02 Power Electronics

EDUSAT PROGRAMME LECTURE NOTES ON POWER ELECTRONICS BY PROF. M.
MADHUSUDHAN RAO
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG.
M.S. RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BANGALORE 560 054
AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER CIRCUITS (RMS VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS)

AC voltage controllers (ac line voltage controllers) are employed to vary the RMS value of the alternating voltage applied to a load circuit by introducing Thyristors between the load and a constant voltage ac source. The RMS value of alternating voltage applied to a load circuit is controlled by controlling the triggering angle of the Thyristors in the ac voltage controller circuits. In brief, an ac voltage controller is a type of thyristor power converter which is used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac input supply to obtain a variable voltage ac output. The RMS value of the ac output voltage and the ac power flow to the load is controlled by varying (adjusting) the trigger angle E
V0(RMS) AC Input Voltage fs Vs fs AC Voltage Controller Variable AC RMSO/PVoltage fS
There are two different types of thyristor control used in practice to control the ac power flow
y y
On-Off control Phase control
These are the two ac output voltage control techniques. In On-Off control technique Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to the ac supply (source) for a few cycles of the input ac supply and then to disconnect it for few input cycles. The Thyristors thus act as a high speed contactor (or high speed ac switch). PHASE CONTROL In phase control the Thyristors are used as switches to connect the load circuit to the input ac supply, for a part of every input cycle. That is the ac supply voltage is chopped using Thyristors during a part of each input cycle. The thyristor switch is turned on for a part of every half cycle, so that input supply voltage appears across the load and then turned off during the remaining part of input half cycle to disconnect the ac supply from the load. By controlling the phase angle or the trigger angle E (delay angle), the output RMS voltage across the load can be controlled. The trigger delay angle E is defined as the phase angle (the value of [t) at which the thyristor turns on and the load current begins to flow. Thyristor ac voltage controllers use ac line commutation or ac phase commutation. Thyristors in ac voltage controllers are line commutated (phase commutated) since the input supply is ac. When the input ac voltage reverses and becomes negative during the negative half cycle the current flowing through the conducting thyristor decreases and
falls to zero. Thus the ON thyristor naturally turns off, when the device current falls to zero. Phase control Thyristors which are relatively inexpensive, converter grade Thyristors which are slower than fast switching inverter grade Thyristors are normally used. For applications upto 400Hz, if Triacs are available to meet the voltage and current ratings of a particular application, Triacs are more commonly used. Due to ac line commutation or natural commutation, there is no need of extra commutation circuitry or components and the circuits for ac voltage controllers are very simple. Due to the nature of the output waveforms, the analysis, derivations of expressions for performance parameters are not simple, especially for the phase controlled ac voltage controllers with RL load. But however most of the practical loads are of the RL type and hence RL load should be considered in the analysis and design of ac voltage controller circuits. TYPE OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS The ac voltage controllers are classified into two types based on the type of input ac supply applied to the circuit. y Single Phase AC Controllers. y Three Phase AC Controllers. Single phase ac controllers operate with single phase ac supply voltage of 230V RMS at 50Hz in our country. Three phase ac controllers operate with 3 phase ac supply of 400V RMS at 50Hz supply frequency. Each type of controller may be sub divided into y Uni-directional or half wave ac controller. y Bi-directional or full wave ac controller. In brief different types of ac voltage controllers are y Single phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller). y Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller). y Three phase half wave ac voltage controller (uni-directional controller). y Three phase full wave ac voltage controller (bi-directional controller).
APPLICATIONS OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS y Lighting / Illumination control in ac power circuits. y Induction heating. y Industrial heating & Domestic heating. y Transformer tap changing (on load transformer tap changing). y Speed control of induction motors (single phase and poly phase ac induction motor control). y AC magnet controls. PRINCIPLE OF ON-OFF CONTROL TECHNIQUE (INTEGRAL CYCLE CONTROL) The basic principle of on-off control technique is explained with reference to a single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit shown below. The thyristor switches T1 and T2 are turned on by applying appropriate gate trigger pulses to connect the input ac supply to the load for n number of input cycles during the time interval tON . The 3
thyristor switches T1 and T2 are turned off by blocking the gate trigger pulses for m number of input cycles during the time interval t FF . The ac controller ON time t usually consists of an integral number of input cycles.

