History Compiled

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HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE
PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD
1 | EXAM ASSURE | Gate Architecture and Planning Classes

Prehistoric Architecture. (Paleolithic and Neolithic)
The earliest known architecture in human history is found in the prehistoric period called the Upper
Paleolithic Age, which dates from around 40,000 BC to around 7000 BC. While earlier humans lived in
Africa and Asia, the receding Ice Age and the extensive climate changes that occurred in Europe during
these years set the stage for dramatic changes in the life of Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon humans, which
allowed for a more settled lifestyle and more extensive forms of shelter. Archaeological evidence of early
architecture is difficult to reconstruct because most structures were created with fibrous materials that decay
over time. Instead, architectural anthropologists have argued that Paleolithic humans did not “invent”
architecture, but gradually began to define and structure their surrounding environment to create spaces
that allowed them to better understand their place in the world. Thus, surviving stone tools that were clearly
used to cut plant materials must suggest the creation of camping sites during a period that predates
traditional notions of architectural origins. However, if architecture is defined in its most general sense as a
human-made enclosure created with an aesthetic intent, it is easy to understand how a choice of camping
sites, selection of building materials, and use of new techniques such as binding, bundling, and staking
were not only functional aspects of architecture but could also reveal simple aesthetic principles such as
categorical polarity and proportional harmony.
Cro-Magnon peoples made tools of bone and antler carved with images of animals and other organic forms,
while also painting images of hunting scenes on the internal walls of caves. Such images not only reveal a
socially organized society, but one that demonstrates the earliest form of an aesthetic context in such
creations.

That aesthetic quality can also be found in the earliest known shelters. These structures are typically oval
huts made of branches, animal hides, or even bone, with a hearth in the center. Larger huts might have
more than one fire pit, with the interior space sectioned into different task areas. Although most wood
dwellings do not survive over time, a Paleolithic village excavated at Mezhirich (in the Ukraine) dates to
around 15,000 BC and reveals a cluster of huts made of woolly mammoth bones. The bones provided an
intricate framework for structures that were probably covered by animal hide. The huts range in diameter
from 13 to 33 feet, and 15 hearths have been excavated, revealing ashes and charred bones. In some
cases, the dirt floors were colored with powdered ocher.

From the Mesolithic to the Neolithic era, architecture became more fully developed. People began to
domesticate animals and wild grasses, which meant that life was less transient, necessitating more
permanent dwellings. As humans started to hunt and farm, communal tasks were divided up in a more
sophisticated way, and dwellings and villages reflect this increase in human collaboration with a more
structurally complex architectural system. Most buildings during this time were made of timber with a post-
and-lintel structural system, in which timber formed a flat roof that spanned the width of the room and was
supported by posts. The posts could then be filled in with woven branches covered with mud, which would
dry to create a sturdy wall structure. This technique is known as wattle and daub. Larger structures might
have a ridgepole, a long horizontal beam running down the middle of the roof and supporting a slightly
slanted roofline, which was then supported internally by additional vertical posts running down the middle
of the open room. In the northern areas of Europe, dwellings were made of masonry, and many of these
stone structures have survived today. One such example, which dates to around 3100 BC, is the village of
Skara Brae, located on the Orkney Islands off the coast of Scotland. This village consists of a cluster of
rectangular dwellings linked by covered passageways. The buildings are made of layers of flat stones,
stacked up without mortar but layered to slope inward slightly and form a corbelled structural system. In
this system of corbelling, the walls rise up and come together gradually; the smaller open roof would likely
have been covered with wood and turf. Inside the dwellings, stone seats, stone bed enclosures, a hearth,
and storage niches create a clearly defined interior.

Stone ceremonial structures also began to appear in the Neolithic Age. Large stone alignments can be
found across Europe, such as the menhir alignment at Menec in Carnac, France, from around 3700 BC.
Here rows and rows of large vertically placed rocks called megaliths appear, which when placed upright
individually are called menhirs. Circular stone arrangements are also found across Europe, and they are
called “cromlechs.” These sites certainly had a ceremonial function much like the permanent megalithic

tomb structures that also appear in the Neolithic period. The tomb site at Newgrange in Ireland is the most
elaborate system of passage graves known today. These complex dates to around 3000 BC and consists
of a series of burial chambers made of large rocks placed vertically into the ground and then covered with
smaller rocks and dirt to create a mound. The construction rocks were engraved with abstract geometric
designs of circles and spirals. Narrow entrance passages, which give the name “passage grave,” lead into
the central burial chamber, which is aligned so that on the summer solstice a ray of sunlight shines directly
into the center of the burial area.

Clearly, the cyclical nature of life, with the passing of the seasons, and the agrarian cultures were central
to the religious beliefs of Neolithic peoples. This emphasis is seen even more clearly at the most famous
Neolithic site of Stonehenge on the Salisbury Plain in England, which dates from between 2700 and 1500
BC. This “henge,” or circle, is made of megaliths formed into a post-and-lintel system to create a circle
surrounded by a ditch. Inside the circle, a second group of stones forms a horseshoe shape. Much has
been written about the logistics of bringing these large stones to this region of England, as well as the
mathematical precision needed to calculate the exact day of the summer solstice, the morning in which the
sun rises directly over the heel stone, as can be seen from the center of the horseshoe.
Current research continues to reveal more Paleolithic and Neolithic sites from France, Spain, northern Italy,
Greece, Central Europe, Siberia, Iran, and into Africa; with this research, more architectural examples from
this era will probably be revealed and can give us a better understanding of prehistoric culture.

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WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE

West Asiatic Architecture
Earliest Civilization: The Fertile Crescent
Earliest of all civilizations as people formed

permanent settlements
Mesopotamia is a Greek word that means
“between the rivers”, specifically, the area between
the Tigris River and Euphrates River (present day
Iraq)
Lasted for approximately 3000 years
Its peoples were the first to irrigate fields, devised
a system of writing, developed mathematics,
invented the wheel and learned to work with metal
Geographic Conditions
 Little rainfall
 Hot and dry climate
 Windstorms leaving muddy river valleys in winter
 Catastrophic flooding of the rivers in spring
 Arid soil containing little minerals
 No stone or timber resources
10 | E X A M A S S U R E | G a t e A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d P l a n n i n g C l a s s e s
Why Mesopotamia ?
Natural Levee
 Creates a high and safe flood plain
 Makes irrigation and canal construction easy
 Provide protection
 The surrounding swamps were full of fish & waterfowl
 Reeds provided food for sheep / goats
 Reeds also were used as building resources
Formation and Development

Geographical Condition
 The West Asiatic civilization mainly spread in the fertile lands of the two long rivers Tigris and
Euphrates.
 The district was named as Mesopotomia
 (Messos = middle, potamos = river).
 The rich alluvial lands of Mesopotamia stretched in from the Persian gulf and known as “Fertile
Crescent” which formed the cradle of civilization
Material
 The Mesopotamian plain – mainly alluvial
 Clay – abundantly and cheaply available building materials.
 Brick manufacture – sun dried or Kiln-burnt
 Bricks glazed in different colors – decorative works
Climatic condition – architectural features
 Extreme hot in summer and severe cold in winter
 Columned Halls and Porticoes were common – protect from sever heat
 High platforms or dadoes were provided for buildings – protect from heavy floods
Religious condition
 Religion dominated their life
 Gods were thought to reside in the height
 Temples were built on elevated platforms usually provided with holy mountains “Ziggurats” with the
shrine at the top
 Each city had at least one Ziggurat.
 The Mesopotamian civilization is supposed to have left some thirty Ziggurats.
SOCIAL CONDITION
 Social stratification was visible in typologies of dwellings
 The homes of the poor were simple with a central courtyard.
 Flooring consisted of paved bricks or mud plaster (Homes of poor).
 The rich had two storeys with sleeping rooms, kitchens, wash room, servant’s quarters and
a family chapel.
The ancient architecture of West – Asia developed from 3000 B.C. to 330 B.C. in
the following periods
 Sumerian period (3000-2000 b.c.)
 Old babylonian (2016-1595 b.c.) neo babylonian (626-539 b.c.)
 Assyrian (1859-626 b.c.)
 Persian (750-330 b.c.)
Sumerian Period
Social Condition
 Mesopotamia formed a fairly homogeneous culture even though it was never a unified nation.
 From about 3000 B.C. onwards, many cities grew up in Sumer such as Ur, Uruk, Eridu, Mari and
others.
 The Sumerians became powerful under the Third Dynasty ruler Ur-Nammu who reigned from 2113-
2046 B.C.
 He constructed the famous Ziggurat at Ur. The city of Ur was at its highest glory as an imperial
capital of Sumer.
 It was the light of the Known world.
The City of UR
 Ur had three levels.
 The richer, like government officials’ priests and soldiers, were at the top.
 The second level was for merchants, teachers, laborers, farmers & craft makers.
 The bottom were for slaves captured in battle.
 The entire city was surrounded by a canal – acting as a moat.
 The streets of Ur were narrow.
 The ziggurats stood like modern skyscrapers over the city. Some ziggurats stood 70 feet tall.
(almost 7 storey building)
 There were big staircases to get up and down. The only level that remains today is the
bottom.
 Sumerians had no tools and machinery. Brick makers formed mud bricks there were perfect.
 After drying they take them to the site and set them in place with bitumen. Bitumen is a naturally
occurring thick sticky black stuff.
 River Euphrates which had bought so much glory, prosperity to Ur, suddenly changed its course
and started running some 14km east to the city. As a result the canals became dry, lost its shipping
trades and ultimately the city lost its value.
ZIGGURAT OF UR-NAMMU (2125 B.C.)

 The Ziggurat or holy mountain was erected by Mesopotamian King Ur- Nammu, the founder of
Third Dynasty of Ur.
 This ziggurat was erected to the moon god Nanna the patron deity of the city of Ur.
 It is the most preserved of all ziggurats in Mesopotamia and has been partially reconstructed
reaching a height of 11 m.
 It stood within a rectangular plan of 60 m x 45 m and 17m high.
 The whole mass was solid, with a core of sun dried bricks and outer covering of burnt bricks
of 2.5m thick cemented with bitumen.
 Babylonian civilization mainly developed in the central southern region of the Mesopotamia.
(Present day Iraq)
 The Amorites, a nomadic People from Syrian desert founded the first royal dynasty in Babylon in
the 19th Century B.C.
 The fifth king of the first Dynasty was Hammurabi (1792- 1750B.C.)
 About 1595 B.C. Mursilis I, King of the Hittites captured Babylon.
 However, he was defeated by Kassites whose rule lasted until 1171 B.C.
 From 1300-1900B.C. it was under Assyrians.

 In 1612 B.C. the governor Nabopolassar defeated Assyrians and captured the city of Nineveh.
 Nebuchadnezzar II ascended the throne in 605 B.C. (Neo- Babylonian empire)
 His empire spread from Jerusalem to the Persian Gulf.
 Trade Links were Improved. His reign was undoubtedly glorious.
 There were the World famous Hanging Gardens.
The City of Babylon

 Babylon – “Gateway of the God” (Bab = Gate and ili = God)
 The city had a circumference of at least 18 km and the river Euphrates was once running through
it.
 The city was destroyed by Assyrians once in 13th and again in 7th Century B.C.
 The city was surrounded by a canal acting as a moat.
 It was also protected by huge rampart walls which were more than 86km. In length and provided.
with hundred bronze gateways
 Each of its eight gateways was protected by different gods, the main palace and gate were
dedicated to Ishtar, the goddess of love and battle.
 The Ishtar gate was patterned by horned dragons; yellow and white bulls in relief on a blue
background.
 The gate consisted of two portals one behind the other, each flanked by huge towers.
 It was built in Kiln-burnt bricks, cemented with pitch.
 The outer surface was covered by enameled bricks with colored figures of dragons.
Hanging Garden
 Built by King Nebuchadnezzar, to please his Persian wife
 They occupied an area of 275mx183m and situated near Euphrates river.
 The terraced gardens planted with flowers and trees, With the beautiful fountains were 25m
to 100m above the Ground.
 Water was stored in the reservoir and supplied through pipes
Assyrian Period
 Assyrians were Originally Semitic Akkadians.

 They were warriors and Huntsmen. Their campaign ranged all throughout the Middle East.
 They founded their capital at Ashur (named after the God), a city on the bank of river Tigris.
 They kept fighting wars to keep their trade routes open. They were opposed by Hittite empire in the
beginning.
 After its fall in 1200B.C. their empire spread rapidly.
 Assyrian history really commenced under the reign of Takulti-Ninurta I(1250-1210B.C.) who
captured Babylon.
 After the reign of Shalmaneser III(859-824B.C) the Assyrians power declined.
 Then followed the reign of Sargon II(722-705B.C.) – founded the capital city of Khorsabad.
 There was the main Ziggurat temple of Ashur which was restored by Tukulti-Ninurta.
 The city had two large palaces built one for the living and other for the Administration.
The City of Khorsabad
 The city stood on a rectangular plan of 2.6 sq.km.
 There were several office buildings including a temple.
 Palace of Sargon II was the most splendid structure, occupying an area of nearly 23 acres.
 It had large and small courts, corridors and rooms was approached by broad ramp.
 The palace was divided into three parts.
 On its left wing, there were six temples, and on its right wing there were service rooms and
administrative offices, and on the opposite wings, were residential quarters followed by royal
apartments.
 The royal apartments had dadoes nearly 2m high. At the end was the throne room about 49mx11m.
 The high plinths of the temple courts were decorated with polychrome glazed bricks.
 At one corner there stood a Ziggurat on square base of about 45m side rising in seven tiers to a
Height of 45m with shrine at the top.
 It had a winding ramp of 1.8m wide by which one could reach on its top. Each of the seven tiers
was painted in different colors.
 Main gateway to the grand court was flanked by imposing towers and guarded by the man-
headed winged bulls as a symbol of adad the god of thunder.
Persian Period
 In about 1000B.C. Aryans from Caucasus region settled in Medes and Persia.
 The founder of this empire, Cyrus the Great (559-530B.C.) captured medians and Assyrians.
 After conquering the Greek colonies of western Asia minor, he next subjugated Babylon in 539B.C.
 After his death at pasargadae, his son Cambyses II(530-522B.C.) extended the kingdom upto the
borders of Egypt. In his reign, the Persian architecture was largely influenced by the Egypt’s
splendid buildings of Thebes.
 He was succeeded by Darius I(522-486B.C.)
 He founded two new capitals one at Susa and one at Persepolis the “ Gateway of all Nations”
 He constructed the splendid palace at Persepolis
 He constructed many arterial roads and planned to connect Red Sea and Nile by a canal.
The Palace of Persepolis

 Persepolis was used as a showpiece of imperial grandeur of his empire.
 It was also executed by Xerxes I(486-465B.C.) and completed in 460B.C. by Arta-Xerxes I.
 The entire building stood on a rectangular plan 460mx275m over a rising terrace of 15m above the
ground.
 The approach was provided at north-west by magnificent steps 6.7mwide and shallow enough for
the horses to ascend.
 The gateways were flanked by imposing towers and guarded by man-headed winged bulls.
 The gateway on the south opened to the Apadama or Audience hall nearly 76sq.m with 36 slender
columns, 20m high 1.5m dia and place at 6m centre to centre.
 The stairway of Apadama has bas-relief showing the delegates, nobles, advancing in dignified
procession.
 The delegates can be easily identified from their national costumes.
 Next his son Xerxes I added his palace together with women’s quarters – Harem on the south end.
 The throne room – the famous “Hall of Hundred Columns” situated on the east end, was
commenced by Xerxes I and completed by Arta-XerxesI.
 The throne room was set up on a high platform with columns 11m high supporting the flat roof.
 The columns had molded base, fluted shaft and decorative capitals with continuous vertical scrolls.
 The top brackets of the columns were in the form of twin bulls, or dragons the Symbol of power.
 Alexander the Great defeated the last king Darius III and put the city including the palace to the
torch. Now it stands in ruins state.
Characteristic Features of West Asiatic Architecture
 Builders in West Asia always had a serious problem - there was not enough stone or wood.
 But there was lots and lots of clay. So their buildings were usually built of brick, or mud-brick.
 Another thing which made West Asian people build a certain way is the constant arrival of nomadic
people into the area: the Persians, the Parthians, the Arabs. All of these people were used to living
and entertaining in tents, and they built their houses and palaces kind of like tents, so they would
feel at home.
 The Assyrians unlike the Babylonians produced Mural decoration. Often the gates of the palaces
were flanked by imposing towers and guarded by man-headed winged bulls.
 They provided bass reliefs on walls showing scenes of fighting, hunting and ceremonies of states.
 The chief form of ornamentation was lotus flowers, buds and band of rosettes
 The temples, houses and palaces had rectangular plan and were built on high dadoes to protect
from heavy floods.
 Persian Architecture was columnar
 Double walls were more common. Doors and Windows were square headed.
 They used relief slabs for parapets and surface decoration for the lower portions of the buildings.
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EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE
Egyptian Architecture
Geographical influence
Egypt known as “The Land of Pharaoh “, & “desert Land “. The “Nile River” is their means of
communication, highway, & lifeline. Egypt’s greatest wealth was its fertile “soil”.
The Climate was good for agriculture, but with little or no rainfall, farmers had to depend on the rivers for
irrigation by constructing canals to carry water out into the valley.
Geological Influence
 STONE – abundant building material except on temples & pyramids
 Soft stone – limestone , sandstone , alabaster
 Hard stone – granite , quartzite , basalt , Porphyry
 SAND DRIED BRICKS – made up of clay & chopped stone for pyramids & temples.
 DATE PALM – for roofing’s & PALM LEAVES – for roofing materials .
 ACACIA – for their boat
 SYCAMORE – mummy cases
Climatic Influence
• Structure have no downspout , drainage , gutters due to absence of rain . No windows to cut heat
penetration and sandstorm.
Religious Influence
• Pyramids were built because they believe in “Life after Death” & for the preservation of the dead
body.
• Pharaoh is not only king but also “god” both political & religious ruler, when he dies he becomes
“Osiris”, god of dead.
• They’re “monotheistic” in theory & “ polytheistic” in practice.
• The dead were buried in monument tombs: Pyramid, mastabas. The amount and quality of tomb
goods and the form of the tombs themselves reflect the social status of the deceased.
• They also worshipped natural elements (Nile river, earth) and some animals that were
considered sacred: crocodile, cat. Beetle. Egyptian religion was ‘polytheistic’, that is they believed
in various gods and goddesses.
Systems Of Construction:
• Post & lintel; columnar or trabeated.

Features Of Egyptian Architecture
• BATTERWALL- inclination from base to top of the façade.

