after bit stuffing ?
–> 01110000111010
 If Data –> 110001001 and ED –> 1000 then, find data after
bit stuffing ?
–> 11001010011
10. Write short notes on:
(i) NAV in CSMA/CA, Bridges. (7)
The network allocation vector (NAV) is a virtual carrier sensing mechanism that
forms an important part of the carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance (CSMA/CA). It is implemented in wireless network protocols, IEEE
802.11 and IEEE 802.16, which operates in the medium access control (MAC)
layer.
Technique
The network allocation vector can be considered as a counter that counts down to
zero. The maximum NAV duration is the transmission time required by frame,
which is the the time for which the channel will be busy. At the start of
transmission of a frame, the NAV value is set to its maximum. A non-zero value
indicates that the channel is busy, and so no station contends for it. When the
NAV value decrements to 0, it indicates that the channel is free and the other
stations can contend for it.
The steps in transmission as depicted in the above diagram are −
  The transmitting station waits for a time equal to distributed inter – frame
space (DIFS) and issues a request to send (RTS) if the channel is clear.
 After sending RTS, a NAV (RTS) is initialized, so that no other station
attempts to transmit.
 The receiving station waits for a short inter – frame space (SIFS) and
issues a clear to send (CTS).
 With the CTS, a NAV (CTS) is initialized.
 The sender waits for a SIFS and transmits its data frame.
 On receiving the data frame, the receiver waits for a SIFS and sends an
acknowledgement frame (ACK).
 Both the NAV values decrements to 0 during this time period.
 The stations wait for a SIFS and a backoff period before contending for
the channel.

(ii) How does a Bridge come to learn on which port the various hosts
reside? Explain with examples. (6)

Bridges operate on Ethernet frames and thus are layer-2 devices. In fact,
bridges are full-fledged packet switches that forward and filter frames using the
LAN destination addresses. When a frame comes into a bridge interface, the
bridge does not just copy the frame onto all of the other interfaces. Instead, the
bridge examines the destination address of the frame and attempts to forward the
frame on the interface that leads to the destination.

Figure 5.6-2 shows how the three academic departments of our previous example
might be interconnected with a bridge. The three numbers next to the bridge are
the interface numbers for the three bridge interfaces. When the departments are
interconnected by a bridge, as in Figure 5.6-2, we again refer to the entire
interconnected network as a LAN, and we again refer to each of the departmental
portions of the network as LAN segments. But in contrast to the multi-tier hub
design in Figure 5.6-1, each LAN segment is now an isolated collision domain.
11. Construct the working principle of Switches, Hub and Routers (13)
Switches:
Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link layer of the
OSI model. They connect devices in a network and use packet switching to
send, receive or forward data packets or data frames over the network. A switch
has many ports, to which computers are plugged in
Working principle:
Once a device is connected to a switch, the switch notes its media access control
(MAC) address, a code that’s baked into the device’s network-interface card
(NIC) that attaches to an ethernet cable that attaches to the switch. The switch
uses the MAC address to identify which attached device outgoing packets are
being sent from and where to deliver incoming packet. So the MAC address
identifies the physical device as opposed to the network layer (Layer 3) IP
address, which can be assigned dynamically to a device and change over time.

When a device sends a packet to another device, it enters the switch and the
switch reads its header to determine what to do with it. It matches the
destination address or addresses and sends the packet out through the
appropriate ports that leads to the destination devices.

Routers:

A router is a three-layer device.

It operates in the physical, data-link, and network layers.
As a physical-layer device, it regenerates the signal it receives.
As a link-layer device, the router checks the physical addresses (source and
destination) contained in the packet.
As a network-layer device, a router checks the network-layer addresses.
A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses.
A router can connect networks. A router connects the LANs and WANs on
the internet.
A router is an internetworking device.
It connects independent networks to form an internetwork.
The key function of the router is to determine the shortest path to the
destination.
Router has a routing table, which is used to make decision on selecting the
route.
The routing table is updated dynamically based on which they make
decisions on routing the data packets

Hub:

An Ethernet hub, active hub, network hub, repeater hub, multiport

repeater, or simply hub is a network hardware device for connecting multiple
Ethernet devices together and making them act as a single network segment.