R ! RL = Load Resistance Fig.: Single phase full wave AC voltage controller circuit
wt
io wt
Example Referring to the waveforms of ON-OFF control technique in the above diagram, n ! Two input cycles. Thyristors are turned ON during tON for two input cycles.
Gate pulse of T 1 wt Gate pulse of T 2 wt
Fig.: Waveforms
Fig.: Power Factor Thyristors are turned ON precisely at the zero voltage crossings of the input supply. The thyristor T1 is turned on at the beginning of each positive half cycle by applying the gate trigger pulses to T1 as shown, during the ON time tON . The load current flows in the positive direction, which is the downward direction as shown in the circuit diagram when T1 conducts. The thyristor T2 is turned on at the beginning of each negative half cycle, by applying gating signal to the gate of T2 , during tON . The load current flows in the reverse direction, which is the upward direction when T2 conducts. Thus we obtain a bi-directional load current flow (alternating load current flow) in a ac voltage controller circuit, by triggering the thyristors alternately. This type of control is used in applications which have high mechanical inertia and high thermal time constant (Industrial heating and speed control of ac motors). Due to zero voltage and zero current switching of Thyristors, the harmonics generated by switching actions are reduced. For a sine wave input supply voltage, vs ! Vm sin [ t ! 2VS sin [ t V VS ! RMS value of input ac supply = m = RMS phase supply voltage. 2 If the input ac supply is connected to load for n number of input cycles and disconnected for m number of input cycles, then tON ! n v T , Where T ! tOFF ! m v T
1 = input cycle time (time period) and f f = input supply frequency. tON = controller on time = n v T . tOFF = controller off time = m v T .
TO = Output time period = tON tO
! nT mT .
m ! One input cycle. Thyristors are turned OFF during tO
for one input cycle
We can show that, Output RMS voltage VO RMS ! Vi RMS

tON t ! VS ON TO TO
Where Vi RMS is the RMS input supply voltage = VS . TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE, FOR ON-OFF CONTROL METHOD.
1 ON 2 2 Output RMS voltage VO RMS ! Vm Sin [ t.d [ t [ TO [ t 0 !
[t
Vm 2 VO RMS ! [ TO
[ tON
Sin2[ t.d [ t
Substituting for
Sin 2U !
1 Cos2U 2
[ tON
VO RMS !
Vm 2 [ TO
1 Cos 2[ t d [ t 2
VO RMS !
Vm 2 2[ TO
[ tON [ tON d [ t Cos 2[ t.d [ t 0 0
VO RMS !
Vm 2 [ t 2[ TO
[ tON

0
Sin 2[ t 2
[ tON
VO RMS ! Now
Vm 2 sin 2[ tON sin 0 [ tON 0 2[ TO 2
tON = An integral number of input cycles; Hence
tON ! T , 2T ,3T , 4T ,5T ,..... & [ tON ! 2T , 4T , 6T ,8T ,10T ,...... Where T is the input supply time period (T = input cycle time period). Thus we note that sin 2[ tON ! 0 VO RMS ! Vm 2 [ tON Vm tON ! 2 [ TO 2 TO
VO RMS ! Vi RMS
tON t ! VS ON TO TO
Where Vi RMS !
Vm ! VS = RMS value of input supply voltage; 2

!
VO RMS ! VS
n !V k m n S
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

y
RMS Output (Load) Voltage

2T n 2 2 VO RMS ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T n m 0 1 2
VO RMS !
VO RMS ! ViRMS k ! VS k Where VS ! Vi RMS = RMS value of input supply voltage.

y
Duty Cycle t tON nT k ! ON ! ! TO tON tOFF m n T Where, k !

n = duty cycle (d). m n
RMS Load Current

I O RMS ! VO RMS Z ! VO RMS RL
Output AC (Load) Power

2 PO ! I ORMS v RL
tON tON ! TO tON tO
nT n ! ! k = duty cycle (d). nT mT n m
Vm 2
n !V k ! VS k m n iRMS
for a resistive load Z ! RL .
Input Power Factor