• HIEROGLYPHICS- use as ornaments, pictures & writings from the walls
Egyptian tomb architecture
• Mummification
• Mummies were placed in a sarcophagus which was highly decorated.
• This fabulous wealth in gold, silver and jewels belonging to the kings, queens and nobility, attracted
the attentions of robber – the tomb raiders.
MASTABA- flat top or tapered solid temple

3 IMPORTANT PARTS
• OUTER CHAMBER- where offerings were placed
• SERDAB – inner chamber containing the statues of the deceased member of the family
• SARCOPHAGUS – chamber containing the “ coffin” reached by an under ground shaft.
Giza Complex
( 143.0 mts. high ) & (705 sq. ft. ) in plan.
Temples (2 Types)
• Mortuary – built in honor of the Pharaohs
• Cult – built for the worship of the gods, only high priest can enter in both types of temple.
Parts of an Egyptian Temple

1. Avenue of Sphinx – where mystical monster were placed.
2. Entrance Pylon – massive sloping towers fronted by an obelisks known as gateways in Egypt .
3. Hypaethral Court – large outer court open to the sky
4. Hypostyle Hall - a pillared hall in which the roofs rest on column.
5. Sanctuary – usually surrounded by passages & chambers used in connection w/ the temple
service.
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
Temple of Ramessesses II, Abu simble
OBELISKS – are monumental pillars usually in pairs at the temple entrances considered the
symbol of the sun god. They are square in plan & stands at the ht. of 9 to 10 times the diameter
of the base. The four sides tapers to the top on the form of a small pyramid.
SPHINX– a mystical monster with a body of a lion and head of a man or “androsphinx”, body of
a lion & head of a hawk or “heiraosphinx”, & body lion & head of a ram or “criosphinx”.
MOULDINGS – “Gorge and Hollow Moulding “ The torus mold in Egyptian temples were used to
cover the angles .
ORNAMENTS
• Lotus Papyrus & Palm – for “fertility”
• Solar Discs & Vultures wings – for “protection”
• Spiral & feather ornament – for “eternity”
• Scarab or sacred beetle – for “resurrection”
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GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Greek Architecture
Geographical -
Surrounded on three sides by the sea. Mountainous terrain. Use of natural terrain.
Geological -
Marble in abundance. Locally available Marble - Stucco also rich in silver, copper, and iron
Climate -
Moderate --- outdoor space, Hot sun and heavy rain in seasons porticos
Religion -
Nature worship. Natural phenomena were personified by Gods. Variety of Deities Many Temples. Didn’t
believed in Life after Death
Periods in Greek Architecture
Helladic Period
Early Period(3000-2000)B.C.
Middle Period(2000-1600)B.C.
Late or Mycenaean Period (1600-1050) B.C
Hellenic Period (650 323 B.C.)
Minoan Architecture (Architecture of Crete Island)
Houses were built of mud, bricks, rubble, flat roofs were covered with terracotta tiles. Gypsum was used for
flooring.
Columns were simple, with limited ornamentation. The circular columns stood on disc shaped base, circular
shaft with downward taper and a projecting capital at top, which had a square shaped abacus and circular
echinus followed by small molding.
Throne Room
Mycenaean Architecture
Lion’s Gate
The actual sculpture is of two lions separated by a single column and stands about three feet high. The
gate represents a combination of Cyclopean construction and ashlar masonry. Cyclopean construction is a
form of megalithic architecture, or building with very large stones. Ashlar masonry is simply an organized
way of laying out square/ rectangular cut stones in a regular manner. The opening for the gate is about ten
feet by ten feet and utilizes a post and lintel system, where a single stone crosses over the doorway
supported by stones on either side. Above the lintel is an area called the “relieving triangle” because it is
typically filled with a lighter stone or some other material to take pressure off of the lintel. It is in this area
that the actual carving of the lions sits even though it still weighs nearly two tons.
Burial Tholos-
“Treasury of Atreus”
A rounded cut was made into a hillside, within which huge ashlar masonry would be employed to create a
conical structure, with a wide entryway leading to it, known as a dromos. The chamber itself was built by
placing each successive course of stonework out over the previous one, tapering the diameter of the room
gradually up to the top. The cut was then refilled on top of the structure, creating a large underground
chamber. The dead we laid on the floor of the main room, or in rare cases, in smaller separate rooms built
adjacent to it.
Megaron -
It is the central hall of both temple structures and private dwellings. The main room always has a round
hearth which is surrounded by four columns. Directly above the hearth is an opening in the roof for the
smoke to be released. Megarons are two stories tall and were believed to have flat roofs which were made
with mainly ceramic or terracotta tiles. These megarons were presumably used for a variety of purposes
including both the religious and administrative. Some notable megarons to look towards include the Palace
of Nestor at Pylos and the Palace at Tiryns.
Hellenic Period (650 323 B.C.)
It is the peak of this Art. Every art manifestation reached its zenith
Period of political, economic and cultural expansion of the polis, mainly Athens Democratic governance.
Artistry in marble were spectacular. Henceforth Greek Architecture was also termed as ‘Carpentry in
Marble’
Proportion – Golden Ratio
Refinement in Architecture took place ---Optical Correction
Refinement in Architecture took place ---Entasis
Erechtheion
Tower of Winds, Athens
Theatre of Dionysus
It is built on the south slope of the Acropolis hill, originally part of the sanctuary of Dionysus Eleuthereus
Etruscan Architecture
(10 july 2021)
Etruscan architecture is not fully understood today, given that Etruscan civilization predates Roman culture,
and therefore Etruscan ruins very often lie beneath Roman ruins in modern-day Italy. In the seventh century
BC, Etruscan peoples, perhaps derived from the Villanovans, expanded their settlements through central
Italy and spoke a pre-Latin language. They farmed and traded metals across much of Europe, including the
whole Greek world and as far away as Phoenicia in modern-day Lebanon. For that reason, Etruscan
architecture reveals a blending of Ancient Greek and Ancient Near Eastern styles and anticipates Roman
design.
What is known of Etruscan architecture today consists of ongoing excavation work (mainly at funerary
sites), ceramic funerary urns made in the shape of houses, and finally, written descriptions made by
subsequent Romans, for example, the architect Vitruvius, who saw the remains of the vanquished Etruscan
civilization firsthand. Etruscan cities were often located on hills to have a natural defense against rival city-
states. The Porta Augusta in Perugia, from the 100s BC, is a rare example of surviving Etruscan
construction. The monumental arch entranceway, made from local stone, provides a guarded entry into
these walled towns. Above the arch is a lintel decoration of five circles carved in relief and separated by
column designs that function the same way as Ancient Greek triglyphs. Two large towers flank the entrance.
The structure of the arch developed gradually from the keystones used by previous cultures, but it was the
Ancient Romans who developed the arch to its fullest potential.
Etruscan homes had small open atria or courtyards, with shallow pools in the center that stored rainwater.
From textual descriptions of an Etruscan temple, according to Vitruvius in the first century BC, these square
temples, made of mud brick, were axially aligned and elevated on a platform called a podium. A front porch,
supported by a row of four or six columns, was accessed by a single flight of stairs in the middle. These led
up to a sanctuary that might be one room or else divided into three spaces accessed by three separate
doors. The columns were typically made of wood or volcanic rock, and the capitals were modified from the
Greek orders. The Tuscan order, used later in the Renaissance, was a modified Ancient Greek order
devised by the Etruscans. The roofs of these temples and perhaps the roofs of homes as well, were slanted
and covered with terracotta tiles. Small terracotta figurines often decorated the edges of the roofline and
the central ridgepole of the roof, perhaps in recognition of the many gods and goddesses borrowed by the
Etruscans from the Greek pantheon.
Burial chambers designed to mimic domestic interiors also show Etruscan architectural aesthetics. The
Tomb of the Reliefs in Cerveteri, outside Rome, dates to the third century BC and was carved out of rock,
and then the walls were plastered and painted in white and red tones. Square posts, with ornate capitals
like columns, were carved with low-relief images of jugs, household tools, and small human and animal
figures. Around the edges of the room, raised ledges were carved and sectioned off to hold sarcophagi.
Etruscan artisans also painted beautiful scenes of musicians, people dancing, and dolphins swimming, as
seen on a wall painting in the Tomb of the Lionesses, dated around 480 BC, and located in the necropolis,
or cemetery, at Tarquinia, outside Rome. Ultimately the Etruscans, unable to unify their city-states against
sustained attacks by the Latinspeaking peoples in the area around Rome, succumbed to Roman
domination. Despite the fact that little remains of Etruscan architecture, scholars have continued to improve
their understanding of Etruscan culture in Italy through more sophisticated excavations done beneath
modern-day cities.
Etruscan Architecture
 Etruscan civilizations are dominated by elaborate “NECROPOLI” - filled with tombs that resemble large
rooms in a home.
 Etruscan sculptures and temples are heavily influenced by Archaic Greek works
 Etruscans were experts at sculpting with bronze and terra-cotta clay
 Flourished in Italy before Romans.
 Existed in the bronze age - same as archaic period in Greece.
 Language and customs different than Romans (used Greek alphabet)
 Never formed a unified nation- city states eventually fell to the Romans in the 4th and 5th centuries
BCE.
Tombs of Etruscan Architecture

 Their tombs were tightly packed in NECROPOLI throughout Tuscany (in Italy) - named after the
Etruscans.
 Most tombs - round with door leading to large interior chamber
 Interior chamber is brightly painted to reflect interior of a house
 Tombs have symbols of Etruscan lifestyle on walls
 Entire families (w/ servants) are buried in one tomb
TUMULUS: Artificial mound of earth and stones placed over grave
TOMBS
Underground rock-cut tombs reflect domestic architecture
• Ceiling cut with pseudo- rafters
• Large armchairs frame doorway
• Windows, furniture, objects - all cut out of rock
• Stone objects are eternal in the afterlife
• Large circular shields hang from walls
Temples of Etruscan Architecture

• Architect Vitruvius wrote about their temples a lot.
• Inspiration from Greeks - Pediments, Columns, Cella.
• Etruscan buildings made of wood and terra-cotta, not stone.
• Single flight of stairs leading to main entrance (not steps surrounding whole building).
• Sculptures put on rooftops to announce presence of deity within.
• No ruins because they were built of wood, unlike non-religious structures.
• Design is similar to Greek temples- tall base (podium), deep porch, cella was subdivided into 3
parts - religion based on a triad of gods
• No consecrated space for sculptures
• Steps in front bring your attention to deep porch.
• Columns and capitals- Greek influence.
• Columns are un-fluted TUSCAN ORDER.
• Whole structure is raised on a PODIUM.
• Religious Sculptures all along the roof – Focus at the center.
• Three doors represent three gods.
• Not much is known about their religious beliefs.
Tuscan Order
Etruscan - divided into three rooms- housed cult statues

NECROPOLIS: “city of the dead”- large burial area
STUCCO: a fine plaster used for wall decorations and moldings
TERRA-COTTA: hard ceramic clay used for buildings, pottery, sculpture, etc.
TUMULUS: an artificial mound of earth and stones placed over a grave
Tuscan Order
Roman Architecture
(10 july 2021)
Roman were the master builder in designing and erecting the building.
Roman’s engineering and building skills includes invention of water proof concrete, which enabled them
to develop a different techniques and style of architecture including forts, villas, temples, town, baths, great
wall, roads.
Timeline of Roman Architecture
• Roman architecture developed in both but more in empire rule as the use of concrete and arch,
dome, vaults made building more stronger.
• The period started from establishment of the republic in 509 BC to the transfer of the capital of the
empire from Rome to the eastern empire in Constantinople in 330 AD
• The empire covered the area of Europe, North Africa and the Near East.
• As roman conquered vast number of culturally developed people so the architecture of the Rome
was made up of combining varieties of styles.
• Roman borrowed heavily from two cultures that they conquered – the Etruscan and the Greeks.
• Elements of Roman Architecture show very significant Greek influence.
• However, Roman functional needs sometimes differed, resulting in interesting innovations.
• The Romans were less attached to “ideal” forms and extended Greek ideas to make them
more functional.
• Romans needed interior space for worship, whereas the Greeks worshipped outside.
• Their solution was to extend the walls outward, creating engaged columns, while maintaining the
same basic shape.
General characteristics of Roman Art
• Interest in public works and engineering
• Monumentality
• Great technical advances
• Colossal to show Roman power
• Special importance for the internal space
• Integral view of the art combining:
• Beauty with Utility and practical sense
• Buildings are integrated in the urban space
Roman Architectural Revolution

• The Roman ability to build massively was largely determined by their discovery of slow-drying
concrete, made with pozzolana sand.
• This allowed not only bases, but also walls to be constructed of mainly concrete or concrete and rubble.
• Facing could be made of more expensive stone or inexpensive brick.
• The result was strong structures that could be formed in any desirable shape.
Building systems:
Linteled
• Copied from the Greeks
• Spaces are closed by straight lines
Vaulted
• Taken from the Etruscan
• Use of arches
• Barrel vaults
o Use of domes
o Strong walls so that they do not use external supports
o Building materials marble, terracotta, stone & bricks.
Pozzolana has extraordinary properties of hardness, strength and durability, when mixed into concrete with
lime.
ROMAN ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

 Material - Pumice, Marble, Brick, Pozzolanic concrete, Granite, Sandstone, Lime, Tufa,
Travertine, Sand etc.
 Foundation: Concrete and Rock
 Superimposed Columns, used as decorative elements rather than structural.
 Use Of Lime Concrete, more column free and large spaces.
 Multi Storied Buildings Marble Stucco For Interior Finish
 The Romans moved from trabeated construction ( post- lintel) to more massive walls punched by
arches, domes.
Religion Characteristics
 Believed in multiple gods.
 They strongly believed in Gods.
 The Romans originally followed tradition, in which many spirits were responsible for specific
cosmos and human activities. An another belief was worshipping the ancestors.
SOCIAL CONDITION
• Social and cultural in Rome due to the expansion of Empire also effected the architecture.
• Great stone and marble structures were erected to declare their wealth and dominance.
• Roads were built to maintain and control the roman empire.
• The massive amphitheater's like Colosseum and Circus Maxima were built for the public
entertainment.
• Public baths and villa were built for the wealthy romans.
ORIGIN
• Roman needed more space to worship as Greeks used to worship outside.
• Their solution was to extend the walls outward, creating engaged columns, while maintaining the
same basic shape
Roman Innovation
Columns
• To the original Greek orders, the Romans added two.
• Tuscan Order: simplified Doric having unfluted column and a plain base, capital and shaft having no
decoration other than moldings.
• Composite Order : it combined elements of both the ionic and Corinthian orders. Corinthian order is
modified by superimposing four diagonally set ionic vaults on a bell of Corinthian acanthus leaves.
Roman Innovation
Concrete
• The discovery of slow-drying concrete, made with pozzolana sand created a revolution in architectural
design.
• This allowed not only bases, but also walls to be constructed of mainly concrete or concrete and rubble.
• Facings could be made of more expensive stone or inexpensive brick.
• The result was strong structures that could be formed in any desirable shape
Roman Innovation
Arches
• An arch is a very strong shape as no single spot holds all the weight and is still used in architecture
today.
• The Romans used arches to support the things they built.
• They built victory arches, buildings and aqueducts
Roman Innovation
Vaults
• Barrel or “Tunnel” Vault: A vault having semicircular cross-section. These vaults require buttressing
to counter-act the downward thrust of weight.
• Groin vault: Also called a cross vault. A compound vault formed by the perpendicular intersection of
two vaults forming arched diagonal arises called groins. Needs less buttressing.
• Multi Groin Vaults: A series of groin vaults can have open lateral arches that form Clerestories.
Windows that allow light into the interior of churches. These concrete windows were fireproof
Roman Innovation
DOME
• A dome is a vaulted structure having a circular plan and usually the form of a portion of a sphere,
so constructed as to exert an equal thrust in all directions.
• Romans used domes to span and cover very large open spaces.
• They used it in many public buildings like temples, basilicas, the pantheon etc.
• Half dome was used in Churches as “Apse”.
BUILDING TYPOLOGY
Architecture has a rich typology that includes:
• Religious building
• Temple
• Civil buildings:
• Public: basilicas, baths
• Spectacles: theatre, Amphitheatre, circus
• Commemorative: Triumph arch, column
• Domestic: house, village, palace
• Funerary: tombs
• Engineering works:
• Bridges
• Aqueducts
AMPHITHEATRES
Used for training warriors, to hold contests between men and animals for entertainment.
The Colosseum was the largest and most important amphitheater in the world, and the kinds of spectacles
staged there were costlier and more impressive than those held anywhere else.
HISTORY
• The Colosseum ( 70AD- 80AD) was built by Emperor Vespasian, founder of the Flavian dynasty, for
Titus, his successor.
• Designed for 40,000- 60,000 spectators.
• Used for gladiator contests, public displays, public meetings
Plan
• Shape of the Colosseum: Oval
• Capacity Max: 80,000 spectators
• Outer Circumference: 545m
• Central Arena: 88m x 54m
• Arena wall: 4.5m high
• Area covered: 6 acres
• Multistory arcaded fagade decorated with marble , stucco.
• Use of classical orders at different levels.
• Concrete walls
COLOSSEUM ENTRANCES AND EXITS - THE GRAND ENTRANCES