Working Principle

When a hub receives a packet of frames at one of its ports from a network
device, it transmits (repeats) the packet to all of its ports to all of the other
network devices. If two network devices on the same network try to send
packets at the same time a collision is said to occur. Hubs operate in such a way
that all data received through one port is sent to all other ports. This type of
operation creates an extremely unsecure environment and anyone can sniff the
network using a sniffer and any unencrypted traffic over the network is not
secure. Hubs are unsecure LAN devices that should be replaced with switches
for security and increased bandwidth
12. Identify the working principle of Bluetooth and develop a neat sketch to
depict its architecture. (13)
Bluetooth works by the simple principle of sending and receiving data in the
form of radio waves. Every Bluetooth enabled device has a card-like attachment
known as the Bluetooth adapter. It is this Bluetooth adapter that sends and
receives data. A Bluetooth adapter has a particular range of connection. One
electronic adaptor can notice another Bluetooth device only if the second device
is present within the range of the first device. When they are within the range,
they can strike up a connection between themselves. Striking up of connection
between two Bluetooth devices are known as paring of devices.

BLUETOOTH ARCHITECTURE
Bluetooth defines two types of networks: Piconet and Scatternet.
PICONET
 The basic Bluetooth network configuration is called a Piconet
 A Piconet is a collection of eight bluetooth devices which are synchronized.
 One device in the piconet can act as Primary (Master), all other devices
connected to the master act as Secondary (Slaves).
 All the secondary stations synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence
with the primary.
 Any communication is between the primary/master and a secondary/slave.
 The communication between the primary and secondary stations can be one-
to-one or one-to-many.
 The slaves do not communicate directly with each other.
 The devices in a piconet can be in any one of the three types/states.
 They are
Active Device / State:
1. Connected to the piconet and participates in the communication.
2. Can be a Master or a Slave device.
3. All active devices are assigned a 3-bit address (AMA).
Parked Device / State
 1. Connected to the piconet, but does not actively articipate in the
communication.
2. More than 200 devices can be parked.
3. All parked devices use an 8-bit parked member address (PMA).
Stand-by Device / State
1. Not connected to the piconet.
2. They do not participate in the piconet currently but may take part at a
later time.
3. Devices in stand-by do not need an address.

 If a parked device wants to communicate and there are already seven active
slaves, one slave has to switch to park state to allow the parked device to switch
to active state.
SCATTERNET
 Piconets can be combined to form what is called a scatternet.
 Many piconets with overlapping coverage can exist simultaneously,called
Scatternet.
 A secondary station in one piconet can be the primary in another piconet.
 This station can receive messages from the primary in the first piconet (as a
secondary) and, acting as a primary, deliver them to secondaries in the second
piconet.
 A station can be a member of two piconets.
 In the example given below, there are two piconets, in which one slave
participates in two different piconets.
 Master of one piconet cannot act as the master of another piconet.
 But the Master of one piconet can act as a Slave in another piconet.
13. Classify in detail about High-level Data Link Control and the types of
frames. (13)

 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a bit-oriented protocol

 HDLC is used for communication over point-to-point and multipoint
links.
 HDLC implements the Stop-and-Wait protocol
HDLC CONFIGURATIONS AND TRANSFER MODES
HDLC provides two common transfer modes that can be used in different
configurations:
1. Normal response mode (NRM)
2. Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM).
Normal response mode (NRM)
o In normal response mode (NRM), the station configuration is unbalanced.
o We have one primary station and multiple secondary stations.
o A primary station can send commands; a secondary station can only
respond.
o The NRM is used for both point-to-point and multipoint links.

Asynchronous balanced mode (ABM)

o In ABM, the configuration is balanced.
o The link is point-to-point, and each station can function as a primary and a
secondary (acting as peers).
o This is the common mode today.

HDLC FRAMES
HDLC defines three types of frames:
1. Information frames (I-frames) - used to carry user data
2. Supervisory frames (S-frames) - used to carry control information
3. Unnumbered frames (U-frames) – reserved for system management
Each type of frame serves as an envelope for the transmission of a different type
of
message.
Each frame in HDLC may contain up to six fields:
1. Beginning flag field
2. Address field
3. Control field
4. Information field (User Information/ Management Information)
5. Frame check sequence (FCS) field
6. Ending flag field
In multiple-frame transmissions, the ending flag of one frame can serve as the
beginning flag of the next frame.