F!
O
VA
output load po er ! O input supply volt amperes VS I S I S ! I inRMS ! RMS input supply current.
PF !
2 I ORMS v RL
Vi RMS v I inRMS
The input supply current is same as the load current I in ! I O ! I L Hence, RMS supply current = RMS load current; I inRMS ! IO RMS .
2 I O RMS v RL
PF !
ViRMS v I inRMS n mn
VORMS ViRMS
ViRMS k Vi RMS
F! k!
The Average Current of Thyristor IT Avg
Waveform of Thyristor Current

iT Im n m
0
IT
T
! vg
2T
T
3T
n I m sin [ t.d [ t 2T m n 0
T nI m sin [ t.d [ t 2T m n 0
IT
IT
IT
! vg
! vg
nI m cos [ t 2T m n
vg
nI m ? cos T cos 0A 2T m n
! k
[t
k ! duty cycle !
Where I m !
y
RMS Current of Thyristor IT RMS

T n 2 2 IT RMS ! I m sin [ t.d [ t 2T n m 0 1 2
T 2 nI m 2 IT RMS ! sin [ t.d [ t 2T n m 0
T 2 nI m 1 cos 2[ t IT RMS ! d [ t 2 2T n m 0
T T 2 nI m IT RMS ! d [ t cos 2[ t.d [ t 4T n m 0 0 1
2 nI m IT RMS ! [ t 4T n m
2 nI m sin 2T sin 0 IT RMS ! T 0 2 4T n m
IT
IT
IT
IT
vg
nI m 1 1 2T m n n ?2 I m A 2T m n I mn k .I ! m T m n T
vg
vg
tON n ! tON tOFF n m
vg
I mn k .I ! m , T m n T
Vm = maximum or peak thyristor current. RL
sin 2[ t 2
2 nI m IT RMS ! _T 0 0a 4T n m
2 nI mT IT RMS ! 4T n m
2 nI m ! 4 n m
IT RMS !
Im 2
Im 2
I n ! m m n 2
k
IT RMS !
PROBLEM 1. A single phase full wave ac voltage controller working on ON-OFF control technique has supply voltage of 230V, RMS 50Hz, load = 50 ;. The controller is ON for 30 cycles and off for 40 cycles. Calculate y ON & OFF time intervals. y RMS output voltage. y Input P.F. y Average and RMS thyristor currents.
VinRMS ! 230V , Vm ! 2 v 230V ! 325.269 V, Vm ! 325.269V ,
T!
1 1 ! ! 0.02sec , f 50 Hz
T ! 20ms .
n = number of input cycles during which controller is ON; n ! 30 . m ! number of input cycles during which controller is OFF; m ! 40 . tON ! n v T ! 30 v 20ms ! 600ms ! 0.6 sec tON ! n v T ! 0.6 sec = controller ON time. tOFF ! m v T ! 40 v 20ms ! 800ms ! 0.8sec
tOFF ! m v T ! 0.8sec = controller OFF time. Duty cycle k ! n 30 ! ! 0.4285 m n 40 30
RMS output voltage VO RMS ! Vi RMS v n m n
10
VO RMS ! 230V v
30 3 ! 230 7 30 40
VO RMS ! 230V 0.42857 ! 230 v 0.65465 VO RMS ! 150.570V
IO RMS !
VO RMS Z
VORMS RL
150.570V ! 3.0114 A 50;
2 PO ! I O RMS v RL ! 3.01142 v 50 ! 453.426498 W
Input Power Factor P.F ! k PF ! 30 n ! ! 0.4285 m n 70
PF ! 0.654653
Average Thyristor Current Rating I n k v Im IT Avg ! m v ! T mn T where Im ! Vm ! RL 2 v 230 325.269 ! 50 50
I m ! 6.505382 A = Peak (maximum) thyristor current. IT Avg ! 6.505382 3 v T 7
IT Avg ! 0.88745 A
RMS Current Rating of Thyristor I IT RMS ! m 2
I n ! m m n 2
k!
6.505382 3 v 2 7
IT RMS ! 2.129386 A
11
PRINCIPLE OF AC PHASE CONTROL The basic principle of ac phase control technique is explained with reference to a single phase half wave ac voltage controller (unidirectional controller) circuit shown in the below figure. The half wave ac controller uses one thyristor and one diode connected in parallel across each other in opposite direction that is anode of thyristor T1 is connected to the cathode of diode D1 and the cathode of T1 is connected to the anode of D1 . The output voltage across the load resistor R and hence the ac power flow to the load is controlled by varying the trigger angle E. The trigger angle or the delay angle E refers to the value of [ t or the instant at which the thyristor T1 is triggered to turn it ON, by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse between the gate and cathode lead. The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input ac supply. It can be triggered and made to conduct by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse only during the positive half cycle of input supply. When T1 is triggered it conducts and the load current flows through the thyristor T1 , the load and through the transformer secondary winding. By assuming T1 as an ideal thyristor switch it can be considered as a closed switch when it is ON during the period [ t ! E to T radians. The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage when the thyristor T1 is turned-on and when it conducts from [ t ! E to T radians. When the input supply voltage decreases to zero at [ t ! T , for a resistive load the load current also falls to zero at [ t ! T and hence the thyristor T1 turns off at [ t ! T . Between the time period [ t ! T to 2T , when the supply voltage reverses and becomes negative the diode D1 becomes forward biased and hence turns ON and conducts. The load current flows in the opposite direction during [ t ! T to 2T radians when D1 is ON and the output voltage follows the negative half cycle of input supply.
Fig.: Halfwave AC phase controller (Unidirectional Controller)
12
Equations Input AC Supply Voltage across the Transformer Secondary Winding.