• 76 entrance gate arches, used by the general public.
• The four special gates- North, South, East and West.
• The public entrances, numbered providing easy access to the allocated seats.
• The walls, plastered and painted white and red.
• All of the four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs.
SECTION
• Vaults: Vaults span between 80 radial walls to support tiers of seating and for passageways and stairs.
• 48m (160ft) high divided into four storey, each one had 80 external arch openings.
• The column spaced at 6.8m center to center were superimposed (columns above columns, aches
above arches).
• Mass concrete foundation 1 2m deep. Seats set over a network of barrel Aa, vaults.
• Underground rooms under arena floors for warriors, animals and props
CROWD CONTROL
• An ingenious system of entrances, corridors, and staircases that allowed the crowds to enter and exit
the Colosseum quickly and easily.
• By using so many separate entrances the architect solved the problem of crowd control - the
Colosseum could be cleared in less than 10 minutes.
BUILDING MATERIAL
• Travertine limestone: Used in Columns, the ground floor and the external wall.
• Tuff or Tufa (a porous stone used in the preparation of cement) Used in small columns.
• Cement: Used for vaulted arches.
• Tiles: Used for the floors and the walls.
• Bricks: Used in walls.
• Marble: Used for the seating, statues and ornaments, drinking fountains and as a covering to the
outside walls.
• Lead and terra-cotta pipes for the Water and Sewer system.
THERMAE
Roman Public Baths
INTRODUCTION
• Used as public bathing, exercising , wrestling, swimming and socializing.
• Includes pools, cold and hot rooms, fountains, libraries, under floor heating system.
• It consist of three main parts:
a. A great central block: planned for baths. Tepidarium (warm rooms), Caldarium (hot rooms,
containing warm water bath), Frigidarium (Unheated swimming bath. Other rooms were
symmetrically arranged were the dressing rooms, massage rooms etc.
b. A large open space: This surrounded the central block and was laid out as Stadium with raised
sitting for spectators.
c. An outer ring of apartments: Rooms were meant for philosophers, poets.
• Roman bathing, which consisted of the Roman baths (or thermae) and also balneum
• Early Romans used baths, but seldom, and only then for heath and cleanliness
• Existence in 25 BC with the first thermae built by the Emperor Argippa
• Most Romans bathed in local neighborhood balneum, with an average of 5 bath houses per block
• Popularity of these balneum led to the creation of the thermae
• Each emperor tried to improve upon the design, grandeur, and popularity of the ones before him
• In order to create popularity, the fees to bath were practically nonexistent
• The best and most grand bath complexes were found within Rome, as it served as the capital of the
empire
• The success of the bath complexes owes much to the technological advances of the Greeks and early
Roman
• The improvement of the aqueduct, the architectural usage of vaulted ceilings, and the hypocaust
heating system allowed these great complexes to be as magnificent as they were
• Romans were able to achieve this by heating the marble floor, which was raised on small columns or
stacks of tiles to allow hot air from a fire to circulate underneath
• Walls were also heated by earthenware pipes in the walls to ensure a hot and steamy environment
• Bathers had to wear special shoes to prevent their feet from getting blisters from the floor
• It took two to three days to heat a thermae, but as the baths were kept in constant use, the fire was
never allowed to die
• The baths in Rome served as an entertainment center, holding sports centers, swimming pools,
gardens, libraries, areas for poetry and musical performances, restaurants, and sleeping quarters for
visitors
• The baths were opened daily from sunrise to sunset and open to all . The thermae could seat 1,600
bathers at one time
• Most commoners went only once a day, but the Emperors or luxury bathe as many as 7-8 times daily
• Typical Roman would start out with some easy exercise in the palaestra (exercise yard), attend to the
bathing, anoint themselves with oil, and then eat some food
• At the baths, even in the most corrupt of their civilization, the Romans tried to live up to the old maxim:
"mens sana in corpore sano’ – a healthy mind in a healthy body
Thermae: Public bath (larger than a private bath) with a men's section and a woman's secetion, which is
why there are two separate hypocausts ( E, F, G: underground heating system)
A. atrium: principal entrance, promenade and where the bath keeper (balneator) was located
B. apodyterium: room for undressing
C. frigidarium: cold bath
D. tepidarium: warm room
E. caldarium:
F. hot bath
G. thermal chamber,
H. women's bath
I. servant’s atrium
THERMAE OF CARACALLA, ROME ( 212AD- 216AD)
Square and symmetrical plan along single axis.
The entire site including gardens, raised on an artificial platform 20 feet high.
North- East Entrance led to park like enclosure, used for wrestling and other games.
Central Hall (750ft by 380 ft), was the main feature around which other rooms were symmetrically arranged.
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
• EXTERIOR- Plain Stucco
• INTERIOR- Richly decorated interiors using arches, domes and vaults. Bright colored marble stucco
for walls and glass mosaics for vaults.
• Running water streams emerging from sculptured lion's mouths and falling into colored marble basin
produced a cooling effect in hot summers.
• Vault's surface richly ornamented by means of coffering or covered with bold figures, decoration in
black and white and colored marble.
• Paving, patterned with mosaic cubes of bright colors (geometrical pattern or athletes figures).
• Wall, lower part- colored marble, upper part enriched and modelled stucco bright with color.
• Columns, of marble, used to support upper balconies and peristyle roofs.
TEMPLES
• Combination of Etruscans and Greek styles.
• Consisted of only one portico and main facade.
• Raised platform, 10 to 12 steps (3.5m)
• Stepped entrance, columned porch.
• Triangular pediments above with terracotta or polygon.
• It has a main room “cella”, where deity was placed, to whom temple was dedicated.
• Behind Celia was storage rooms for equipment's and offerings.
PANTHEON HISTORY
• First building was burned in the great fire of Rome in 80 A.D.
• Second building struck by lightning and burned again in 1 1 OA.D.
• Present building was Built during the period of Hadrian in 120-124 AD on the site of 3 celled Tuscan
temple.
• Old building Portico re-erected as the Portico of new building.
• The word ‘Pantheon’ means honor to all gods.
• Oculus was used as Sundial.
PANTHEON CONCEPT
• To Unite The Man With Divinity But Especially With The Emperor.
• Proportions and structure are representative of Roman religious conception, ‘the abode of God’.
• An architectural synthesis between heaven and earth.
• Circular Dome (sphere) represents the origin of universe.
• Lower half is any body moving around it in circles.
• Central oculus representative of sun.
MATERIAL USED
• BRICKS
• TUFA
• TRAVERTINE: used at the lowest portion, heaviest material.
• CONCRETE FOUNDATION: structure load is transferred to concrete foundation 1 5’ thick and 34’
wide.
• Used lighter materials towards the top of the dome.
• FORM OF DOME achieved by building wooden mould first on inside and outside of the structure.
Concrete mix was then poured.
• After concrete was dried temporary wooden structures were removed.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM IN ROME
• First water sources- River Tiber and local natural springs.
• Aqueducts developed, to bring water from distant sources into cities and towns, public baths, fountains,
private households.
• To resolve water storage problem due to increased population of Rome.
• Aqueduct ( first built in 312 BC) , was a concrete pipe or channel built to carry running water through
method of gravity.
• water was collected in catch basin from where it was distributed to storage tanks from where it was
further distributed to Roman People.
• A massive structure- use of single, double or triple tiers of Arches.
FACTS
• The Cloaca Maxima was the main sewerage system of Ancient Rome.
• The Colosseum Amphitheatre was provided with water via the Aqua Claudia aqueduct.
• The final destruction Rome occurred in 537 AD during a siege on Rome by the Goths. The aqueducts
which supplied Rome with water were destroyed. The people of Rome could not survive without water
and the population of Rome fell by 90%.
ENGINEERING IN ROME
• Ability inherited from Etruscans, helped to conquer and govern the world.
• Skills achieved as a result of error and trial through ages.
• Great fire of Rome pushed advances in technology, wide spread use of concrete replaced timber
construction.
• Use of arch, dome and vaults provided beauty as well as strength to roman buildings.
Circus Maximus
Commemorative monuments: Triumphal Arches
• They were usually placed at the main entrance of cities in order to remember travelers and inhabitants
the Greatness and strength of Roman world.
• At the beginning they were wooden arches where trophies and richness from wars were shown.
• This habitude changed: Romans built commemorative arches with inscriptions.
• They were a Roman creation and they succeeded: many of them have been constructed until the
present days.
• Arches were used not only for commemorating Roman victories or military generals: they also marked
limits between provincial borders.
Terms to remember
• Arch
• Triumphal arch
• Aqueduct - Aqua Claudia aqueduct
• Cloaca Maxima
• Forum
• Basilica
• Composite order, Tuscan
• Public baths
• Circus
• Amphitheatre
• Colosseum
• Pantheon
• Oculus
Early Christian Architecture
History of Architecture
Early Christian Architecture
History
The Early Christian architecture started in two prominent locations centered at Rome and Constantinople.
Early Christian Architecture occurred in Rome and in areas around Rome.
From the two focal points Early Christian Architecture spread to other areas in the European and Asian
region.
Timeline
A time line of events for the Early Christian period:-
• 29 A.D. Passing of Jesus and beginning of Christian Religion.
• 286 A.D. Emperor Diocletian reorganizes the Roman Empire splitting into two; the Eastern and the
Western part.
• 313 A.D. Emperor Constantine recognizes the Christian religion and adopts it as a state religion.
• 324 A.D. Emperor Constantine reunited the Roman Empire with a new capital.
• 364 A.D. Rome finally splits into two; the Western and Eastern Empire.
Social Characteristics & Beliefs
• The single most important social phenomenon of the Early Christian period was the spread and
acceptance of the Christian religion.
• During the period from the first century to the third century after the death of Jesus, Christianity was a
secret society.
• It was considered dangerous and subversive by the government. Christians met secretly in tombs and
private houses.
• Gradually, however, it spread and became widely accepted in Asia minor and in Rome itself.
• By the third century, Rome had a population of 50,000 Christians.
• The religion was tolerated but it was still illegal.
Architectural Characteristics
• With Christianity widely accepted as a state religion in Rome it was necessary for architecture to
respond to the demands of the religion for worship space.
• Mode of worship was the most important determinant of the form of the church.
• The requirements include:-
• A path for processional entry and exit of the clergy

• An altar area, where the clergy celebrate mass
• A space for the segregation of the clergy from the congregation during procession and
communion
• Burial space.
Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious
traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and
practices.
Introduction
• The term early Christian architecture refers to the architecture of the early Christian churches of the
roman era
• This is further divided into two types; the basilica church and the alternative church plans.
FROM AGORA TO BASILICAN CHURCH

Greece –
• Agora (Assembly or gathering place) Served as a marketplace
Rome –
• Forums – centre Roman public life, Venue for public speeches, criminal trials & gladiatorial
matches.
• Basilica – part of Forum. Served as place for giving justice & transacting business.
• The layout of Basilicas was, by extension used for Christian churches, having the same
form.
Basilica Church Type
• The early churches were generally simple and functional in their design.
• The emphasis was centered on the act of Christian worship.
• The architecture of the church that developed was not a completely new style, but the use of available
Roman forms to satisfy a new program need.
• The form chosen for the early church was the Roman basilica.
• It was suitable for use as a church with no serious modification and it could be easily and rapidly built
at low cost.
• The Basilica was also preferred because of the emphasis on participation in mass.
• The most common form of the early churches had a rectangular hall with a timber trussed roof.
• It also had one or two isles on each side of a central nave and an apse at one end facing the principal
entrance located at the other end.
Commonest form of the early church.
• Unlike the earlier Roman phase, the interiors were give more importance than exterior.
• Rectangular hall, timber-roofed with coffers & richly glided ceiling (hiding the roof truss) on nave.
• Usually with one or two aisles to each side of the central nave separated by rows of rustic marble
columns, sometimes carrying flat entablatures & sometimes, rows of arches.
• The width of aisles was half that of the central nave. Apse at one end facing the principal entrances at
the other end.
• Bema / Transept – a raised platform where altar was placed & from where the clergy officiated.
• A courtyard (atrium) having a central fountain for ablutions & surrounded by colonnaded ambulatory.
100 | E X A M A S S U R E | G a t e A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d P l a n n i n g
Classes
A TYPICAL BASILICAN CHURCH
Plan of a typical EC Basilica
• A narthex – corresponding to entrance foyer, preceding the nave.
• The nave & bema received light from clerestory above the aisles & were pierced with windows.
• Above aisles & between clerestory windows, the walls may be faced with marble, or mosaics made up
from small tesserae of colored glass.
• The nave terminates into a ‘triumphal arch’, perhaps having iridescent (brightly colored & changing)
mosaics.
• The semicircular walls of the apse ended into a dome, whose interiors had mosaics depicting narrative
scenes from Bible or single figures seen against stylized landscapes or plain gold grounds.
• The flooring was of grey-white & black marble, inlaid with geometric patterns of colored marble.
• The columns, capitals & similar features from old Roman buildings were frequently reused to enhance
the liveliness of the interiors.
• In the new churches, arches were more often used to span between columns of a colonnade instead
of flat entablatures.
Classes
St. Giovanni in Laterano (AD 313-320)
• A typical example of the early Christian church is S. Giovanni in Laterano Rome.
• It was the first church commission by Emperor Constantine.
• It was built as the Cathedral of the Bishop of Rome
• It was remodeled several times.
• The church consists of a central nave flanked by two narrow isles and separated from them by a
monumental colonnade.
• The central nave rise above the isle roof, and the inner isle rise above the outer.
• The nave terminated at an apse.
• The structure was of brick faced concrete covered with simple trussed-timber roof.
Classes
St. Peters, Rome (AD 333)
St Peter was the most important of the basilica churches built by Constantine.
The church has a triple entrance gate leading to an atrium.
The Basilica had a wooden roof of interlocking rafters.
The nave did not lead directly to the apse but instead ends in a transverse space.
BASILICA OF ST. PETERS (OLD), ROME

• Present day St. Peters in Vatican City – a rebuilding of a totally different design & on a substantially
enlarged scale.
• Built over the historical site of the Circus of Nero under the rule of Emperor Constantine I in c. 320AD.
• The original church survived without much change until towards the end of 15th Century & the nave
for another century.
• Remains of old foundation are present below the present flooring but details of atrium are obscure.
• Dimensions: 110.0m long x 64.0m wide with double aisles on both sides.
• The nave was divided from aisles by 22 varied (size & color), huge & antique marble columns with
equally varied capitals supporting the nave walls on a horizontal entablature, while similar numbers of
shorter columns carrying arcades divided aisle from aisle.
• It was built in the shape of Latin cross, with a gable roof, timbered on inside & at 30.0m high at center.
An atrium known as Garden of Paradise stood at the entrance with 5 doors.
• The nave ended with an arch & the walls had parallel windows each with frescos.
Classes
ST. CLEMENTE, ROME
.
• First Basilica - Dedicated to Pope St. Clemente I.
Classes
• Dimensions: 45.0 m x 25.0 m with width of nave as 13.0 m.
• Most interesting example of the continued Roman use of early basilica plan until well into
Romanesque period.
• The present day (Roman Catholic minor basilica) church is actually a 3-tiered complex of buildings:
• Lower part – 2 structures: 1st century house of a Roman noble & a 2nd century pagan
temple dedicated to God Mitra.
• Middle part – 4th century (c.380 AD) Old church dedicated to St. Clemente.
• Top part – Early 12th century (c.1100 AD) Romanesque church – replica of the earlier
church.
Classes
Alternative Church Forms
• The rectangular basilica was not the only form adopted for the early church
• Alternatively, more centralized plans, with a focus on a central vertical axis rather than a longitudinal
horizontal one were also adopted occasionally.
• The centralized churches were of two broad types.
• The completely circular church.
• The octagonal church Both had space surrounded by an ambulatory Examples of these include Saint
Constanza Rome, the Lateran Baptistery Rome and Saint Stefano Rotundo.
Classes
Baptistery Church Form
• The Baptistery of Constantine, Rome (A.D. 430–440) built near the Lateran Church by Sixtus III, and
not by Constantine to whom it is generally attributed, is among the oldest of Italian baptisteries, of
which it was probably the model.
• It is octagonal in shape according to plan.
• The roof is supported by a two-storeyed ring of eight porphyry and marble columns taken from old
pagan buildings, while in the centre is an old Roman bath of green basalt converted into a font.
Baptism - a Christian sacrament marked by ritual use of water and admitting the recipient to the Christian
community
Classes
Round Alternative Form (St Constanza)
• This was a church originally designed as a mausoleum for Emperor Constantine’s daughter.
• It was designed as a centralized monument.
• It is symmetrical in plan with a domed central space.
• The domed central space was ringed by an arcade with 12 pairs of double colonnade.
• Beyond the arcade is an encircling ambulatory.
• A barrel vault is used to roof the ambulatory.
Classes
History of Architecture
Byzantine Architecture
Geographical Conditions:
• Byzantine is situated between Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea and forms a link to Europe and Asia
by means of a narrow strip of water.
• This helped to expand commerce and trade to eastern parts of the Roman Empire and further to
Greece, Asia Minor, Russia etc.
• The early name was Byzantion and was later Romanized to Byzantium. Later it was renamed to
Constantinople after the ruler Constantine
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Geological Conditions:
• They used the similar materials that were used by the Romans i.e. they continued the use of concrete.
• They also manufactured bricks for the dome construction.
• Marble was imported from other parts and used for ornamental work.
Climatic Conditions:
• They had flat roofs with small openings in places of hot weather and sheltered arcades surrounding
the open courtyard.
Religious Conditions:
• Constantine issued the free power to everybody to follow the religion of their choice.
• As a result of the rise of Christianity many churched were built.
• In the beginning they were of the Basilica Christian type but later the dome became the prevailing motif
of Byzantine Church.
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East : Circular West : Basilica
• Centralized church (Byzantine) • Linear church
• Mark specially sacred spot or to • Congregational worship
house a tomb or baptistery • To include choir, seats for the faithful
• seats for the faithful are banned • Horizontal
• Combined the basilica’s horizontal • Latin
axis with the vertical accent of a
dome
• Vertical
• Greek
Historical Background:
• By the end of the 5th century AD, Rome had completely declined
• It had been sacked twice and was then under occupation
• Rome influence was significantly reduced and the Impetus for architectural innovation shifted to the
Byzantine Empire
• This shift also marks the movement from early Christian civilization to the Byzantine civilization
• Under the Byzantine Emperor Justinian, the Byzantine style of architecture evolved
• His interest in church building led to the discovery of the groin vault and the evolution of the Byzantine
style
CHARACTERISTICS OF DESIGN
• Although it is impossible to identify two similar Byzantine churches, it is still possible to identify the
basic characteristics of an ideal Byzantine church.
• The attributes of the ideal church included:
• The use of a centralized church plan
• The use of surrounding isles
• The use of pendentives and dome on pendentives
• And the use of a complex program of interior structure, lighting and decoration to create
fascinating interiors
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• The pendentive dome is derived by trimming the sides of a regular dome over a square plan as shown
in A.
• The pendentive dome enables the transfer the total load of the dome to the four corners of a building,
meaning that only the four corners need to be reinforced
• This allows the dome roof to be adapted for a square building as shown in B
• Additionally, the top of the pendentive dome can be trim to introduce another dome on top of it as
shown in C
• The additional dome can further be raised to introduce a cylinder between the pendentive dome and
the additional dome as in D
• Windows can then be introduced in the cylinder enabling architects to creating dazzling interior light
effects
1. Pendentive => Load through four points ---- Hagia Sophia

2. Dome on Circular Wall => Thick load bearing Walls ---- Pantheon
• Placing of small domes round large central dome was very commonly used.
• Domes were constructed without centering with thin radiating brocks of light weight pumice stones to
lessen the side thrust on the walls
• The external facades were decorated in various design patterns of brick work and marble
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• Byzantines used marble columns decoratively as well as structurally to support galleries and semi
circular arches
• Moldings were rare. The interiors were radiant with beautiful pavement. Walls were covered with
marble mosaics and fresco decoration.
• This style was devoid of sculpture and was completely decorative.
Important Examples
• Early Prototypes (6th century)
• St. Vitale, Ravenna
• St. Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople
• Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (6th century)
• Later Influences
• St. Mark, Venice (10th century)
• St. Sophia, Kiev (11th century)
• Monastery of Hosios Loukas, Greece (1020 AD)
• St. Basils, Moscow (16th century)
Early Prototype (St Vitale Ravenna)

• Byzantine architecture has its early prototype in two churches, San Vitale (526-47), Ravena and in
Saint Sergius and saint Bacchus in Constantinople.
• Ravenna once served as the seat of Roman Empire.
• The church is among the most important monument of byzantine architecture.
• It was also the prototype for the Hagia Sophia which was built 10 years later.
• The exterior is very plain – no interest in impressing from the outside, but want to impress through the
interior design and its meaning.
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•
Early Prototype (St Vitale Ravenna AD 526-547)

• The Church is octagonal in plan.
• It has a domed octagonal core surrounded by ground level ambulatory with a gallery above it.
• The outer wall of the ambulatory is also octagonal.
• It has an apse which extend from the central core to one of the 8 sides of the outer octagon.
•
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• The domed roof of the church is raised on a drum allowing it Greater height and lighting
• The dome has a diameter of 17 meters and a height of 30 meters.
• The byzantine characteristics of the church include:
• Its central planning
• The structural arrangement of its central dome
• The use of surrounding isles
• And the way structure, lighting and decoration have been integrated in the interior of the
church.
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• Series of smaller arches supporting a centrally domed space. At one end of the plan there is an area
that protrudes outward for the altar space filled with decorative, colorful and vibrant mosaics.
St. SERIGUS and St. BACCHUS,Constantinople (ISTANBUL)

• It was built as a palace church between A.D. 527-536
• It is based on the four-lobed alternative church plan of early Christian architecture
• The church in plan consist of an octagonal core set in a very loose rectangular form.
• The form of the church was not a perfect square
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St. SERIGUS and St. BACCHUS,Constantinople (ISTANBUL)
• The central space was covered by a dome.
• The octagon of the central dome has a small but true pendentive dome.
• This church was constructed very shortly before Hagia Sophia and was believed to be a experiment.
• The dome, its adaptation to a squarish form, the use of pendentive and the lighting and decoration
scheme in the interior gives it its Byzantine characteristics.
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HAGIA SOPHIA, ISTANBUL
• Hagia Sophia or the church of the holy wisdom is the most accomplished master piece in the history
of architecture.
• The church was constructed in 532 A.D. by Emperor Justinian in Constantinople now Istanbul.
• Hagia Sophia was the greatest vaulted space without intermediate supports that has ever been built
and it remained so throughout the history of the Byzantine Empire.
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HAGIA SOPHIA,ISTANBUL
• Its architects were Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles, professors of geometry at the University
of Constantinople
• The church provides an expert solution to the problem of how to place a dome on a square base
• The solution was to use pendentives
• Hagia Sophia is covered by a central dome 102 feet (31 m) across, slightly smaller than the Pantheon's
• The dome seems rendered weightless by the unbroken arcade of arched windows under it, which help
flood the colorful interior with light
• The dome is carried on pendentives
• The weight of the dome passes through the pendentives to four massive piers at the corners
• Between them the dome seems to float upon four great arches
• These four concave triangular sections of masonry solved the problem of setting the circular base of
a dome on a rectangular base
• The church form is a combination of centralized and longitudinal structure
• Longitudinal direction is defined by domes to the east and west
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• At Hagia Sophia, two opposing arches on the central square open into semi domes, each pierced by
3 smaller radial semidomes.
• At the west (entrance) and east (Liturgical) ends, the arched opening are extended and by great half
domes carried on smaller semi – domed exedras.
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• Thus a hierarchy of dome headed elements build up to create a vast oblong interior crowned by the
main dome. A sequence never seen before in antiquity
HAGIA SOPHIA, ISTANBUL

• Thus a hierarchy of dome-headed elements build up to create a vast oblong interior crowned by the
main dome, a sequence never seen before in antiquity.
• Of great artistic importance was its decorated interior with mosaics and marble pillars and coverings.
• The combination of interior decoration with lights flooding from its domes creates a glittering internal
environment.
• The church form is a combination of centralized and longitudinal structure.
• Longitudinal direction is defined by domes to the east and west.
•
• Hagia Sophia dominated church architecture after the 6th century AD.
• For over 900 years it was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal setting
for imperial ceremonies.
• Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque at the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks under
Sultan Mohammad II in 1453.
• Its rich figurative mosaics were covered with plaster and replaced by Islamic motifs.
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• It was for almost 500 years the principal mosque of Istanbul.
• After continuing as a mosque for many years, it was in 1934 turned by Turkish authorities into the
Hagia Sophia Museum.
On July 10 2020, Turkey's administrative court, the council of state, ruled to annul the 1934 decree. Later
that day, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan signed a presidential decree turning the Hagia Sophia
back into a mosque and opening it as a place of prayer and worship.
Hagia Sophia served as model for many of the great Ottoman mosques of Constantinople such as the
Shehzad Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque, and the Rustam Pasha Mosque.
Byzantine Architecture ( in Other Places)

St. Sophia , Kiev
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St. Sophia , Kiev
• Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev was named after the Hagia Sophia cathedral in Constantinople.
• The first foundations were laid in 1037 by prince Yaroslav
• The church measures 37 X 55 meters
• The cathedral has 5 naves, 5 apses, and 13 cupolas (domes)
• It is surrounded by two-tier galleries from three sides
• In 1934 the cathedral was confiscated by the Soviets and turned it into an architectural and historical
museum
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St. Basils, Moscow