Flag field - This field contains synchronization pattern 01111110, which

identifies both the beginning and the end of a frame.
o Address field - This field contains the address of the secondary station. If a
primary station created the frame, it contains a ‘to’ address. If a secondary
station creates the frame, it contains a ‘from’ address. The address field can
be one byte or several bytes long, depending on the needs of the network.
o Control field. The control field is one or two bytes used for flow and error
control.
o Information field. The information field contains the user’s data from the
network layer or management information. Its length can vary from one
network to another.
o FCS field. The frame check sequence (FCS) is the HDLC error detection
field. It can contain either a 16- bit or 32-bit CRC.
CONTROL FIELD FORMAT FOR THE DIFFERENT FRAME TYPES
Control Field for I-Frames
o I-frames are designed to carry user data from the network layer. In addition,
they can include flow-control and error-control information

o The first bit defines the type. If the first bit of the control field is 0, this
means the frame is an I-frame.
o The next 3 bits, called N(S), define the sequence number of the frame.
o The last 3 bits, called N(R), correspond to the acknowledgment number
when piggybacking is used.
o The single bit between N(S) and N(R) is called the P/F bit. If this bit is 1 it
means poll (the frame is sent by a primary station to a secondary).
o If this bit is 0 it means final(the frame is sent by a secondary to a Primary).
Control Field for S-Frames
o Supervisory frames are used for flow and error control whenever
piggybacking is either impossible or inappropriate.
o S-frames do not have information fields

o If the first 2 bits of the control field are 10, this means the frame is an Sframe.
o The last 3 bits, called N(R),correspond to the acknowledgment number
(ACK) or negative acknowledgment number (NAK), depending on the type
of S-frame.
o The 2 bits called code are used to define the type of S-frame itself.
o With 2 bits, we can have four types of S-frames –
Receive ready (RR), Receive not ready (RNR), Reject (REJ) and
Selective reject (SREJ).
Control Field for U-Frames
o Unnumbered frames are used to exchange session management and control
information between connected devices.
o U-frames contain an information field, but used only for system
management information and not user data.

o If the first 2 bits of the control field are 11, this means the frame is an Uframe.
o U-frame codes are divided into two sections: a 2-bit prefix before the P/F
bit and a 3-bit suffix after the P/F bit.
o Together, these two segments (5 bits) can be used to create up to 32
different types of U-frames.

14. Explain in detail about the error detecting techniques

(i)Checksum (7)
Checksums
This is a block code method where a checksum is created based on the data values
in the data blocks to be transmitted using some algorithm and appended to the
data. When the receiver gets this data, a new checksum is calculated and
compared with the existing checksum. A non-match indicates an error.
Error Detection by Checksums
For error detection by checksums, data is divided into fixed sized frames or
segments.
 Sender’s End − The sender adds the segments using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. It then complements the sum to get the checksum
and sends it along with the data frames.
 Receiver’s End − The receiver adds the incoming segments along with the
checksum using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum and then
complements it.
If the result is zero, the received frames are accepted; otherwise they are
discarded.
Example
Suppose that the sender wants to send 4 frames each of 8 bits, where the frames
are 11001100, 10101010, 11110000 and 11000011.
The sender adds the bits using 1s complement arithmetic. While adding two
numbers using 1s complement arithmetic, if there is a carry over, it is added to
the sum.
After adding all the 4 frames, the sender complements the sum to get the
checksum, 11010011, and sends it along with the data frames.
The receiver performs 1s complement arithmetic sum of all the frames including
the checksum. The result is complemented and found to be 0. Hence, the receiver
assumes that no error has occurred.

(ii)Forward error correction (6)

Forward error correction (FEC) is an error correction technique to detect and
correct a limited number of errors in transmitted data without the need for
retransmission.
In this method, the sender sends a redundant error-correcting code along with the
data frame. The receiver performs necessary checks based upon the additional
redundant bits. If it finds that the data is free from errors, it executes error-
correcting code that generates the actual frame. It then removes the redundant bits
before passing the message to the upper layers.
Advantages and Disadvantages
 Because FEC does not require handshaking between the source and the
destination, it can be used for broadcasting of data to many destinations
simultaneously from a single source.
 Another advantage is that FEC saves bandwidth required for
retransmission. So, it is used in real time systems.
 Its main limitation is that if there are too many errors, the frames need to
be retransmitted.
Error Correction Codes for FEC
Error correcting codes for forward error corrections can be broadly categorized
into two types, namely, block codes and convolution codes.
  Block codes − The message is divided into fixed-sized blocks of bits to
which redundant bits are added for error correction.
 Convolutional codes − The message comprises of data streams of arbitrary
length and parity symbols are generated by the sliding application of a
Boolean function to the data stream.
There are four popularly used error correction codes.

 Hamming Codes − It is a block code that is capable of detecting up to two

simultaneous bit errors and correcting single-bit errors.
 Binary Convolution Code − Here, an encoder processes an input sequence
of bits of arbitrary length and generates a sequence of output bits.
 Reed - Solomon Code − They are block codes that are capable of correcting
burst errors in the received data block.
 Low-Density Parity Check Code − It is a block code specified by a parity-
check matrix containing a low density of 1s. They are suitable for large
block sizes in very noisy channels.