St. Basils, Moscow
• Commission by Ivan the Terrible of Russia and built as the capitals main parish church
• The ground plan is an eight pointed star at the center of which is a rectangular chamber and an apse
• Eight domed tower chapels are distributed around the central chamber

St. Mark, Venice
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St. Mark, Venice
• St Mark is also a notable example of Byzantine architecture.
• It lies on St Mark's Square, one of the most famous squares in the world
• The church has five domes each toping a square
• The church is based on a Greek cross floor plan, based on part on the Hagia Sophia and the Basilica
of the Apostles,
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Points to remember
Early Prototypes
St. Vitale, Ravenna
St. Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople
Hagia Sophia, Constantinople , Suleman and Shehzade Mosque
Later Influences
St. Mark, Venice
St. Sophia, Kiev
St. Basils, Moscow (16th century)
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EXAM ASSURE
GATE ARCHITECTURE
& PLANNING 2022
ROMENESQUE AND GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE
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Romanesque Architecture
Romanesque architecture, architectural style current in Europe from about the mid-11th century to the
advent of Gothic architecture. A fusion of Roman, Carolingian and Ottonian, Byzantine, and local Germanic
traditions, it was a product of the great expansion of monasticism in the 10th–11th century. Larger churches
were needed to accommodate the numerous monks and priests, as well as the pilgrims who came to view
saints’ relics. For the sake of fire resistance, masonry vaulting began to replace timber construction.
Romanesque churches characteristically incorporated semicircular arches for windows, doors, and
arcades; barrel or groin vaults to support the roof of the nave; massive piers and walls, with few windows,
to contain the outward thrust of the vaults; side aisles with galleries above them; a large tower over the
crossing of nave and transept; and smaller towers at the church’s western end. French churches commonly
expanded on the early Christian Basilica plan, incorporating radiating chapels to accommodate more
priests, ambulatories around the sanctuary apse for visiting pilgrims, and large transepts between the
sanctuary and nave.
This architectural style current in Europe from about the mid-11th century to the advent of Gothic
architecture. A fusion of Roman, Carolingian and Ottonian, Byzantine, and local Germanic traditions, it was
a product of the great expansion of monasticism in the 10th–11th century. Larger churches were needed
to accommodate the numerous monks and priests, as well as the pilgrims who came to view saints’ relics.
For the sake of fire resistance, masonry vaulting began to replace timber construction. Earliest of all
civilizations as people formed permanent settlements.
• This art appeared during the Middle Age
• It is the first style that can be found all over Europe, even when regional differences
• The term "Romanesque" means “like Roman”. It refers to the architecture of the 11th and 12th
centuries in medieval Europe to Roman Architecture, based on similarities of forms and materials.
• With the church as the unifying force, this period was devoted to the glorification of Christianity and
the church was the predominant building type.
• The expansion of the style was linked to the pilgrimages, mainly to Santiago.
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General Appearance:
1. Dark, solemn spaces

2. Exterior is simple, severe
3. Modest Height
4. Horizontal lines
5. Multiple Units
Architectural Elements:
6. Round arches
7. Barrel Vaults
8. Piers supporting vaults
9. Groin vaults
Dark, solemn spaces

10. Romanesque churches and castles were dark, with few openings.
11. Wars and invasions were common place, so windows and doors were kept to a minimum.
12. With stone and masonry buildings, buildings were safe from fire and invaders, but required large
supports for the weight of walls and vaults.
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The new concept of stone vaulting required stronger walls for support. Because of the lack of knowledge
of the building statics, it was necessary to build strong, thick walls with narrow openings.
Expansion
1. The factors of the expansion of Romanesque art were:
i. Development of feudal system, that demanded works (castles)
ii. The expansion of religious orders (Benedictines), expanded the monasteries
iii. The pilgrimage routes
iv. The crusades
Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, is a historiographical term used to describe the
combination of the legal, economic, military, and cultural customs that flourished in Medieval Europe
between the 9th and 15th centuries.
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin
Church in the medieval period.
CLIMATE AND MATERIALS
 Use of Local materials:
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 Stone
 Brick
 Marble
 Terra-cotta
 Ready- made columns
 Climactic conditions contribute to differences of treatment north and south of the Alps &
Pyrenees.
 North – Window openings were enlarged
 High pitched roofs
 South – small window openings
 Flat Roofs
Religion In The Middle Ages

 Christianity was the chief source of education and culture.
THE MONASTIC SYSTEM

 Religious became members of an order with common ties and a common rule, living in a mutually
dependent community.
 Promoted new methods in agriculture.
 Exercised influence on architecture
THE PILGRIMAGE
 Long trips to visit the relics of Saints
 Allowed for the exchange of ideas, including those of architecture and construction.
 The Pilgrims' way was filled with Romanesque churches, monasteries, inns, and castles.
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Characteristics of Romanesque:
 Thick walls which support stone roofs

 round arches
 sturdy piers
 groin and barrel vaults
 large towers
 decorative arcading
 small windows to keep the strength of the walls strong
Characteristics of Romanesque:
 stone was cut with precision

 a blocky, earthbound appearance
 large, simple geometric masses
 the exterior reflects the interior structure and organization
 interiors tend to be dark because of the massive walls that dictate small windows
 growing sophistication in vaulting to span the large spaces
 system of construction: arcuated
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Columns
 used variation of the Corinthian and the Ionic capital with a twisted shaft known as the "scallop“.
 developed the cushion or cubiforal type and the scalloped capital.
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Used the following shafts:
a) Fluted
b) Zigzag
c) twisted or scallop
d) Chevron
e) wreathed columns
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Other Romanesque features
 Recessed arch entrance

 Arches
 Groin and barrel Vaults
 Blind arcade
 Apsidioles and Ambulatory
 Square Towers
 Columns - paired, attached, decorated
 Tympanum
 Historiated capitals
 Underground vaults
 Westwork
A tympanum is the semi-circular or triangular decorative wall surface over an entrance, door or window,
which is bounded by a lintel and an arch. It often contains sculpture or other imagery or ornaments.
historiated or figured capital:
A capital which is decorated with figures of animals, birds, or humans, used either alone or combined
with foliage. The figures need not have any meaning, although they may be symbolic or part of a
narrative sequence. Historiated capitals were most commonly used in the Romanesque from the late
eleventh to mid-twelfth centuries.
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Historiated or figured capital:
A capital which is decorated with figures of animals, birds, or humans, used either alone or combined with
foliage. The figures need not have any meaning, although they may be symbolic or part of a narrative
sequence. Historiated capitals were most commonly used in the Romanesque from the late eleventh to
mid-twelfth centuries.
The Ambulatory and the Apsidiole
Ambulatories - The creation of the ambulatory helped to accommodate the growing number of pilgrims. In
this arrangement, the aisles flanking the nave were extended alongside the sanctuary and around the apse.
Small relic chapels or niche shrines radiated out from this ambulatory facilitating the flow of pilgrims.
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Exterior is simple, severe
A combination of masonry, arches and piers are the basis of the Romanesque style. The main concept for
buildings was the addition of pure geometrical forms.
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Modest Height, Horizontal lines
Romanesque churches have an emphasis on horizontal lines, similar to those of Greek & Roman public
buildings.
Multiple Units
Several geometric forms make up the building, rather than one shape. This changes in the Gothic era to
one large cross shape.
Interior elevation:
it consists of three levels:

• First floor with columns or cross-shaped pillars
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• Second floor with the tribune (corridor overlooking the nave, over the aisles)
• Clerestory: area of windows opening to the outside.
Typologies
There are three main architectural typologies:
Church
• It was the main building
• It symbolized God’s kingdom
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• The holiest part was the apse
• It had cross shape
• Symbolism was important:
• Circular parts reflect perfection so they were linked to God
• Squared parts are related to the human.
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Church
• Elevation:
• The church is covered by stoned vaults
• Wall are thick
• They need strong buttresses
• Foundations are strong
• Few windows
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Castle
• Castles were defensive constructions

• They were fortified for providing shelter
• The wall was one of the essential elements
• They tend to be build in stepped areas, easier to defend.
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Romanesque in France
It was the original region of Romanesque art
Romanesque in Italy
• Italian provinces developed a great diversity of architectural styles
• Lombardy with groined vaults of heavy proportions
• Central Italy classical decorative elements: Corinthian capitals, colored marble, open
arches, colonnades and galleries and façades with sculptures
• South with Byzantine and Arabic influences, using mosaics, interlaced pointed-arches.
• Three separate buildings: church, baptistery and bell tower.
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Pisa Complex
Pisa complex mainly comprises of

1. Pisa Cathedral
2. Campanile
3. Baptistery
4. Cemetery
It was cited to be built due to touristy reasons and establish Pisa as center of power.
Pisa Cathedral is large, with a nave and four aisles, and is one of the most impressive and majestic of all
Romanesque churches.
Baptistery
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The bottom register of the tower has a blind arcade and an ornately carved portal, which features grotesque
sculptures of animals. The second through seventh stories have open arcaded galleries and the eighth
story houses the bell chamber. The medieval bells remain in place, but for stability reasons are no longer
rung.
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Romanesque in Germany
• Churches were planned on a large scale
• They used to be very high
• They had an apse or sanctuary at each end.
Numerous rounds or octagonal towers that conferred them a picturesque
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Romanesque in England
• Before the 10th century were made of wood

• Stone buildings were small and roughly constructed.
• Long, narrow buildings were constructed with heavy walls and piers, rectangular apses, double
transepts and deeply recessed portals.
• Naves were covered with flat roofs, later replaces by vaults, and side aisles were covered with
groined vaults.
Romanesque in Spain
• First Romanesque: Catalonia

• In the 11th century the region was almost assimilated to France
• Due to this they receive the art early
• The rest of the Spain would receive it with the pilgrimage
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• Catalan churches present, in the outside, ordered volumes
• Wall are decorated galleries
• The plan has three naves, with a small narthex
• The head has triple apse
• Characteristics of pilgrimage churches:

• Plan with three to five aisles and a transept
• In the transept there are radial chapels
• Inside there is a tribune
• The head has ambulatory and radial chapels
• There are polygonal buildings too
• They are related to the Temple
• They are inspired in Jerusalem’s Holy Sepulcher
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• Buildings are simple and small
• It created a contrast in relation to the refined Hispano Muslim architecture.
• They frequently have a covered area in the outside for the meetings of the councils.
• The best examples are:

• Santiago’s cathedral
• There are other buildings such as castles (Loarre, in Huesca) or bridges, essential for pilgrims
(Puentelarreina, Navarre)
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Gothic Architecture
Introduction
• Gothic architecture is a style of architecture that flourished during the high and late medieval period.
• It evolved from Romanesque architecture and was succeeded by Renaissance architecture.
Originating in 12th-century France and lasting into the 16th century.
• The architecture of many of the great cathedrals, abbeys and churches of Europe.
• It is also the architecture of many castles, palaces, town halls, guild halls, universities and to a less
prominent extent, private dwellings, such as dorms and rooms.
• A series of Gothic revivals began in mid-18th-century England, spread through 19th-century Europe
and continued, largely for ecclesiastical and university structures, into the 20th century.
Gothic architecture is the architecture of the late medieval period, characterized by use of the
• pointed arch,
• rib vault,
• buttresses, including flying buttresses;
• large windows which are often grouped, or have tracery; rose windows, towers, spires and
pinnacles; and ornate façades.
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The greatest number of surviving Gothic buildings are churches. The Gothic style is most particularly
associated with the great cathedrals of Northern France, England and Germany, with other fine examples
occurring across Europe.
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DIFFERENCE FROM THE ROMANESQUE STYLE
By the 12th century, Romanesque architecture, was established throughout Europe and provided the basic
architectural forms and units that were to remain in evolution throughout the Medieval period.
The important categories of building: the cathedral church, the parish church, the monastery, the castle,
the palace, the great hall, the gatehouse, the civic building, had been established in the Romanesque
period.
Many architectural features that are associated with Gothic architecture had been developed and used by
the architects of Romanesque buildings. These include ribbed vaults, buttresses, clustered columns,
ambulatories, wheel windows, spires and richly carved door tympana.
These were already features of ecclesiastical architecture before the development of the Gothic style, and
all were to develop in increasingly elaborate ways.
It was principally the widespread introduction of a single feature, the pointed arch, which was to bring about
the change that separates Gothic from Romanesque. The technological change permitted a stylistic change
which broke the tradition of massive masonry and solid walls penetrated by small openings, replacing it
with a style where light appears to triumph over substance.
With its use came the development of many other architectural devices, previously put to the test in
scattered buildings and then called into service to meet the structural, aesthetic and ideological needs of
the new style. These include the flying buttresses, pinnacles and traceried windows which typify Gothic
ecclesiastical architecture.
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Romanesque vs. Gothic Architecture
Romanesque Gothic Architecture
Chapels and apse: Separate compartments. Unified, unbroken space
Vault Mostly barrel-vaults, some Groin-vaulted cathedrals
groin-vaults.
Arch type Rounded arches. Pointed arches.
Main vault support Thick walls, buttresses. Exterior flying buttresses.
Clerestory Small windows. Large stained-glass windows
Elevation Horizontal, modest height. Vertical, soaring.
Exterior Plain, little decoration, solid. Ornate, delicate, lots of
sculpture.
Sculptural decoration Thin, elongated, abstract More realistic proportions and
figures. individualized features.
Mood Dark, gloomy. Tall, light-filled.
Example St. Sernin, Toulouse, France. Chartres Cathedral, France.
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Height
A characteristic of Gothic church architecture is its height, both absolute and in proportion to its width, the
verticality suggesting an aspiration to Heaven. A section of the main body of a Gothic church usually shows
the nave as considerably taller than it is wide. In England the proportion is sometimes greater than 2:1,
while the greatest proportional difference achieved is at Cologne Cathedral with a ratio of 3.6:1. Externally,
towers and spires are characteristic of Gothic churches, the number and positioning being one of the
greatest variables in Gothic architecture.
In Italy, the tower, if present, is almost always detached from the building, as at Florence Cathedral, and is
often from an earlier structure. In France and Spain, two towers on the front is the norm. In England,
Germany and Scandinavia this is often the arrangement.
Verticality
The pointed arch lends itself to a suggestion of height. This appearance is characteristically further
enhanced by both the architectural features and the decoration of the building. On the exterior, the verticality
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is emphasised in a major way by the towers and spires and in a lesser way by strongly projecting vertical
buttresses, by narrow halfcolumns called attached shafts which often pass through several storeys of the
building, by long narrow windows, vertical mouldings around doors and figurative sculpture which
emphasises the vertical and is often attenuated. The roofline, gable ends, buttresses and other parts of the
building are often terminated by small pinnacles.
On the interior of the building attached shafts often sweep unbroken from floor to ceiling and meet the ribs
of the vault, like a tall tree spreading into branches. In many Gothic churches, the treatment of vertical
elements in gallery and window tracery creates a strongly unifying feature that counteracts the horizontal
divisions of the
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Light
Expansive interior light has been a feature of Gothic cathedrals. The metaphysics of light in the Middle
Ages led to clerical belief in its divinity and the importance of its display in holy settings. The Celestial
Hierarchy, was popular among monks in France. Pseudo- Dionysius held that all light, even light reflected
from metals or streamed through windows, was divine.
Gothic architecture has featured expansive windows. The increase in size between windows of the
Romanesque and Gothic periods is related to the use of the ribbed vault, and in particular, the pointed
ribbed vault which channelled the weight to a supporting shaft with less outward thrust than a semi-circular
vault. Walls did not need to be so weighty. A further development was the flying buttress which arched
externally from the springing of the vault across the roof of the aisle to a large buttress pier projecting well
beyond the line of the external wall. The internal columns of the arcade with their attached shafts, the ribs
of the vault and the flying buttresses, with their associated vertical buttresses jutting at rightangles to the
building, created a stone skeleton.
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Between these parts, the walls and the infill of the vaults could be of lighter construction. Between the
narrow buttresses, the walls could be opened up into large windows. Through the Gothic period, thanks to
the versatility of the pointed arch, the structure of Gothic windows developed from simple openings to
immensely rich and decorative sculptural designs.
Majesty
The façade of a large church or cathedral, often referred to as the West Front, is generally designed to
create a powerful impression on the approaching worshipper, demonstrating both the might of God and the
might of the institution that it represents.
Central to the façade is the main portal, often flanked by additional doors. There may be much other carving,
often of figures in niches set into the moldings around the portals, or in sculptural screens extending across
the façade.
The West Front of a French cathedral and many English, Spanish and German cathedrals generally have
two towers, which, particularly in France, express an enormous diversity of form and decoration.
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Lancet arch
The simplest shape is the long opening with a pointed arch known in England as the lancet. Lancet openings
are often grouped, usually as a cluster of three or five. Lancet openings may be very narrow and steeply
pointed. Lancet arches are typically defined as two-centred arches whose radii are larger than the arch's
span. Salisbury Cathedral is famous for the beauty and simplicity of its Lancet Gothic.
Equilateral arch
Many Gothic openings are based upon the equilateral form. In other words, when the arch is drafted, the
radius is exactly the width of the opening and the centre of each arch coincides with the point from which
the opposite arch springs. This makes the arch higher in relation to its width than a semi-circular arch which
is exactly half as high as it is wide.
The Equilateral Arch gives a wide opening of satisfying proportion useful for doorways, decorative arcades
and large windows. The structural beauty of the Gothic arch means, however, that no set proportion had to
be rigidly maintained. The Equilateral Arch was employed as a useful tool, not as a Principle of Design
Flamboyant arch
The Flamboyant Arch is one that is drafted from four points, the upper part of each main arc turning upwards
into a smaller arc and meeting at a sharp, flame-like point. These arches create a rich and lively effect when
used for window tracery and surface decoration. The form is structurally weak and has very rarely been
used for large openings except when contained within a larger and more stable arch. It is not employed at
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all for vaulting. The style was much used in England for wall arcading and niches. In German and Spanish
Gothic architecture it often appears as openwork screens on the exterior of buildings.
Depressed arch
The Depressed or four-centred arch is much wider than its height and gives the visual effect of having been
flattened under pressure. Its structure is achieved by drafting two arcs which rise steeply from each
springing point on a small radius and then turn into two arches with a wide radius and much lower springing
point.
This type of arch, when employed as a window opening, lends itself to very wide spaces, provided it is
adequately supported by many narrow vertical shafts. These are often further braced by horizontal
transoms. The overall effect produces a grid-like appearance of regular, delicate, rectangular forms with an
emphasis on the perpendicular. It is also employed as a wall decoration in which arcade and window
openings form part of the whole decorative surface. The style, known as Perpendicular, that evolved from
this treatment is specific to England.
Fan Vault
A fan vault is a form of vault used in the Gothic style, in which the ribs are all of the same curve and spaced
equidistantly, in a manner resembling a fan. The earliest example, dating from about the year 1351, may
be seen in the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral.
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The largest fan vault in the world can be found in the chapel of King's College, Cambridge.
Gargoyles & Grotesques
In architecture, a gargoyle is a carved stone grotesque with a spout designed to convey water from a roof
and away from the side of a building. Preventing rainwater from running down masonry walls is important
because running water erodes the mortar between the stone blocks. Architects often used multiple
gargoyles on buildings to divide the flow of rainwater off the roof to minimize the potential damage from a
rainstorm. Gargoyles are usually an elongated fantastic animal because the length of the gargoyle
determines how far water is thrown from the wall. When Gothic flying buttresses were used, aqueducts
were sometimes cut into the buttress to divert water over the aisle walls. The term originates from the
French gargouille, originally "throat" or "gullet"; It is also connected to the French verb gargariser, which
means "to gargle." an architecturally precise phrase which means "protruding gutter. “Gargoyles are said
to scare off and protect from any evil or harmful spirits. A grotesque figure is a sculpture that does not work
as a waterspout and serves only an ornamental or artistic function. These are also usually called gargoyles
in layman's terminology.
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In architecture, a gargoyle is a carved stone grotesque with a spout designed to convey water from a roof
and away from the side of a building. Preventing rainwater from running down masonry walls is important
because running water erodes the mortar between the stone blocks. Architects often used multiple
gargoyles on buildings to divide the flow of rainwater off the roof to minimize the potential damage from a
rainstorm. Gargoyles are usually an elongated fantastic animal because the length of the gargoyle
determines how far water is thrown from the wall. When Gothic flying buttresses were used, aqueducts
were sometimes cut into the buttress to divert water over the aisle walls. The term originates from the
French gargouille, originally "throat" or "gullet"; It is also connected to the French verb gargariser, which
means "to gargle." an architecturally precise phrase which means "protruding gutter.“ Gargoyles are said
to scare off and protect from any evil or harmful spirits. A grotesque figure is a sculpture that does not work
as a waterspout and serves only an ornamental or artistic function. These are also usually called gargoyles
in layman's terminology.
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Notre-Dame de Paris, also called Notre-Dame Cathedral, cathedral church in Paris. It is the most famous
of the Gothic cathedrals of the Middle Ages and is distinguished for its size, antiquity, and architectural
interest.
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Notre-Dame lies at the eastern end of the Île de la Cité and was built on the ruins of two earlier churches,
which were themselves predated by a Gallo-Roman temple dedicated to Jupiter. The cathedral was initiated
by Maurice de Sully, bishop of Paris, who about 1160 conceived the idea of converting into a single building,
on a larger scale, the ruins of the two earlier basilicas. The foundation stone was laid by Pope Alexander
III in 1163, and the high altar was consecrated in 1189. The choir, the western facade, and the nave were
completed by 1250, and porches, chapels, and other embellishments were added over the next 100 years.
Notre-Dame Cathedral consists of a choir and apse, a short transept, and a nave flanked by double aisles
and square chapels. Its central spire was added during restoration in the 19th century, replacing the original,
which had been completely removed in the 18th century because of instability. The interior of the cathedral
is 427 by 157 feet (130 by 48 metres) in plan, and the roof is 115 feet (35 metres) high. Two massive early
Gothic towers (1210–50) crown the western facade, which is divided into three stories and has its doors
adorned with fine early Gothic carvings and surmounted by a row of figures of Old Testament kings. The
two towers are 223 feet (68 metres) high; the spires with which they were to be crowned were never added.
At the cathedral’s east end, the apse has large clerestory windows (added 1235–70) and is supported by
single-arch flying buttresses of the more daring Rayonnant Gothic style, especially notable for their
boldness and grace. The cathedral’s three great rose windows alone retain their 13th-century glass.
Notre-Dame Cathedral suffered damage and deterioration through the centuries. After the French
Revolution it was rescued from possible destruction by Napoleon, who crowned himself emperor of the
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French in the cathedral in 1804. Notre-Dame underwent major restorations by the French architect Eugène-
Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc in the mid-19th century. The popularity of Victor Hugo’s historical novel Notre-
Dame de Paris (1831), wherein the cathedral is the setting, was said to have inspired the renovations.
During a restoration campaign in 2019, a fire broke out in the cathedral’s attic, and the massive blaze
destroyed most of the roof, Viollet-le-Duc’s 19th-century spire, and some of the rib vaulting.
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EXAM ASSURE
GATE ARCHITECTURE
& PLANNING 2022
RENAISSANCE, BAROQUE, ROCOCO, NEO

CLASSICAL
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Renaissance Architecture
Introduction
 Renaissance means "rebirth" in French.

 During the Renaissance there was a rebirth of interest in ancient Greek and Roman elements.
 Emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in
the architecture of classical antiquity.
 Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters and lintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches and
hemi-spherical domes.
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Characteristics
 The obvious distinguishing features of Classical Roman architecture were adopted by Renaissance
architects.
 The ancient orders were analyzed and reconstructed to serve new purposes.
 The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square, symmetrical appearance in which proportions
are usually based on a module.
 Within a church, the module is often the width of an aisle. The need to integrate the design of the
plan with the façade was introduced.
 Facades symmetrical along vertical axes.
 Giant order, also known as colossal order columns or pilasters span two (or more) storeys along
facade.
 The Roman orders of columns are used:- Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. Arches
are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental.
 Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the
Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular.
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 The dome is used frequently, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from the exterior,
and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally.
 External walls are generally constructed of brick, rendered or faced with stone in highly finished
ashlar masonry.
Villa Capra "La Rotonda", Italy (Andrea Palladio)
 Villa Rotunda inspired a thousand subsequent buildings, but the villa was itself inspired by the
Pantheon in Rome.
 The design is for a completely symmetrical building having a square plan with four facades, each
of which has a projecting portico.
 The whole is contained within an imaginary circle which touches each corner of the building and
centers of the porticos.
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 Plan is intersection of a square with a cross. The dome was completed with a cupola.
Palazzo del Tè (1524-1534), mantua, Italy
 A palace, Palazzo del Tè is an example of the Mannerist style of architecture popular in Italy in the
16th century. Veering from the severe symmetry of the high Renaissance architectural style of the
time, architect Guilio Romano (pupil of Raphael, St. Peters fame) introduced disproportionate
elements to his buildings such as Protruding keystones in the arches.
 Mannerism: a style deviant of the harmonious and symmetrical approach propagated by
Michelangelo, Bramante etc. the style emerged around 1520 and lasted till 1580, also associated
with art and poetry.
 Pilasters, triglyphs, semi-circular arches and fresco work in the interior
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Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City
Vatican City, the world center of the Roman Catholic church, is an independent state that lies entirely within
Rome, Italy. Many of the city’s buildings were designed and decorated by some of history’s greatest artists.
Italian architect Gianlorenzo Bernini created the vast plaza in front of Saint Peter's Basilica in the 1600s.
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Saint Peter’s Basilica, Rome (1506 – 1614 A.D)
 In 1506, architect Donato Bramante, under commission from Pope Julius II was selected through
a competition to design this monument in Vatican City
 Consequent to the death of Bramante, Sangallo, Raphael and Peruzzi before completion of the
church, Florentine artist Michelangelo assumed the supervisory role in 1546, for ‘love of God’.
 His design simplified and unified the architectural elements of Bramante’s plan for the basilica with
Maderno’s extended nave plus narthex. Resultantly, it’s a structure of monumental proportions,
influencing dome design and construction for the next 300 years
Saint Peter’s Basilica, Rome
1. Enormous Greek Cross (named so, as St. Andrew, B/o. St. Peter was crucified in Greece on such a
symmetrical cross); 4 bay’ nave, crossing apse.
2. Ribbed dome supported on 4 large piers capped with a lantern / dome drum with windows; 4 lower
domes surrounding the central dome
3. 3 main semi-circular apses circumscribed by a parallel ambulatory.
4. Maderno’s plan combined with Michelangelo’s plan resulting in extended nave plus narthex . . . finally
a Latin Cross Corinthian pilasters and continuous cornices along the turns of the building unite the
building physically and visually.
5. Tallest dome (from basilica floor to tip of the cross above the dome) @ 448.1 ft 136.1 ft dia, little smaller
than that of Pantheon (142 ft) and of Florence cathedral (144 ft, designed by Brunelleschi); but greater
than the dome of the byzantine cathedral, the Hagia Sophia at Constantinople
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The Palazzo Medici, Florence 1444
• Rustication- stone blocks with deeply recessed chamfered joints

• Had three tiers of graduated textures, beginning with rock-faced stone at the street level and
concluding with smooth ashlar at the third level below a 10-ft high cornice with modillions, egg and
dart moldings and a dentil course.
• The building reflected Renaissance ideals of symmetry, the use of classical elements and careful
use of mathematical proportions.
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Baroque Architecture
Like the Renaissance, the Baroque period in architecture was marked by design rather than structural
innovation. In response to the bareness of Renaissance architecture, Baroque buildings were lavishly
decorated. Rather than the approach of form following function, designers of this period approached
architecture as theater, emphasizing effects, interpretations, and movement.
1. Michelangelo's late Roman buildings, particularly St. Peter's Basilica, may be considered precursors to
Baroque architecture.
2. Distinctive features of Baroque architecture in churches, broader naves and sometimes given oval
forms
3. fragmentary or deliberately incomplete architectural elements
4. dramatic use of light; either strong light and- shade contrasts or uniform lighting by means of several
windows.
5. opulent use of colour and ornaments large-scale ceiling frescoes
6. an external façade often characterized by a dramatic central projection
7. Marian and Holy Trinity columns erected in Catholic countries, often in thanksgiving for ending a plague
Hall of Mirrors (1678 – 1684), Palace of Versailles, France
• King Louis XIV of France charged French architects Louis Le Vau, André Le Nôtre, and Charles
Lebrun with the expansion of the Palace of Versailles. Construction went on for a century starting
in the 1660s.
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• The principal feature of this famous hall is the seventeen mirror-clad arches that reflect the
seventeen arcaded windows that overlook the gardens.
• Glass – Venetian monopoly, foiled by making Glass in Versailles for this work
• 73.0 m × 10.5 m × 12.3 m (239.5 ft × 34.4 ft × 40.4 ft)

• Used daily by Louis XIV on his way from his apartment to the chapel
• Used to receive ambassadors, celebrate family and dynastic functions
• Ceiling decorated (Le Brun) by realistic incidents of victories and policies of Louis XIV
• Each arch contains twenty-one mirrors with a total complement of 357 used in the decoration
• Bronze capitals, silver tables etc. melted – expenditure for the War of Augsburg
The Benedictine Abbey, Austria
• Less undulating but abstract in its imagery

• The abbey is based on a conventional basilica design. The exterior, though baroque, is relatively
simple and restrained, in contrast to the interior which is extremely ornate.
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Saint Paul's Cathedral (1675-1708/1711), London
• Designed by English architect Christopher Wren.

• One of the most famous English baroque churches.
• The cathedral is best known for its impressive dome, which is actually two domes—an inner
one and a taller outer one.
• The inner dome is open in the middle so that light can stream into the cathedral.
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Saint Paul's Cathedral, London
• Dome at 365’ height, among the tallest in London

• Second largest church in UK, after Liverpool cathedral
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Rococo Architecture
Rococo style developed first in the decorative arts and interior design, and its influence later spread
to architecture, sculpture, theater design, painting, and music. Rococo style is characterized by
elaborate ornamentation, asymmetrical values, pastel color palette, and curved or serpentine lines.
• Rococo art works often depict themes of love, classical myths, youth, and playfulness.
• Antoine Watteau is considered to be the first great Rococo painter who influenced later Rococo
masters such as Boucher and Fragonard.
• In sculpture, the work of Etienne-Maurice Falconet is widely considered to be the best
representative of Rococo style.
• Rococo sculpture makes use of very delicate porcelain instead of marble or another heavy medium.
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• Rococo architecture was a lighter, more graceful, yet also more elaborate version of Baroque
architecture, which was ornate.
• Rococo emphasized the asymmetry of forms.
• Rococo architecture was an 18th-century, more secular, adaptation of the Baroque which was
characterized by more lighthearted and jocular themes.
• Numerous curves and decorations, as well as the usage of pale colors.
• Rococo architecture also brought significant changes to the building of edifices, placing an
emphasis on privacy rather than the grand public majesty of Baroque architecture.
Neo Classical Architecture

Neoclassical architecture is characterized by grandeur of scale, simplicity of geometric forms, Greek—
especially Doric or Roman detail, dramatic use of columns, and a preference for blank walls. The new
taste for antique simplicity represented a general reaction to the excesses of the Rococo style.
• Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that
began in the mid-18th century.
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• In its purest form, it is a style principally derived from the architecture of classical antiquity and the
Vitruvian principles
• By the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical
influences, including those from Ancient Greece.
• The grid system of streets though neoclassical architecture employed the same classical
vocabulary as Late Baroque architecture, it tended to emphasize its planar qualities, rather than
sculptural volumes.
PALLADIAN ARCHITECTURE
• Palladian architecture is a European style of architecture derived from and inspired by the designs
of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580).
• Palladio's work was strongly based on the symmetry, perspective and values of the formal
classical temple architecture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans.
• Palladianism became popular briefly in Britain during the mid-17th century and continued to
develop until the end of the 18th century.
• The style continued to be popular in Europe throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, where it
was frequently employed in the design of public buildings.
Plan for Palladio's Villa Rotonda. Features of the house were to become incorporated in numerous
Palladian style houses throughout Europe over the following centuries.
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University of Virginia
Thomas Jefferson, president of the United States from 1801 to 1809, founded the University of Virginia
at Charlottesville in 1819. An architect as well as a statesman, Jefferson designed the famous neoclassical
buildings of the school’s Lawn complex,
inspired from Andrea Palladio. His style strongly influenced the architecture of other public buildings in
the United States.
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PNC TOWER, OHIO
• Designed by Cass Gilbert

• Hellenic architecture in the upper portion of the tower, which resembles Mausoleum of
Halicarnassus
• A prime example of a neoclassical skyscraper with an elaborate Hellenic architecture in the upper
portion of the tower.
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• An early proponent of skyscrapers in works like the Woolworth Building, Gilbert was also
responsible for the Minnesota, Arkansas and West Virginia State Capitols; and
U.S SUPREME COURT
• Was designed by architect Cass Gilbert (as Gilbert's last major project; he died before it was
completed).
• The Supreme Court Building is a Neoclassical style structure in marble
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WOOLWORTH BUILDING
• Woolworth Building is an American skyscraper located in Manhattan, NYC.

• Was designed in neo-Gothic style by the architect Cass Gilbert.
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Gothic Revival Architecture
Gothic Revival (also referred to as Victorian Gothic, neo-Gothic, or Gothick) is an architectural
movement that began in the late 1740s in England. ... Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic
style, including decorative patterns, finials, lancet windows, and hood molds.
• Palace of Westminster is the meeting place of the House of Commons and the House of Lords,
the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
• Designed by Sir Charles Barry and Augustus Pugin, in Gothic revival style.
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EXAM ASSURE
GATE ARCHITECTURE
& PLANNING 2022
Indus valley and Buddhist Architecture
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Indus Valley Architecture
 The Indus civilization apparently evolved from the villages of neighbors or predecessors, using the
Mesopotamian model of irrigated agriculture with sufficient skill to reap the advantages of the spacious
and fertile Indus River valley while controlling the formidable annual flood that simultaneously fertilizes
and destroys.
• The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization, extending from what today is
northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.
• This civilization was lasting from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE.
• It flourished in the basins of the Indus River.
• Its large urban centers were Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
• The civilization's cities were noted for their:
• Urban planning
• Baked brick houses
• Elaborate drainage systems
• Water supply systems (Central well & Smaller wells)
• Clusters of large non-residential buildings
• New techniques in handicraft and metallurgy
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Salient Features of Indus Valley Town Planning
 Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were laid out on a grid pattern and had provisions for well organized
drainage system.
 Each city in the Indus Valley was surrounded by massive walls and gateways. The walls were built to
control trade and also to stop the city from being.
 A typical city would be divided into two sections, each fortified separately:
 One section was located on an artificially raised mound (sometimes called ‘Acropolis’ or ‘The Citadel’).
The acropolis contained the important buildings of the city, like the assembly halls, granaries and the
great bath in case of Mohenjo-Daro.
 The lower section of the city was where the housing for the inhabitants was located. The city was well
connected with broad roads about 30 meters wide, which met at right angles. The houses were located
in the rectangular squares thus formed.
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The Great Bath, Mohenjo-Daro
• The Great Bath is one of the well-known structures among the ruins of the ancient Indus Valley
Civilization at Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh, Pakistan.
• It is famously called the “earliest public water tank of the ancient world”.
• It measures 11.88 × 7.01 metres, and has a maximum depth of 2.43 metres.
• Two wide staircases, one from the north and one from the south, served as the entry to the
structure.
• The floor and side walls of the tank was watertight due to finely fitted bricks and mud laid on edge
with a kind of plaster. To make the tank even more watertight, a thick layer of bitumen (waterproof
tar) was laid along the sides of the pool and presumably also on the floor.
The Granary, Harappa
• The Granary at Harappa is made of burnt brick.

• It was Built close to the river Ravi to make transportation easy.
• It is comprised of two blocks. Each block has six storage rooms 15 m long and 6 m wide.
• The two blocks are separated by a passage.
• Air-ducts are provided under the wooden floor. The row of triangular openings may have been for
ventilation. The granary complex measures approx. 55 m by 43 m.
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• Exact function is debated (Storage/ Public building for meeting or religious gatherings)
The Assembly Hall, Mahenjo-Daro
• An important feature of Mohenjo-daro was its 24 square meters pillared hall.

• It had five rows of pillars, with four pillars in each row.
• Kiln baked bricks were used to construct these pillars.
• Probably, it was the Assembly Hall or the ruler's court.
• It is said that it also housed the municipal office which had the charge of town planning and
sanitation.
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The Residential Buildings
• Sun-dried bricks were used for the foundation of the buildings and the roofs were flat and made of
wood.
• These houses were made of standard baked bricks (which had a ratio of length & width to thickness
at 4:2:1) as well as sun dried bricks.
• Some houses even had multiple stories and paved floors.
• Almost every house had its own wells, drains and bathrooms. The in-house well is a common and
recognizable feature of the Indus Valley Civilization. Each house was connected directly to an
excellent drainage system.
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Buddhist Architecture
Started On 300 B.C.
Ashoka-Beginning of Buddhist Period:
• The Buddhist architecture has its root deeply implanted in the Indian soil- the birthplace of the
Buddha's teachings.
• The Buddhist architecture began with the development of various symbols, representing aspects
of the Buddha's life (563 BCE - 483 BCE).
• Indian emperor Ashoka, not only established Buddhism as the state religion of his large Magadh
empire, but also opted for the architectural monuments to spread Buddhism in different places.
During the period of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, Kautilya and Chanakya was the chief minister who
wrote the famous ‘Arthashastra’, a treatise of Town Planning.
Features stated in it were;
• Regulation of Zoning depending on communities

• Highway (Rajmarga) to be parallel to the main cardinal direction.
• Road were aligned in grid-iron form
• Rajmarga to be not less than 30 ft. or nearly 3 lanes of traffic,
• The excavation carried out at patliputra, capital of Magadha (now in Bihar), shows evidence of
advance knowledge of planning,
• Takshasila and nalanda, the renowned place for learning were found in the period,
• Nalanda consist of three main essentials-stupas, temples & hotels for the monks. It had 300 halls
for accommodating 10,000 pupils and libraries were nine-storeyed high.
• The Emperor Ashoka had built as many as 84,000 stupas.
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• Also there were as many as 30 pillars erected, out of which Two of them are in good condition:
• One with lion over the bell capital at Kolhua and other at Laurya nandagarh in Champaran district
of Bihar.
• The major features of this style are