PART-C
1.Analyze the various types of error .Discuss the various types of detection
and correction (15)
Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication,
errors
must be detected and corrected. Error Control is a technique of error detection
and
retransmission.
TYPES OF ERRORS
SINGLE-BIT ERROR
The term Single-bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit (such as
byte,
character, data unit or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.
BURST ERROR
The term Burst Error means that two or more bits in the data unit have changed
from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Error Detecting Techniques:

The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:

o Single parity check

o Two-dimensional parity check
o Checksum
o Cyclic redundancy check

Single Parity Check

o Single Parity checking is the simple mechanism and inexpensive to detect

the errors.
o In this technique, a redundant bit is also known as a parity bit which is
appended at the end of the data unit so that the number of 1s becomes even.
Therefore, the total number of transmitted bits would be 9 bits.
o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is appended and if the
number of 1s bits is even, then parity bit 0 is appended at the end of the
data unit.
o At the receiving end, the parity bit is calculated from the received data bits
and compared with the received parity bit.
o This technique generates the total number of 1s even, so it is known as
even-parity checking.
Two-Dimensional Parity Check

o Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity

Check which organizes the data in the form of a table.
o Parity check bits are computed for each row, which is equivalent to the
single-parity check.
o In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows, and
the redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
o At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits
computed from the received data.

Checksum

A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.

It is divided into two parts:

Checksum Generator

A Checksum is generated at the sending side. Checksum generator subdivides the

data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together
by using one's complement arithmetic. The sum is complemented and appended
to the original data, known as checksum field. The extended data is transmitted
across the network.

Suppose L is the total sum of the data segments, then the checksum would be ?L

1. The Sender follows the given steps:

2. The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits.
3. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get t
he sum.
4. The sum is complemented and it becomes the checksum field.
5. The original data and checksum field are sent across the network.
Checksum Checker

A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the

incoming data into equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added
together, and then this sum is complemented. If the complement of the sum is
zero, then the data is accepted otherwise data is rejected.

1. The Receiver follows the given steps:

2. The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.
3. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement algorith
m to get the sum.
4. The sum is complemented.
5. If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the da
ta is discarded.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.

Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:

o In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this n

number is less than the number of bits in a predetermined number, known
as division which is n+1 bits.
o Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a process
is known as binary division. The remainder generated from this division is
known as CRC remainder.
o Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the
original data. This newly generated unit is sent to the receiver.
o The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The
receiver will treat this whole unit as a single unit, and it is divided by the
same divisor that was used to find the CRC remainder.

If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the
data is accepted.

If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of
an error. Therefore, the data is discarded.

ERROR CORRECTION:

Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data is
transmitted from the sender to the receiver.

Error Correction can be handled in two ways:

 o Backward error correction: Once the error is discovered, the receiver
requests the sender to retransmit the entire data unit.
o Forward error correction: In this case, the receiver uses the error-correcting
code which automatically corrects the errors.

2.(i) Interpret your understanding of bit oriented protocol namely HDLC.

(11)
High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of communication protocols of
the data link layer for transmitting data between network points or nodes. Since
it is a data link protocol, data is organized into frames. A frame is transmitted via
the network to the destination that verifies its successful arrival. It is a bit -
oriented protocol that is applicable for both point - to - point and multipoint
communications.
Transfer Modes
HDLC supports two types of transfer modes, normal response mode and
asynchronous balanced mode.
 Normal Response Mode (NRM) − Here, two types of stations are there, a
primary station that send commands and secondary station that can respond
to received commands. It is used for both point - to - point and multipoint
communications.

 Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration is

balanced, i.e. each station can both send commands and respond to
commands. It is used for only point - to - point communications.

HDLC Frame
HDLC is a bit - oriented protocol where each frame contains up to six fields. The
structure varies according to the type of frame. The fields of a HDLC frame are
−
 Flag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and the end of the
frame. The bit pattern of the flag is 01111110.
 Address − It contains the address of the receiver. If the frame is sent by the
primary station, it contains the address(es) of the secondary station(s). If it
 is sent by the secondary station, it contains the address of the primary
station. The address field may be from 1 byte to several bytes.
 Control − It is 1 or 2 bytes containing flow and error control information.
 Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. Its length may vary
from one network to another.
 FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection.
The standard code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)

Types of HDLC Frames

There are three types of HDLC frames. The type of frame is determined by the
control field of the frame −
 I-frame − I-frames or Information frames carry user data from the network
layer. They also include flow and error control information that is
piggybacked on user data. The first bit of control field of I-frame is 0.
 S-frame − S-frames or Supervisory frames do not contain information
field. They are used for flow and error control when piggybacking is not
required. The first two bits of control field of S-frame is 10.
 U-frame − U-frames or Un-numbered frames are used for myriad
miscellaneous functions, like link management. It may contain an
information field, if required. The first two bits of control field of U-frame
is 11.