• Stupas
• stambhas
• chaitayas
• Viharas
• These have been mere spectators of different eras quietly speaks about the phases of the Buddhist
stages.
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Stupa
• A stupa is a mound-like structure containing buddhist relics, typically the remains of Buddha, used
by Buddhists as a place of worship.
• These stupas are the circular tumuli/Rotunda built of earth, covered with stone or brick, the plan,
elevation, section and the total form of which were all derived from circle.
• Stupa become a cosmic symbol in response to a major human condition: death. With the
enlightenment of the Buddha, stupa became a particularly buddhist symbol.
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THE GREAT STUPA, SANCHI
• There are mainly three main stupas on the top of the sanchi hill which rise about 100m above the
plain.
• Of the three stupa the biggest one is known as the great stupa.
• Vihara is the Sanskrit term for a Buddhist monastery.
• It originally meant "a secluded place referred to "dwellings" or "refuges“ used by wandering monks
during the rainy season
• The 'Great Stupa' at Sanchi is the oldest stone structure in India and was originally commissioned
by the emperor Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE.
• It was a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha.
• It was crowned by the chatra, a parasol-like structure symbolizing high rank, which was intended
to honour and shelter the relics.
• It has four profusely carved ornamental gateways and a balustrade encircling the whole structure.
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• DOME- is a solid brick-work 32.32m in diameter and 12.8m high.
• The dome has a slight ‘crushed’ profile at top and was surmounted by HARMIKA.
• A 3-tier stone or wooden umbrella called ‘Chhatravali’
• The facing of the dome consists of dry masonry composed of hammer dressed stones laid in even
courses.
• The terrace 4.87m high from ground was added thus creating a separate and upper AMBULATORY
passage 1.8m wide access to which was provided by a double staircase with high BALUSTRADE,
on the south side
• There are four gateways known as ‘TORANAS’ at the cardinal points to the compass and are
slightly staggered from the railing enclosing stupa.
• Outside the railing there once stood the famous ashoka pillar, the fragments of which are noticed
now to the right of southern torana.
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The ambulatory or pradakshina path is fenced by railing or Vedika of 3.35m high all around the stupa.
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RAILING OR VEDICA
• The railing or Vedica consists of upright octagonal plan 45cm in diameter spaced at 60 to 90cm
from each other and connected by three lens shaped horizontals called ‘suchi’ or needles 60cm
deep being threaded through the holes of the upright.
The top horizontal bar is provided with coping to drain out rain water
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STUPA AT AMARAVATI
• The Great Stupa at Amaravati was a large Buddhist monument built in south-eastern India between
the 2nd century B.C. and the third century A.D. It was a centre for religious activity and worship for
hundreds of years.
• The Stupa was part of a complex of religious buildings built by local people. Over time, the Stupa
was added to and changed many times.
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ARYAKAS GATEWAY
There were four gateways in the railing around the Stupa. Each one of the gateways marked one of the
four directions, north, south, east and west.
AYAKA PLATFORM
A small platform extended out from the drum at each of the gateways. Five pillars were mounted on top of
each of the ayaka platforms. The ayaka platform may have been used in the rituals which took place at the
Amaravati Stupa.
PILLAR
Facing each gateway into the Amaravati Stupa was a group of five pillars. The pillars were mounted on a
special platform called the ayaka which was part of the drum and extended out from it.
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RAILING
Around the outer limits of the Stupa was a tall railing made of limestone. The railing marked the boundaries
of the Stupa.
LION
Lion sculptures were placed at the gateways to the Amaravati Stupa. Lions represented power and strength
and were meant to ward off evil spirits and protect the Stupa.
STAMBHAS OR PILLARS AT KARLI
• Buddhist Order or pillars are common to all the styles of Indian architecture. With the Buddhist they
were employed to bear inscriptions on their shafts, with emblems or animals on their capital.
• Typical Buddhist column are of two type one is based on persepolitian type and other graeco-roman
type.
• Persepolitian type is a octagonal with bell shaped capital supporting animal sculpture. The shaft is
highly polished and has a vaseshaped base.
• Graeco-roman type is rectangular with shallow flutes. They are tall and slender, the height nearly
six to eight times its lower diameter. At the top is a capital usually with a fluted vase motif.
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ASHOKA PILLARS
• The authentic examples of these pillars are those which king Ashoka set up to bear inscriptions
conveying to his subjects the leading doctrines of the new faith he had adopted, Buddhism. These
are sturdy, finely proportional and properly balanced religious sign posts
• The pillar at sarnath more than 15m high has a group of four addressed lions with flowing manes,
surmounting the capital.
• These lions originally supported a massive metal wheel with 24 spokes called ‘wheels of the law’.
• The capital more than 2m high resembles the shape of a inverted bell or lotus bub with series of
fluted petals.
• Above the capital is the abacus which is circular, having broad edge carves with ornamental
borders, containing four figure of animals alternate with the four small wheels
Basics of Buddhist Town Planning
• Chaityas and Viharas are those rock-cut structures that were known out for Buddhist and Jain
monks.
• Chaityas = places of worship.
• Viharas = residence of monks.
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• Most of the Chaityas and Viharas were constructed in western India. Eg. Karle, Nashik, Bhajaand
Kanheri.
• Stupas = A dome-shaped monument, used to house Buddhists' relics.
• Pagodas = Religious multi-storey Buddhist towers, erected as a memorial or shrine.
CHAITYAS
• Chaityas or ‘sacred spots’ are the temples as well as assembly halls created out of the particular
demands of buddhist religion.
• These became necessary to accommodate those who congregated to pay their homage.
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• These have a small rectangular door-way which opens to a vaulted hall, with apsidal end and
divided longitudinally by two colonnades forming a broad nave in the centre and two side aisles.
• At end is a stupa also carved in natural rock with enough space around it for circumambulation
• The roof is usually semi-circular.
CHAITYA AT KARLI
• The entrance of the chaitya is very grand and consists of three doorways set underneath a gallery.
• The chaitya hall is 38.5m long and 13m wide with a vaulted roof rising to a height of 13.7m.
• The roof is supplemented by a series of wooden ribs which are closely spaced.
• The hall is divided by two rows of columns forming a broad nave in the centre.
• Each column is 1.22m in diameter and 7.32m high, with bell shapes capital which supports a pair
of kneeling elephants carrying male and female riders and those of horses and tigers in the rear.
• The shaft is octagonal in shape and has a vase-shapes base.
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• At the end is a stupa, caved in natural rock, with railing and inverted stepped pyramid or tee at the
top.
• A beautiful ‘lat’ surmounting with four addorsed lions is erected at the entrance of the chaitya.
FEATURES
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VIHARAS OR MONASTERIES
• These are the residential places of the Buddhist priests.

• They consist of a main-hall entered by a door-way.
• They also contain the assembly hall, dining chambers.
• From the halls deep into the rocks, cells are provided for meditation.
• Some great structural viharas were about 60m high covered with glazed tiles.
• Pillars were richly chiseled in the form of dragons.
• Beams were painted in red and rafter with all colors of rainbow.
• Viharas were literally the pleasure gardens of monastic precincts.
• Some of the important Buddhist viharas are those at Ajanta, Ellora. Nasik, Karli, Kanheri, Bagh and
Badami.
Rock-cut Architecture
• Most of rock cut architecture are related to various religious communities.

• Numerous caves were excavated by the Buddhist monks for prayer and residence purposes.
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Ajanta
One of the World’s greatest historical treasure recognized by UNESCO
At 2nd century BCE, spanning over 600 years of construction
Ajanta consists of 29 Buddhist caves (some unfinished), the grand achievement of the first wave of rock-
cut architecture in India.
The cave have intricate carvings, sculptures and wall paintings that depicts the Jataka Tales- narration of
stories of previous lives of Buddha.
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Ellora
• 400,000 ton of rocks were scooped out over 100’s of years to build these monolithic structures
• 34 caves: 12 Buddhist, 17 Hindu and 5 Jain
Ellora
• Ellora Caves, carved out of the vertical face of the Charanadri hills.
• Bestowed with rich styles, of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist architectures.
• One of the worlds UNESCO heritage site.
Kailasha temple is remarkable example of Dravidian architecture\
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Indian Temple Architecture (Dravidian, Nagara

and jain temple)
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Indian Temple Architecture
Hindu temple architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way
of life cherished under Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha—pilgrimage. All the cosmic elements
that create and celebrate life in Hindu pantheon, are present in a Hindu temple—from fire to water, from
images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from Kama to artha, from the fleeting
sounds and incense smells to Purusha—the eternal nothingness yet universality—is part of a Hindu
temple architecture.
• The Hindu temple architecture developed over two thousand years.

• The architectural evolution of the Indian temples took place within the rigid frameworks derived
entirely from religious thoughtfulness.
• Therefore, the architect was bound to keep to the ancient primary dimensions and strict
configurations, which remained unaltered over the period of time.
• The architect and sculptor were given a plenty of freedom in the ornamentation and decoration of
the temples.
• This resulted in an overwhelming riches of architectural elements, sculptural forms and decorative
ebullience that is the characteristic feature of Indian temple architecture has few analogues in the
aesthetic manifestation of the whole world.
• In different parts of the country, distinct architectural style of temples was result of geographical,
ethnic and historical diversities.
• The Vastu Shastras, the ancient canonical texts on architecture, classify temples into three different
orders:
• the Nagara or the Indo-Aryan or Northern style,
• the Dravidian or the Southern style and
• the Vesara or Mixed style of temple architecture.
• There are also definite regional styles in peripheral areas like Bengal, Kerala and the Himalayan
areas.
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• Nagara Style is associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhya's.
• Dravidian Style with the land between the Krishna and Kaveri rivers.
• Vesara Style is sometimes associated with the area between the Vindhya's and the Krishna river.
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Elements of Hindu temple
• The sanctuary as whole is known as the Vimana that consists of two parts.
• The upper part of the Vimana is called as the Sikhara
• The lower portion inside the Vimana is called as the Garbhagriha (cella or inner chamber).
• Sikhara’ meaning the tower or the spire.
• It is the pyramidal or tapering portion of the temple which represents the mythological ‘Meru’ or the
highest mountain peak.
• The shape and the size of the tower vary from region to region.
• ‘Garbhagriha’ meaning the womb chamber.
• It is nucleus and the innermost chamber of the temple where the image or idol of the deity is placed.
• The chamber is mostly square in plan and is entered by a doorway on its eastern side. The visitors
are not allowed inside the chamber.
• Pradakshina patha’ meaning the ambulatory passageway for circumambulation.
• It consists of enclosed corridor carried around the outside of garbhagriha.
• The devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship ritual and symbol of respect
to the temple god or goddess.
• ‘Mandapa’, is the pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees.
• It is used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant, meditate and watch the priests performing the rituals.
• It is also known as ‘Natamandira’ meaning temple hall of dancing, where in olden days ritual of
music and dance was performed.
• In some of the earlier temples the mandapa was an isolated and separate structure from the
sanctuary like in Mahabalipuram
• ‘Antarala’ meaning the vestibule or the intermediate chamber.
• It unites the main sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple.
• ‘Ardhamandapa’ meaning the front porch or the main entrance of the temple leading to the
mandapa.
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Dravidian Temple Architecture
(South Indian style temple architecture)
• The Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone temples.
• The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating from 610–690 CE and
structural temples between 690–900 CE.
• The greatest accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples at
Mahabalipuram.
• There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known as rathas in Mahabalipuram.
• Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva.
• The Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple built by Narasimhavarman II,
rock cut temple in Mahendravadi by Mahendravarman are fine examples of the Pallava style
temples.
Stage – 1 – Mahendra style
Mandapa or cave sanctuary
Varha caves, Mahabalipuram,
Stage – 2 – Narsimha style
Decoration in caves
Transition of mandapa to ratha,
example - panch pandav rathas.
Stage -3 – Rajasimha style
Structural temple for the first time
Example – Kailash Nath temple , Mahabalipuram
Stage -4 – Nandivarnam style
Development of small temple dravadian architecture flourished.
Evolution of Dravidian Architecture (Pallavas)
STAGE 1 : CAVE TEMPLES

• The Cave Temples of Mahabalipuram are located on the hillock of the town, overlooking the
Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal in Tamil Nadu, India.
• Many of the caves of the Pallava period have remained incomplete.
• The procedure in creating these caves involved creation of a smooth rock face, then cutting
columns through the polished rock faces of required size and then carving bas-reliefs on the walls
of the cave.
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• UNESCO uses the term of "cut-ins" to refer to the rock-cut caves which are used as Temples
(locally, “Mandapas" or “Mantapas")
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STAGE 2: RATHAS (CHARIOT TEMPLES)
• The ratha temples, in southern Mahabalipuram, are carved in the shape of chariots.
• The best-known are the five monolithic structures projecting above the beach, known as the Five
Rathas or the Pandava Rathas.
• These rathas are dated to the 7th century.
• Tallest Ratha: Dharmaraja Ratha (The temple’s pyramidal tower consists of a “Vimana” of shrinking
squares, capped by an octagonal cupola – had a finial).
• Smallest Ratha: Draupadi Ratha
• Most Massive: Bhima Ratha (roof resembling a vaulted barrel)
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• The five ratha temples commonly known as the Pancha Rathas or five chariots stand majestically
on the southernmost extreme of Mahabalipuram.
• Built by the Pallava ruler Narsimha Varman 1 (AD 630- 68) alias Mamalla in the 7th and 8th
centuries, each temple is a monolith, carved out of a single rock.
• The temples which are different incautiously cut out from a huge rock, sloping from south to north
forms, plans and elevations.
• These individual 'rathas' are named after the Pandava brothers Yudhistara (Dharmaraja) , Arjuna,
Bhima, Nakula & Sahadeva of the Epic Mahabharata and their wife Draupadi.
• Besides these rathas, the sculpture of an elephant (the vehicle of Indra), lion (the vehicle of Durga)
and Nandi bull (the vehicle of Shiva) are structurally displayed.
• Though these temples are named after the Pandava brothers, they are not in any way related to
Mahabharata.
• While the Dharmaraja, Arjuna and Draupadi rathas are square on plan, the Bhima ratha is
rectangular and Nakula Sahadeva ratha apsidal.
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OPEN AIR ROCK RELIEFS
• Reliefs are carved on rocks or boulders.
• The best-known rock relief in Mahabalipuram is the Descent of the Ganges (also known as Arjuna's
Penance), the largest open-air rock relief.
• The Descent of the Ganges is considered one of the largest bas-relief works in the world.
• Bas-relief – Low relief
• The relief, consisting of Hindu mythology, is carved on two 27 metre-long (89 ft), 9-metre-high (30
ft) boulders.
STAGE 3: STRUCTURAL TEMPLES

• The structural (free-standing) temples at Mamallapuram have been built with cut stones as building
blocks, rather than carved into a rock (cave temples) or out of a rock (ratha temples).
• The Shore Temple complex is near the Mamallapuram shore, hence its modern name.
• Main Temple: The 60-foot (18 m)-high temple has a 50-square-foot (4.6 m2) plan. It is a stepped
pyramidal tower (Vimana), arranged in five tiers with Shiva iconography.
• The temple is steeper and taller than the Arjuna and Dharmaraja rathas, with a similar design (in
which the Vimana repeats in shrinking square form with an octagonal cupola and kalasa-(pot)-
shaped finials cap the tower
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BRIHADISVARA TEMPLE, THANJAVUR
• Built by Raja Raja Chola I between 1003 and 1010 AD, the temple is a part of the UNESCO World
Heritage Site known as the “Great Living Chola Temples”
• Built out of granite, the vimana tower above the sanctum is one of the tallest in South India.
• The temple has a massive colonnaded Prakara (corridor).
• The Brihadeshvara temple plan development utilizes axial and symmetrical geometry rules.
• Rectangular plan with 5 components.
• Towering superstructure (Sri Vimana) – 63.4 m
• Brihadeshwara temple - through the gate to the courtyard where the 60 meter tower, a feast of
Dravidian architecture towers into the sky dwarfing the landscape offers a glimpse into the mind
of the once invincible imperial Cholas.
• Built in 11th century by Rajaraja I, it established the power of the Cholas.
• Granite blocks were brought for the temple from a distance of 50 km.
• The tower or vimana soars to height of 60.96 metres and the stone cupola at the top weighs 81.284
tonnes.
• Long plinths were used to put the stones in place.
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• On its east end is the original main Gopuram or gateway that is barrel vaulted.
• Outside the pillared veranda there are two walls of enclosure, the outer one being defensive
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NAYAKA STYLE – MEENAKSHI TEMPLE, MADURAI
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• The temple complex is divided into a number of concentric quadrangular enclosures contained by
high masonry walls.
• It is one of the few temples in Tamil Nadu to have four entrances facing four directions.
• Vishwantha Nayaka allegedly redesigned the city of Madurai in accordance with the principles
laid down by Shilpa Shastras relevant to urban planning.
• The city was laid out in the shape of square with a series of concentric streets originating from the
temple.
• These squares continue to retain their traditional names, Aadi, Chittirai, Avani-moola and Masi
streets, corresponding to Tamil month names.
• Ancient Tamil classics mention that the temple was the center of the city and the streets happened
to be radiating out like lotus and its petals.
• The temple prakarams (outer precincts of a temple) and streets accommodate an elaborate festival
calendar in which dramatic processions circumambulate the shrines at varying distances from the
center.
• The complex is in a compound of 45 acres (180,000 m2)
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• Designed as a series of concentric courtyards or PRAKARMAS
• Outermost circle – edifices of a practical nature than spiritual such as account offices, dormitories
for pilgrims, kitchens, shops, maintenance workshops etc. and parking for wooden festive chariots
• Inner prakarmas – pavilions or devotional songs and story telling, bathing tanks for ritual ablutions
and guest houses
• Innermost courts – kitchen for brahmins, pavilions or dancing girls and treasury
• Actual cella – open only to priests
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Nagara Temple Architecture
(North Indian style temple architecture)
Evolution of Temple Architecture in India during Gupta Period
Phase – 1
Square in plan with flat roof , It has a shallow pillared approach, smallest plinth , low platform
For example : Temple No. 17, sanchi (M.P)
Phase – 2
Flat roof with pillared approach , high plinth or high platform, covered ambulatory
For example : temple at nachnakutara (M.P) (also called Nachna group of temple)
Phase – 3
Square plan with high platform, cover ambulatory, addition of shikhara (for the first time, low hight)
For example :
• Dashavtar temple , Deogarh (U.P) (Panchayatan concept can also seen in the temple)
• Manyar math , rajgir (circular plan temple)
• Bheetargaon temple , near Kanpur (famous brick and terracotta temple)
Evolution of Temple Architecture in India during Gupta Period:
• During the Gupta period, a firm foundation of temple architecture was laid when the basic elements
of the Indian temple consisting of a square sanctum and pillared porch emerged.
• The evolved Gupta temple also had a covered processional path for circumambulation
(Pradakshana Path) that formed a part of the worship-ritual.
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Earlier temples of the period had a monolithic flat slab roof.
Later temples in brick and stone developed a Shikhara
The gradual evolution of the Gupta style is traceable through development of the plan and the
ornamentation on the pillars and doorframe.
the later introducing new decorative motifs like goblins, couples, flying angels, door-keepers and a figure
relief in the centre of the lintel emblematic of the deity consecrated in the temple.
Sculptures of deities, their consorts, celestial beings, couples, directional deities, composite animals and
decorative motifs formed the mass of images that adorned the walls of the temples and their interiors.
The deities consecrated in the sanctum were carved strictly according to religious canons and installed by
performing a special consecration ceremony.
Temple sculptures were not necessarily religious. Many drew on secular subject matters and decorative
motifs.
The scenes of everyday life consist of military processions, royal court scenes, musicians, dancers,
acrobats and amorous couples.
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Parvathi Temple at Nachana Kuthara:
• This is a west facing temple, contrary to most of other Hindu temples which face east.
• The sanctum doorway is surrounded by finely carved guardians with Ganga and Yamuna, river
goddesses.
• North and south walls are provided with pierced stone windows so that the light can enter the
sanctum.
Dasavathara Vishnu Temple at Deogarh:
• The most important feature of the temple is Sikhara instead of the conventional flat roof
• Another most important feature of this temple is the arrangement of its portico.
• In the centre of the over-door slab is a plaque of Vishnu on the great naga
• To the right and the left at the top and outside the main zone of the frame are reliefs of the river
goddess Ganga and Jamuna.
• Dvarpalas or door guardians and female divinities are carved on the overlapping frames of the
door.
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Temple of Bhitargaon:
• This temple is the earliest and the most remarkable example of
• brick building and bears resemblance to the Buddhist temple of Bodhgaya.
• The temple at Bhitaragaon stands at the centre of a fairly high plinth.
• It is a tower-like edifice, rising in diminishing stages to a height of 70 feet.
• The projected porch on the east side is approached by steps.
• The outer ornamentation of terracotta sculpture is certainly the most striking feature of the
Bhitaragaon temple.
• The walls rise in bold moldings, their upper portions being decorated with a row of rectangular
panels alternating with ornamental pilasters.
• Like many Brahmanical structures, it was not a temple for worshippers but a repository or a shrine
for an image.
• This is the oldest remaining Hindu shrine with a roof and a high Sikhara in which there is a series
of arches
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Shiva temple at Bhumara:
• It resembles in type and plan to the Bhitaragaon temple.
• This shrine consists of a square masonary cella ( garbagriha) of about 35 feet side with a flat slab-
roof and a carved doorway having representations of river-goddesses on the jambs and a fine bust
of Shiva, with flying figures on the lintel.
• Around the garba griha are the scattered remains of a larger chamber which surrounded it,
providing a roofed pradaksina patha, and of amandapam attached to and preceding this enclosure.
• These remains consist of a great variety of columns which are not monolithic, of richly carved lintels
that supported the roofing slabs, of Chaitya-window niches from the cornice.
• Some of the gana figures have raksasa faces on their Bellies.
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Khajuraho School
(Nagara style architecture)
Temples based on ratha concept
Architectural Features –Khajuraho

• 1000 AD
• High terraces
• Flight of steps – 10 to 12 ft
• Unity of composition
• Cella, mandapa and the entrance vestibule are the parts of a harmonious whole
• Shikharas – Architectural materpieces
• Vertical axis
• Top piece – Amalaka or capstone in perfect rhythm with the curvilinear outline of the shikhara
• Kalasa on top
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• Largest and loftiest in the Khajuraho group
• 109t X 60ft
• Height of it shikhara is 116ft 6 inches
• Mandapa size – 25 ft X 25 ft
• No enclosure walls
• Erected on platform (Jagatis) which are large enough to perform pradhakshina
• Garbhagriha, antharala, mahamandapa, mandapa and arthamandapa present
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Khajuraho group of temples
• The temples have been built from granite or sandstone, the two chief rocks found in this area upon
raised platforms.
• The platforms themselves stand on solid rock masses that are one of the oldest rocks on this earth.
The Kendariya Mahadev temple is the finest example in Indo-Aryan temple style because of its
attainment of unity in design of its components such as mandapas.
• It becomes a composite design in plan and exterior profile.

• It results into overall jagged profile of mostly revered Kailash.
• The raised platform on which the temples stands in itself becomes dominant feature of the
composition.
• The great flight of steps gives one a sense of arrival in higher ritualistic sense also.
• The sculptures are exquisite.
• They show the daily lives of the kings (hunting etc), the deities in their various forms, the beautiful
apsarasesin their elegant and enticing postures and other royal motifs like lions and elephants.
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Orissa School
Eastern Indian temples of Orissa

• Under the ancient name of Kalinga, Orissa was the seat of great empires as far back as 300 B.C.
• as the most remarkable examples of architectural achievement in all of Asia.
• Although Orissa presents a fairly large variety of styles in temple building, it has nevertheless a
characteristic architectural genius.
• Its temples have been described as one of the most compact and homogeneous architectural
groups in India.
• In these the Indo-Aryan style of architecture may be seen at its best and purest.
• The design which flourished in eastern Indian state of Orissa and Northern Andhra Pradesh are
called Kalinga style of architecture.
• The style consists of three distinct type of temples namely Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and
Khakhara Deula.
• Deula means "Temple" in the local language. The former two are associated with Vishnu, Surya
and Shiva temple while the third is mainly with Chamunda and Durga temples.
• The Rekha deula and Khakhara deula houses the sanctum sanctorum while the Pidha Deula
constitutes outer dancing and offering halls.
• The prominent examples of Rekha Deula are LingarajTemple of Bhubaneswar and Jagannath
Temple of Puri.
• The Konark Sun Temple is a living example of Pidha Deula
• The temple-building movement in Orissa, which reached its peak of excellence in the 10th and 11th
centuries, stretches from roughly 650 A.D. to 1200 A.D. and illustrates more coherently than any
other similar movement the growth and development of the Nagara style of architecture.
• In general, all Orissan temples follow a common structural plan.
• A typical temple consists of two apartments.
• The deul, corresponding to the southern vimana, is the cubical inner apartment which enshrines
the image, and is surmounted by a tower.
• In front of this is the antarala or porch called the jaganmohan which is usually square-shaped and
has a pyramidal roof.
• Occasionally, one or two more mandapas, such as the natmandir and the bhogmandir, can be
found in front of the jaganmohan, but these, where they exist, are almost without exception were
superimposed on top of the original plan.
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• Bhubaneswar has the richest profusion of temples and is known as the temple town of Orissa, not
only because of the large number of temples found there, but also because it is the home of the
famous Lingaraja temple.
• The city of Bhubaneswar is believed to have been created by Yayati, founder of the Kesaridynasty
of Orissa.
• The striking concentration of temples in Bhubaneswar is partly accounted for by the fact that the
city was the seat of powerful religions.
• The sacred lake of Bhubaneswar was once encircled by 7,000 shrines, of which only 500 now
survive in different stages of dilapidation
Lingaraja temple
• The great Lingaraja temple, believed to have been built around 1000 A.D.
• It stands in a cluster of sixty-five smaller shrines in a spacious compound meausring 520 feet by
465 feet and its mighty tower (the vimana) dominates the landscape for miles around.
• Constructed without mortar, this tower is 127 feet high and is divided into vertical sections.
• The angles of the recesses are filled in with miniature vimanas and on the top, are figures
representing a lion crushing an elephant.
• Initially it consisted of a cella and a mandapa
• Cella – 56ft square and rises about 140 ft
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• Mandapa is rectangular
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Mukteshwar Temple
• Little Architectural Gem
• Deul and Jagmohan
• Length – 45ft, width – 25ft, shikhara height – 35ft
• Heavy ornamentation and interesting carving
• Shikhara – well proportioned
• Entrance – Torana– semi circular arch carried by two pillars
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• Sun God – in ruins today
• Greatest achievement in Orissan architecture
• Temple conceived as the eternal sun god travelling in a ratha(chariot) – the chariot of time.
• High plinth
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• 12 no; of 10ft diameter wheels (6 on either side)
• Drawn by a team of 7 horses
• Upper part of the ratha – Deuland Jagmohan
• Path on the plinth for parikarma
• 3 subsidiary shrines on S, W and N
• Main entry – wide flight of steps in East
• Height of the tall Deul – shikhara – about 225ft
• Cella – 25ft X25 ft
• Jagmohan – 100ft X 100ft, ht – 100ft – cubical mass
• Temple is full of sculptures of erotic nature
• Temple stands in the centre of a large enclosure – 860 ft X 540 ft
• Dwajasthamba nd Nat mandir in front
• Stone – good variety of laterite
• Mortarless work
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Sun Temple, Konark
• The natmandir and the bhogmandir were detached structures, all enclosed within a courtyard
measuring 865 ft. by 540 ft.
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• The sculptures executed in hard stone to ensure their preservation, display an exuberance of mood
and appearance rarely encountered elsewhere.
• The technique also varies from designs carved with minute precision to vigorous groups modeled
on a massive scale.
• Much of the relief work on the outer walls of the temple at Konark -- as of certain other temples in
Orissa --has an obviously erotic import.
• This is indicative of the emergence of a phase in Hinduism known as Tantrism, the mithuna ritual
of which is depicted in the carvings of this temple as well as of the temples in Mathura and
Khajuraho.
• According to Tantric thought, all human experience – which by implication also includes experience
connected with carnal desire – has a value, for it is only through experience that man can attain
the stage of self-immolation.
Solanki School – Jain Temple Architecture

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Indian Temple Architecture (vesara, Bengal,

himalya and kerala temple architecture)
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Vesara Temple Architecture
(Chalukya , Western chalukya and Hoysala Architecture)
EARLY CHALUKYAN PERIOD-5th – 8th AD

(550 – 750 AD, 973 – 1190 AD)
• The birth of the Chalukyan Dynasty was in the 5th c. with its capitals at Aihole, Badami, Pattadakkal
Constituted the center of influence for medieval Indian art
• The contributions of the Pallavas and Orissa along with Northern influences were absorbed Aihole
illustrates 2 distinct variants in the development of dressed stone Hindu architecture
LATER CHALUKYAN PERIOD-9th – 12th c. AD

• The Pallavas and the Chalukyas were rival dynasties battling the control of south India
• There was hence a style that combined Dravidian and Nagara Styles
• Hence the Structures of this period have Pallavan influence. Most of the later chalukyan temples
were build by Dravidian labourers
• The only difference being it is of dressed rather than rock cut
• The only dated monument in Aihole, the Meguti Temple was built on top of a small hill in 634 AD.
• Now partly in ruins, possibly never completed, this temple provides an important evidence of the
early development of the Dravidian style of Architecture
• HUCHIMALLI TEMPLE- Pronaos (only columns no walls on the sides)was introduced
• Finer masonry- stone blocks used
• Delicate ornamentation
• Fractal method of derivation of vimana
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Lad Khan Temple at Aihole:
EARLY CHALUKYAN PERIOD-5th – 8th AD (550 – 750 AD, 973 – 1190 AD)
LADH KHAN TEMPLE – AIHOLE – 450 AD

• Dedicated to Shiva
• Temple consists of a shrine (garba griha) with mandapa in front of it
• rectangular building with a flat roof of stone slabs
• stone-grills on two sides to admit light
• The eastern end opens in the pillared porch. The wall is in reality a Pre style of massive stone posts
between which the latticed slabs have been placed like screens.
• The main shrine houses a Shiva Linga with a Nandi and outer walls having many carved images
along with floral motifs.
• The mukha mandapa situated in front of the sanctum and consists of a set of twelve carved pillars.
• Lad Khan temple is the earliest example of the massive bracket-like capital continued throughout
the Hindu Renaissance period.
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• Ladkhan Temple is one of the oldest temples in the complex probably built in 450 AD.
• It was initially used as a panchayat hall where Pulakesi I performed horse sacrifices.
• Later it was turned into a temple – first Surya Temple and then Shivalaya.
• Since it is early construction, the pillars are relatively carving free.
• The most beautiful part of the temple is the lattice windows with intricate carvings taking inspiration
from northern temples.
• The carving could have been a later addition to the temple once the appropriate skills had
developed.
• The central square with flat roof houses the Nandi.
• The Nandi is surprisingly completely intact.
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• Over the central square there is a broken shikhar which again could be a later addition.
• The temple got its name either from a general or a mendicant who lived here.
Plan – 50’ square

• 3 sides walled, two sides of which have perforated stone grilles
• 4th side on east-open pillared porch projecting outwards
• Entered through a 12 pillared portico in an expansion of the 9 square plan
• Interior consists of a 16 pillared hall like a pillared pavilion
• 2 square groups of columns, one within the other thus providing a double aisle.
Roofing:
• Roofed with huge slabs of stone laid almost flat
• Inclined to permit run off
• Carried on pillars and corbels in imitation of a wood frame structure
• Stone battens between the roofing stones helped to make it water tight
• Primitive roofing technique which gave way to successive layers of horizontal corbelling
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Ornamentation:
• The holy shrine was introduced at the end for the deity.
• Plain square shaft pillars existed
• Bracket capital, neck and wave mouldings
• Handsome jali whose perforations compose geometrical motifs and relief structures
• Kudu friezes in upper part of the temple base and around sides of roof – celestial city
• On the roof a little square aedicule has the reliefs of the 3 divinities-Vishnu, Surya, Devi
• Roof-Joints-covered all along by another stone
• Disproportionate structures
• Wasteful materials used unnecessarily
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• The Durga Temple is the most unique temple you have ever seen.
• It almost resembles a mini fort. And therefore probably it is named Durg or a fortress rather than
dedicated to Goddess Durga.
• The sign says that it has apsidal plan but non-apsidal curvilinear shikhar.
• The temple is a delight to look at and is emblematic of Aihole town.
• A colonnaded corridor runs around the temple that allows parikrama or circumambulation.
• The pillars have some great carvings.
• The garbha griha or the sanctum sanctorum is topped with a broken shikhar.
• The temple was built in the 8th century during the times of the later king Vikramaditya II.
• The exquisite and detailed carving clearly shows that in 2 centuries since they started temple
construction, the Chalukyan Architecture had reached its peak.
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• This is the brahmanical version of the Buddhist Chaitya hall adapted to suit the service of the former
belief.
• The durga temple which mostly follows this model was probably erected during the sixth century.
• The temple includes mukha mandapa,sabha mandapa and garbhagriha.
• It has an apsidal ended structure measuring 60’ by 36’.
• It is an improvement over the Ladhkhan Temple
• Derived from the Budhist Chaitya halls-6th Century
• The temple derives its name from Durgadagudi meaning 'temple near the fort’.
• Dedicated to Vishnu,
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Complex consist 9 Hindu temples,
4- nagara
4 dravadian
1 – papanath temple is a fusion of the two
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Papanath temple – Pattadakal
• 90’ x 30’ in dimension. The Papanath temple erected before the end of the 17th century reveals in
experience in architectural design.
• This plan lacks correct placement of the main parts and a logical inter relationship between them.
• The sikhara at the eastern end of the building is too short and under sized
• For the LENGHT, low building and the antrala is too big.
• It looks like square assembly hall than a vestibule more like a mandapa than an ante chamber to
the sanctuary.
• Temple has on plan a sanctum (garbhagriha ) surrounded by a circumambulatory path

(pradakshinapatha)
• With devakoshtha pavilions in its three walls, an ardha-mandpa, a sabha-mandapa and an
entrance porch (mukhamandapa)
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• There is no Nandi-mandapa but an ornate image of Nandi is housed in the eastern half of
the sabha-mandapa.
• The temple is built on a plinth of five mouldings, embellished with animal motifs, floral designs and
kudus.
• The wall surfaces are relieved with niches (devakoshthas) housing Saiva and Vaishnava deities
and depicting episodes from the Ramayana.
• These niches are topped by various designs of chaitya-arch motifs and interspersed with perforated
windows.
• The amalaka and kalasa are, however, missing.
• Dedicated to Lord Vishnu

• Built as the chief temple after the capital was founded
• Later on converted into Shiva’s temple
• Clearly shows the evolution of the temple
• 90’ long. Tower on the eastern end- too small and stunted
• Illogical arrangement of the plan as evolution of the temple took place. Uncertainty of positioning
the elements.
• Antarala or Vestibule is wrongly positioned
• Too large, takes the shape of a square court with 4 pillars.
• Instead of a connecting chamber it becomes another hall.
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• Disproportion in plan has created disproportion in elevation.
• Both the plan and the elevation does not harmonize.
• The interior still bears the influence of rock cut architecture .
• The string courses surrounding the building resemble strong braces holding the structure together.
the decoration of the outer surface consisting of repetitions of elements.
• Of bas relief shrines in a triangular pattern on the canopies, shows little under standing of
architectural ornamentation.
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VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE – PATTADAKAL 740 AD
• It closely resembles the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram on plan and elevation and
represents a fully developed and perfected stage of the Dravidian architecture.
• This temple, in worship, known as ‘Shri Lokeswara- was built by Lokamahadevi, the Queen of
Vikaramaditya II in A.D.740 to commemorate her husband’s victory over the Pallavas of
Kanchipuram.
• This temple has on plan a square sanctum (garbhagriha) with a circumambulatory path
(pradakshinapatha), an antarala with two small shrines for
• with entrance porches
• Separate Nandi-mandapa in front.
• The complex is enclosed by high prakara walls.
• Against the inner faces of these walls there were small shrines (originally 32) dedicated to the
subsidiary deities of which only a few are extant now.
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• The enclosure has been provided with ornate entrance gates ((pratolis) on both east and west.
The temple is built on a high plinth of five fully evolved mouldings.
• All these projections of the sanctum walls carry niches housing images of Saiva and Vaishnava
deities
• The superstructure over the sanctum is a Dravida-vimana in three storeys
• It is square in plan and repeats in its elevation many elements of the parapet and walls beneath.
• It has a beautifully shaped square roof (shikhara) with a round finial kalasa above.
• The whole of the interior of this temple is embellished with elegant carvings and aesthetically
modeled sculptures.
• Episodes from the Ramayana (e.g. abduction of Sita) Mahabharata (e.g. Bhishma lying in a bed
of arrows), Bhagavata (e.g. Krishna lifting the Govardhan mountain) and Kiratarjuniya (e.g. Arjuna
receiving the Pasupatastra from Siva) are depicted on the pillars of the sabha- mandapa and the
pilasters here have the sculptures of amorous couples and Rati and Manmatha.
• Flora, fauna and geometrical patterns adorn various parts of the temple.
• Doorjambs (dwara-shakhas) with their delicate carvings, pillars and pilasters with various types of
capitals and carvings on their faces
• lintels relieved with animals, birds and architectural motifs, ceilings depicting divine beings and
the majestically standing dwarapalas - attest to the heights reached by the Chalukyan sculptures.
• The Nandi-mandapa situated to the east of the temple, is a square pavilion open on all the four
sides.
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Kailasanatha Temple
• The Kailash (कैलाश, Kailasa, Kailasha, Kailasanatha) temple is the unmatched structure in the
world situated in Ellora.
• This is designed to recall Mount Kailash, the abode of Bhagwan Shiv – stands tall, enclosed
within a big man made crater, surrounded by rock.
• It is world’s oldest single rock carved, multi-storeyed temple complex. West archaeologists were
awestruck and compared to notice that it is double the size of Parthenon in Athens.
• After being closely monitored, several experts also found that initially the temple was entirely
covered with white plaster to increasingly resemble the snow covered Mount Kailash.
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The influence of other temple styles cannot be neglected, for, this temple resembles closely with the
Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal, an early Chalukyan temple. Kailasa was excavated under Krishna I
(A.D. 756-783) the Rashtrakuta monarch-It was originally known as Krishneswara, after the great king,
conceived on a mighty scale, announcing to the entire world, the ingenuity, character and architectural
genius.
The most prominent feature of the court is two huge monolithic elephants and pillars on each side. The
pillars, square in shape rise to a height of 45 feet and is crowned by a huge trisula. The pillars are decorated
with sculptural as well as moulding decorations.
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Images of Ganga, Yamuna and Sarasvati. This may be the symbolical representation of unison of these
three rivers at Prayaga, the most sacred spot of the Brahmanical faith. A lay worshipper is purified here by
offering his prayers at this spot, just before proceeding further into the temple.
The temple shows traces of Pallava style.
the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733–744 CE) took some Pallava artists back to his kingdom after
defeating the Pallavas.
The entrance to the temple courtyard features a low gopuram.
Most of the deities at the left of the entrance are Shaivaite(followers of Lord Shiva) while on the right hand
side the deities are Vaishnavaites (followers of Lord Vishnu).
A two-storeyed gateway opens to reveal a U-shaped courtyard- 82 m x 46 m at the base.
The courtyard is edged by a columned arcade three stories high.
The arcades are punctuated by huge sculpted panels, and alcoves containing enormous sculptures of a
variety of deities.
Originally flying bridges of stone connected these galleries to central temple structures, but these have
fallen.
• The rear wall of its excavated courtyard has length of 276 feet (84 m), breadth of 154 feet (47 m)
and height of 100 ft (33 m) high.
• The temple is built carving a big rock of 164 feet (50 m) deep, 109 feet (33 m) wide, and 98 feet
(30 m) high.
• Within the courtyard, there is a central shrine dedicated to Shiva, and an image of his
mount Nandi(the sacred bull).
• The central shrine housing the lingam features a flat-roofed mandapa supported by 16 pillars, and
a Dravidian shikhara.
• The shrine – complete with pillars, windows, inner and outer rooms, gathering halls, and an
enormous stone lingam at its heart – is carved with niches, plasters, windows as well as images
of deities, mithunas (erotic male and female figures) and other figures.
• The Nandi mandapa and main Shiva temple are each about 7 metres high, and built on two
storeys.
• The base of the temple has been carved to suggest that elephants are holding the structure aloft.
A rock bridge connects the Nandi Mandapa to the porch of the temple.
• There are five detached shrines in the temple premises; three of these are dedicated to the river
goddesses: Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati.
• There are two Dhwajasthambha (pillars with flagstaff) in the courtyard. A notable sculpture is that
of the Ravana attempting to lift Mount Kailasa
• The carving was done from top to down digging a single basalt cliff rock.
• Work happened only 16 hours a day.
• The reflection of sun rays from mirrors were used as there was no electricity in ancient period.
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Based on Archaeological Survey of India, ASI’s information, stunning
Architectural feats.
• The rear wall of its excavated courtyard has length of 276 feet (84 m), breadth of 154 feet (47 m)
and height of 100 ft (33 m) high.
• The temple is built carving a big rock of 164 feet (50 m) deep, 109 feet (33 m) wide, and 98 feet
(30 m) high.
• Largest cantilevered rock ceiling in the world.
• Located at 99-km from Sambhaji Nagar (aurangabad), Maharashtra. The entire complex of Ajanta
encompasses 29 rock-cut rooms.
• It is assumed by some experts that the entire complex and temple structure might be created
between 200 BC and AD 650 only using rudimentary hand tools.
• Four are Chaityas (temples) and Most others are Viharas (living quarters).
• The carving was done from top to down digging a single basalt cliff rock.
• Work happened only 16 hours a day. The reflection of sun rays from mirrors were used as there
was no electricity in ancient period. However, there are so many inner parts of the structure
where even sun rays cannot reach even using multi-layered mirror arrangement so delicately
carving intricate designs in such places is done using yogic eyes.
• During Satyug, average height of people were 32 feet and their lifespan was lakhs of years with
wishful death for Yogis. It is highly possible that the major carving of digging deep the entire
mountain were done by these pious and strong people.
Western chalukya architecture (mtrl – soapstone)
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Hoysala architecture (mtrl – soapstone)
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Temple of Bengal
Art of Bengal, which was mainly religious in nature, was expressed through the medium of temples. Brick
temples of Bengal (built between 16th and 19th century) forms one of the most distinctive groups of sacred
monuments in India. Due to multiple artistic influences acting upon the region during this period the Brick
temples of Bengal show wide range of forms and techniques of construction. Hence the temples constitute
a coherent series in their architecture and sculpture, characteristically expressed in brick and terracotta.
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Temple Style of Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh, amid the Himalayan Mountain range, is a land of Gods. The temple is where the past
intersects with the present through belief. Various cultural streams hsve enriched the art forms of Himaachal
Pradesh in the wake of numerous migrations. Thousands of temples and religious places are there in
Himachal, some of which have been built time immemorial.
(1) The ‘Pent’ roof and veranda
The pent-roofed temples are indigenously styled circular or rectangular structures with slanting roofs made
of rows and rows of slates, designed, in keeping with the climatic conditions of the region, to keep heavy
rainfall and snowfall from covering these structures for more than short intervals.
(2) The Pagoda Style
Pagoda temples are similar to the above mentioned pent-roofed temples in plan and style. The difference
lies in the superstructure. The Padoga Style temples comprised of rectangular stone and wood structures
with successive roofs, placed one over the other making them in some cases look like multi-storey edifices.
(3) Pyramidical
The Pyramidal style of roof temples are built on square plinths. In which, all the four lowereaves of the
temple roof are of equal length and the roof goes on narrowing towards centreforming pyramid like roof in
the centre.
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(4) Satluj Valley Style (A blend of pent roof and pagoda style)
A blend of pent roof and pagoda style. It is a style of mandap with one or more pagoda roofs above the
garbh griha that correspond to shikhar of a classical temple, usually at one end of the building but
sometimes in the centre.
(5) Shikara Style or Nagara Style
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(6) The Domed Style
(7) Flat-roofed Temples of Kangra Valley
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Temple Style of Kerala
Temple architecture in Kerala is different from that of other regions in India. Largely dictated by the
geography of the region that abounds in forests blessed with the bounties of the monsoons, the structure
of the temples in Kerala is distinctive. The roofs are steep and pointed, and covered with copper sheets.
The Kerala roof resembles those found in the Himalayan regions and those in East Asia.
The Keralite temple is an amalgam of stonework, wood work, stucco work and painting - harmoniously
blended into a structure vibrant with traditions of the region. The wood work here is of great importance,
and it gives the essential verve and character to the Kerala temple silhouette. The inner skeletal framework
of the temple is of wood, although the base and the structure above are of granite and laterite respectively.
The roof projects out at several levels, in order to protect the inner skeletal framework from the vigorous
monsoons that inundate the region.
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Kakatiya Rudreshwara (Ramappa)
Temple, Telangana
Rudreshwara, popularly known as Ramappa Temple, is located in the village of Palampet approximately
200km north-east of Hyderabad, in the State of Telangana. It is the main Shiva temple in a walled complex
built during the Kakatiyan period (1123–1323 CE) under rulers Rudradeva and Recharla Rudra.
Construction of the sandstone temple began in 1213 CE and is believed to have continued over some 40
years. The building features decorated beams and pillars of carved granite and dolerite with a distinctive
and pyramidal Vimana (horizontally stepped tower) made of lightweight porous bricks, so-called ‘floating
bricks’, which reduced the weight of the roof structures. The temple’s sculptures of high artistic quality
illustrate regional dance customs and Kakatiyan culture. Located at the foothills of a forested area and
amidst agricultural fields, close to the shores of the Ramappa Cheruvu, a Kakatiya-built water reservoir, the
choice of setting for the edifice followed the ideology and practice sanctioned in dharmic texts that temples
are to be constructed to form an integral part of a natural setting, including hills, forests, springs, streams,
lakes, catchment areas, and agricultural lands.
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EXAM ASSURE
GATE ARCHITECTURE
& PLANNING 2022
Islamic Architecture
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Islamic Architecture
Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses
both secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. Islamic architecture
developed to fulfill Islamic religious ideals, for example, the minaret was designed to assist the muezzin in
making his voice heard to throughout a specific area.
Early Islamic architecture was influenced by Roman, Byzantine,