(ii)Assess briefly about CSMA. (4)

It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media access protocol to sense the
traffic on a channel (idle or busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the
channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel. Otherwise, it must wait
until the channel becomes idle. Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a
transmission medium.

CSMA Access Modes

1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that defines each node, first sense
the shared channel and if the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else
it must wait and keep track of the status of the channel to be idle and broadcast
the frame unconditionally as soon as the channel is idle.
Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that defines before transmitting
the data, each node must sense the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it
immediately sends the data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a random time
(not continuously), and when the channel is found to be idle, it transmits the
frames.

P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and Non-persistent modes. The

P-Persistent mode defines that each node senses the channel, and if the channel
is inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the data is not transmitted, it
waits for a (q = 1-p probability) random time and resumes the frame with the next
time slot.

O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines the superiority of the

station before the transmission of the frame on the shared channel. If it is found
that the channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to retransmit the data.

3.Use IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.11 to build three differences between
wired and wireless LANS. (15)

The two dominant 802 working groups are 802.3 Ethernet and 802.11 wireless
LAN. However, there are important differences between the two.

WLANs use radio frequencies (RF) instead of cables at the Physical layer and
MAC sub-layer of the Data Link layer. In comparison to cable, RF has the
following characteristics:
i. RF does not have boundaries, such as the limits of a wire in a sheath.
The lack of such a boundary allows data frames traveling over the RF media to
be available to anyone that can receive the RF signal.
ii. RF is unprotected from outside signals, whereas cable is in an
insulating sheath. Radios operating independently in the same geographic area
but using the same or a similar RF can interfere with each other.
iii. RF transmission is subject to the same challenges inherent in any
wave-based technology, such as consumer radio. For example, as you get
further away from the source, you may hear stations playing over each other or
hear static in the transmission. Eventually you may lose the signal all together.
Wired LANs have cables that are of an appropriate length to maintain signal
strength.
 iv. RF bands are regulated differently in various countries. The use of
WLANs is subject to additional regulations and sets of standards that are not
applied to wired LANs.

WLANs connect clients to the network through a wireless access point (AP)
instead of an Ethernet switch. WLANs connect mobile devices that are often
battery powered, as opposed to plugged-in LAN devices. Wireless network
interface cards (NICs) tend to reduce the battery life of a mobile device.
WLANs support hosts that contend for access on the RF media (frequency
bands). 802.11 prescribe collision-avoidance instead of collision-detection for
media access to proactively avoid collisions within the media. WLANs use a
different frame format than wired Ethernet LANs. WLANs require additional
information in the Layer 2 header of the frame. WLANs raise more privacy
issues because radio frequencies can reach outside the facility. 802.11 wireless
LANs extend the 802.3 Ethernet LAN infrastructures to provide additional
connectivity options. However, additional components and protocols are used to
complete wireless connections. In an 802.3 Ethernet LAN, each client has a
cable that connects the client NIC to a switch. The switch is the point where the
client gains access to the network. In a wireless LAN, each client uses a
wireless adapter to gain access to the network through a wireless device such as
a wireless router or access point.
4.Explain Cyclic Redundancy Check? Suppose we want to transmit the
message 11001001 and protect it from errors using the CRC polynomial x3
+ 1. Use polynomial long division to determine the message that should be
transmitted. (15)

CYCLIC REDUNDANCY CHECK:

Cyclic codes refers to encoding messages by adding a fixed-length check
value. CRCs are popular because they are simple to implement, easy to analyze
mathematically and particularly good at detecting common errors caused in
transmission channels.
Steps Involved :
 Consider the original message (dataword) as M(x) consisting of ‘k’ bits
and the divisor as C(x) consists of ‘n+1’ bits.
 The original message M(x) is appended by ‘n’ bits of zero’s. Let us call
this zero-extended message as T(x).
 Divide T(x) by C(x) and find the remainder.
 The division operation is performed using XOR operation.
 The resultant remainder is appended to the original message M(x) as
CRC and sent by the sender(codeword).