Persian, Mesopotamian architecture and all other lands which the Early Muslim
conquests conquered in the seventh and eighth centuries. Further east, it was also influenced by
Chinese and Indian architecture as Islam spread to Southeast Asia. Later it developed distinct
characteristics in the form of buildings and in the decoration of surfaces with Islamic calligraphy,
arabesques, and geometric motifs. New architectural elements like minarets, muqarnas, and multifoil
arches were invented. Common or important types of buildings in Islamic architecture include mosques,
madrasas, tombs, palaces, hammams (public baths), Sufi hospices (e.g.
khanqahs or zawiyas), fountains and sabils, commercial buildings (e.g. caravanserais and bazaars), and
military fortifications.
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BUILDING TYPOLOGIES
MOSQUE
A mosque, also called masjid, is a place of worship for Muslims. Any act of worship that follows the Islamic
rules of prayer can be said to create a mosque, whether or not it takes place in a special building.
MAUSOLEUM/TOMB
A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment

space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is
called a cenotaph.
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Forts and Palaces
The Red Fort Complex was built as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad – the new capital of the fifth Mughal
Emperor of India, Shah Jahan. Named for its massive enclosing walls of red sandstone, it is adjacent to an
older fort, the Salimgarh, built by Islam Shah Suri in 1546, with which it forms the Red Fort Complex.
Gardens
An Islamic Garden is generally an expressive estate of land that includes themes of water and shade. Their
most identifiable architectural design reflects the Charbagh quadrilateral layout with four smaller gardens
divided by walkways or flowing water.
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PRINCIPAL PARTS – MOSQUE ARCHITECTURE
Principal Parts – Iwan

• A rectangular hall or space, usually vaulted, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open.
• They are usually decorated with calligraphy bands, glazed tile-work, and geometric designs.
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Design Characteristics
Influences
Religious Influence: Non-idol Worship
Greeco – Roman Influence: Dome, Arch, and Mosaic
Regional Influence: Local Architecture and Materials
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Design Characteristics
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The Origins…… Dome of Rock, Jerusalem
• One of the oldest extant works of Islamic architecture.

• Initially completed in 691 CE. The original dome collapsed in 1015 and was rebuilt in 1022–23.
• The octagonal plan of the structure may also have been influenced by the Byzantine Church of the
Seat of Mary.
• The celestial dome is used to remind the Muslims - of Man's place in the cosmos compared to God
and creation.
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MOORISH ARCHITECTURE
Moorish architecture is the architectural tradition that appeared in the Maghreb region and the Iberian
peninsula after the Arab Islamic conquest.
Characteristic elements of Moorish architecture: - Maqarnas (Ornamental Vault) - Arches (Horseshoe,

lancet, ogee) - Voussoirs - Domes - Courtyards - Decorative tile work [Zellij in Arabic and Azulejo in
Spanish]
Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spain.
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Alhambra Palace and Fortress complex
Great Mosque of Cordoba, Spai

• Layout: Rectangular prayer hall with aisles arranged perpendicular to the qibla.
• Features:
• Arcaded hypostyle hall.
• The double arches with low columns (permitting higher ceilings)
• Richly gilded prayer niche or Mihrab.
• Open court (Sahn) surrounded by arcades
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Alhambra Palace and Fortress complex
Mexuar: Modest in design – Functional areas for business and administration.
Palace of Ambassadors: Throne room
Court of Lions: Lion fountain – Courtyard
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Maqarnas (Ornamental Vault)
Arabesques
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Abbasid Architecture
• Abbasid architecture developed in the Abbasid Caliphate between 750 and 945, primarily in its
heartland of Mesopotamia.
• The palaces and mosques of Samarra sprawled along the shores of the Tigris for 40 kilometres (25
mi). To match the scale of the sites, monumental buildings were erected, such as the huge spiral
minarets of the Great Mosque of Samarra.
• Stucco decoration evolved under this style, and is considered a precursor to the fully developed
Arabesque decoration
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• The Fatimid architecture of Egypt followed Abbasid style and was highly influenced by this style.
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Qila Rai Pithora – Qutb –ud- din Aibak and the Slave Dynasty
• In rapid succession , Qutb-ud-din aibak stromed Ajmer, the fortress of Gwalior, Delhi, Kanauji and
ultimately even the distant Chandel stronghold of Kalanjar in Bundelkhand in AD 1203, Qutb ud din
soon declared himself independent of Ghorid supremacy and wisely chose the Qila Rai Pithora
built by Prithviraj of Delhi as his imperial capital.
• He had a credit of realizing that ‘he who holds Delhi holds India’ as it situated at the mouth of the
corridor between the foothills of the Himalayas and the fringes of the great Thar desert of Rajasthan
, was the ideal location for defending India against the foreign invasions along the north west land
route.
• The first concern of Qutb ud din was not with trade but only to establish strong roots of Islam to
consolidate through the efforts of its builders.
The sprit of the Mosque
• Qutb-ud-din had build a mosque to depict the everlasting glory of Islam in AD 1195 with in the
fortified city of Qila Rai Pithora i.e.,Quwwat-ul-Islam.
• Qutb-ud-din’s Ghorid forces that invaded India consisted of soldiers, warriors and Generals. Master
builders, artisans and masons skilled in art of buildings were naturally not a part of the army.
• The erection of Mosque, was imperative and constructed rapidly by utilizing the skills of
indigenous artisans of the country as joint venture between the Hindu master builders and Islamic
overseers.
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Quwwat-ul-Islam
• One of the elementary requirement that the worshippers were directed to pray in the direction of
Mecca.
• This was achieved by orienting court yard generally towards Mecca. Thus, in India it was a western
wall with the holy arch or Mihrab.
• The destruction of temples to Islamic invasions, not only would be a source of building material,
but also attain the demolition of temples and Hinduism.
• Few years later it was felt that that the western wall of the court yard of Quwwat ul Islam needed
greater Islamic emphasis.
Screen of Arches for the Mosque (Maqsura)
• In 1199, a screen of an arched facade was added across the front of the sanctuary.
• The screen is a wall of masonry 50' high at the centre, 108' wide and 81/2' thick.
• The screen is pierced by 5 arches, a central arch with two smaller ones on each side.
• The facade is embroidered with carvings of floral devices and Quranic verses.
• The arches are NOT TRUE ARCHES but built by corbelling, hence we know they were built by
local workmen acting on verbal instructions from a Muslim clerk of works.
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Tomb of Iltutmish
• The tomb of Slave Dynasty ruler, Iltutmish, the second Sultan of Delhi (r. 1211-1236 AD), built 1235
AD is also part of the Qutb complex at Mehrauli.
• The central chamber is 9 mt sq. and has squinches, suggesting the existence of a dome, which
has since collapsed.
• The main cenotaph, in white marble, is placed on a raised platform in the centre of the chamber.
• The facade is known for its ornate carving, both at the entrance and the interior walls. The interior
west wall has a prayer niche (mihrab) decorated with marble, and a rich amalgamation of Hindu
motives into Islamic architecture, such as bell-and-chain, tassel, lotus, diamond emblems.
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Balban’s Tomb
• Built in 1287 CE in rubble masonry
• The tomb is a building of historical importance in the development of Indo-Islamic architecture, as

it was here that first true arch made its appearance in India.
• According to many, the first true dome as well, which however hasn't survived.
• This makes, Alai Darwaza built in 1311 CE, in the nearby Qutb complex, the earliest surviving true
dome in India
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Quwwat ul Islam Mosque
View of the Qutub Complex
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The Incomplete Alai Minar
• Alauddin Khilji started building the Alai Minar, after he had doubled the size of Quwwat ul-Islam
mosque. He conceived this tower to be two times higher than Qutb Minar proportion with the
enlarged mosque.
• The construction was however abandoned, just after the completion of the 24.5 meter high first
storey core; soon after death of Ala-ud-din in 1316 AD, and never taken up by his successors of
Khaljis dynasty. The first story of the Alai Minar, a giant rubble masonry core, still stands
today, which was evidently intended to be covered with dressed stone later on.
• Ala-ud-din conceived a very ambitious construction programme when he decided to build the
second tower of victory when he returned in triumph from his Deccan campaign.
• However, the Sultan died before even the first storey was finished and the project was abandoned.
Ala-ud-din, felt compelled to increase even further the size of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. His
scheme called for increasing the size of the enclosure four times, providing ceremonial entrance
gateways on each side, and a great Minar, twice the size of the Qutb. This is the unfinished base
of the mammoth tower begun by Ala-ud-din Khilji intended to give competition to Qutb Minar.
Alai Darwaza
• The Alai Darwaza is a magnificent gateway built by Ala-ud-din Khilji of the Delhi Sultanate, having
exquisite inlaid marble decorations and latticed stone screens.
• It highlights the remarkable artisanship of Turkish and local artisans who worked on it.
• The Alai Darwaza was an important part of the project undertaken by Ala-ud-din Khilji in his quest
to decorate the Qutub complex
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Imam Zamin's tomb next to the Alai Darwaza
Typical Elements – Mughal Architecture

1. DAMAAGA
• Helmet-like structure, which is often seen alternating with arrow slits, also forms part of the
defensive architecture of the fort.
• It is known as a damaaga (a ‘damaaga’ is a ‘nostril’; the name is probably because of the similarity
in shape).
• Damaagas were used as outlets to pour burning pitch on enemies trying to scale the wall.
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A damaaga at Red Fort
2. KANGURA
• Kanguras—in the form of roughly triangular or rectangular shapes—can be seen crowning the walls
of early medieval forts.
• Well before the Mughals took over, kanguras had become decorative elements of architecture.
• Rows of kanguras can be seen in buildings of a very varied nature, all the way from mosques to
tombs, forts and palaces.
Kanguras (battlements) a top the main gate of the Agra Fort.
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3. SHAHJAHANI ARCH
• Not just typically Mughal, but can be traced back quite specifically to Shahjahan’s reign.
• This is the also known as the denticular arch, the scalloped arch, or the cusped arch.
• It consists of a series of semi-circular scallop-like cut-outs that form the inside of the arch.
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Humayun’s tomb
First major building by Akbar.- Monumental scale
Sayyid Muhammad and his Father Mira Sayyidk Ghiyath – Architects of distinction– By Smith Digby
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Fatehpur Sikri
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Shah Jahan’s Golden Period of Architecture in India
Important features of Shah Jahan’s buildings are:
1. Shah Jahan’s buildings are unmatched in exquisite beauty of form.

2. Shah Jahan’s buildings have no parallel in symmetry of design.
3. Shah Jahan’s buildings are unsurpassed in grandeur.
4. Shah Jahan’s buildings have great strength.
5. Shah Jahan’s buildings have beautiful balance among different parts.
6. Shah Jahan’s buildings have a great variety—cities, forts, gardens, mosques and palaces etc.
7. Shah Jahan’s buildings are located at different places like Agra, Ahmedabad, Ajmer, Delhi, Lahore,
Kabul and Kashmir etc.
8. Shah Jahan’s buildings display a synthesis of Indian and foreign architectural style.
9. Shah Jahan’s buildings are mostly built with white marble in place of red stone.
The principles of Shahjahani architecture:
1. Geometrical planning
2. Symmetry
3. Hierarchy
4. Proportional formulas.
5. Uniformity of shapes, ordered by hierarchical accents
6. Sensuous attention to detail
7. Selective use of naturalism
8. Symbolism
By its perfect proportions, luminous beauty, milk- white texture assuming different tones at different times,
delicacy and variety of ornamentation, flawless execution of structure and by its picturesque setting, the
Taj Mahal stands as a creation of superb beauty and magnificence in Indian architecture.
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Bibi Ka Maqbara
Bibi Ka Maqbara is popularly known as the 'Taj of the Deccan'. It is a prominent monument in Aurangabad.
It was built by the Prince Azam Khan (Aurangzeb's son) in the memory of his mother. Interestingly, the
architect Ata-Ullah who designed Bibi Ka Maqbara was the son of Ustad Ahmad Lahauri, the prime architect
of the original Taj Mahal.
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Mahabat Maqbara
Mahabat Maqbara was built by the Nawabs of Junagadh. Mahabat Maqbara is a palace- mausoleum which
was constructed during the 18th century. It has a blend of Islamic, Hindu and European architecture.
Mahabat Maqbara looks like a strange architecture but the basic structure looks like the original Taj Mahal.
• Shah Jahan used ‘pietra dura’ a method of decoration on a large scale—inlaid work of jewels.
• An important feature of the building is the massive dome and the four slender minarets linking the
platform to the main building.
• The building stands in the midst of a formal garden.
• From all available evidence it is concluded that the principal architect was Ustad Isha (Persian/Turk)
who was assisted by a number of Hindu architects. There is also the possibility that for the decoration
of the exterior, European artists were consulted.
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Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque at Agra is regarded as “the purest and novelist house of prayer.” The mosque
was built at a cost of Rs. 30 lakhs. According to one writer, “It suggests the struggle of the soul above
worldly entanglements.”
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• The structure is composed of a cube, 47.5 metres (156 ft) on each side, capped by a dome 44 m
(144 ft) in external diameter.
• Eight intersecting arches created by two rotated squares that create interlocking pendentives
support the dome. At each of the four corners of the cube, is a dome-capped octagonal tower seven
stories high with a staircase inside.
• In the middle of the podium, a cenotaph slab on the ground marks the actual grave below, "the only
instance of this practice" in the architecture of the Adil Shahi Dynasty.
The Chand Minar or the Tower of the Moon is a medieval tower in Daulatabad, India. The tower is
located in the state of Maharashtra near the Daulatabad-Deogiri fort complex. It was erected in 1445 C.E
by King Ala-ud-din Bahmani to commemorate his capture of the fort. Chand Minar bears resemblance to
the Qutb Minar of Delhi and was inspired from it.
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Sidi Bashir Mosque is a former mosque in the city of Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India. Only the central gateway
and two minarets survive; they are known as the Jhulta Minar or Shaking Minarets
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What architectural styles are discussed in the document?

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What are some examples of early shelters mentioned?

EXAM ASSURE

1 | EXAM ASSURE | Gate Architecture and Planning Classes

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3 | EXAM ASSURE | Gate Architecture and Planning Classes

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8 | EXAM ASSURE | Gate Architecture and Planning Classes

WEST ASIATIC ARCHITECTURE

9 | EXAM ASSURE | Gate Architecture and Planning Classes

Earliest of all civilizations as people formed

Formation and Development

ZIGGURAT OF UR-NAMMU (2125 B.C.)

 From 1300-1900B.C. it was under Assyrians.

The City of Babylon

 Assyrians were Originally Semitic Akkadians.

The Palace of Persepolis

• Post & lintel; columnar or trabeated.

• BATTERWALL- inclination from base to top of the façade.

MASTABA- flat top or tapered solid temple

Parts of an Egyptian Temple

Hellenic Period (650 323 B.C.)

Hellenic Period (650 323 B.C.)

 Etruscans were experts at sculpting with bronze and terra-cotta clay

 Flourished in Italy before Romans.

 Existed in the bronze age - same as archaic period in Greece.

 Language and customs different than Romans (used Greek alphabet)

Tombs of Etruscan Architecture

 Most tombs - round with door leading to large interior chamber

 Interior chamber is brightly painted to reflect interior of a house

 Entire families (w/ servants) are buried in one tomb

TUMULUS: Artificial mound of earth and stones placed over grave

• Large armchairs frame doorway

• Windows, furniture, objects - all cut out of rock

• Large circular shields hang from walls

Temples of Etruscan Architecture

• Inspiration from Greeks - Pediments, Columns, Cella.

• Etruscan buildings made of wood and terra-cotta, not stone.

• Sculptures put on rooftops to announce presence of deity within.

• No ruins because they were built of wood, unlike non-religious structures.

• No consecrated space for sculptures

• Columns and capitals- Greek influence.

• Columns are un-fluted TUSCAN ORDER.

• Whole structure is raised on a PODIUM.

• Religious Sculptures all along the roof – Focus at the center.

• Three doors represent three gods.

• Not much is known about their religious beliefs.

Etruscan - divided into three rooms- housed cult statues

Timeline of Roman Architecture

Roman Architectural Revolution

ROMAN ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTERISTICS

COLOSSEUM ENTRANCES AND EXITS - THE GRAND ENTRANCES

• The requirements include:-

• A path for processional entry and exit of the clergy

FROM AGORA TO BASILICAN CHURCH

BASILICA OF ST. PETERS (OLD), ROME