vs ! Vm sin [ t
VS ! VinRMS !
Vm = RMS value of secondary supply voltage. 2
Output Load Voltage vo ! vL ! 0 ; for [ t ! 0 to E

vo ! vL ! Vm sin [ t ; for [ t ! E to 2T .
Output Load Current

io ! iL ! vo Vm sin [ t ! ; for [ t ! E to 2T . RL RL
io ! iL ! 0 ; for [ t ! 0 to E .
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE VO RMS

2T 1 2 2 Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
VO RMS !
2T Vm 2 1 cos 2[ t VO RMS ! .d [ t 2T E 2
13
2T Vm 2 VO RMS ! 1 cos 2[ t .d [ t 4T E
VO RMS !
Vm 2 T Vm 2 T Vm 2 T
Vm 2 T Vm 2 T Vm
2T 2T d [ t cos 2[ t.d [ t E E
VO RMS !
[ t
2T
sin 2[ t 2
2T
VO RMS !
sin 2[ t 2T E 2
2T
VO RMS !
2T E
sin 2E 2 sin 2E 2
VO RMS !
2 2T
2T E
VO RMS !
Vm 2
1 sin 2E 2T E 2 2T 1 sin 2E 2T E 2 2T
VO RMS ! ViRMS
VO RMS ! VS
1 sin 2E 2T E 2T 2
Vm = RMS value of input supply voltage (across the 2 transformer secondary winding). Where, Vi RMS ! VS ! Note: Output RMS voltage across the load is controlled by changing 'E ' as indicated by the expression for VO RMS
VO RMS !
2T E
sin 4T sin 2E 2 2
;sin 4T ! 0
14
PLOT OF VO RMS VERSUS TRIGGER ANGLE E FOR A SINGLE PHASE HALFWAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER (UNIDIRECTIONAL CONTROLLER) VO RMS ! Vm 2 1 sin 2E 2T E 2T 2 1 sin 2E 2T E 2 2T
VO RMS ! VS
By using the expression for VO RMS we can obtain the control characteristics, which is the plot of RMS output voltage VO RMS versus the trigger angle E . A typical control characteristic of single phase half-wave phase controlled ac voltage controller is as shown below Trigger angle E in degrees 0 300 60 0 900 120 0 150 0 180 0
VO(RMS) 100% VS 70.7% V S
Trigger angle E in radians 0

T T T 6 3
VO RMS VS ! Vm 2
2 2T 3 5T 6
6 2 ; T 6 3 ; T 6 4 ; T 6 5 ; T 6 6 ; T 6
; 1T
0.992765 VS 0.949868 VS 0.866025 VS 0.77314 VS 0.717228 VS 0.707106 VS
60% VS
20% VS 0 60 Trigg r

120
!
180 d grees

gl Ei
Fig.: Control characteristics of single phase half-wave phase controlled ac voltage controller 15
!
Note: We can observe from the control characteristics and the table given above that the range of RMS output voltage control is from 100% of VS to 70.7% of VS when we vary the trigger angle E from zero to 180 degrees. Thus the half wave ac controller has the draw back of limited range RMS output voltage control.
TO CALCULATE THE AVERAGE VALUE (DC VALUE) OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE 2T 1 VO dc ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E V VO dc ! m 2T
VO dc !
2T
sin [ t.d [ t
2T
Vm cos [ t 2T
VO dc ! Vdc !
Vm ? cos 2T cosE A 2T
; cos 2T ! 1
Vm ?cos E 1A 2T
; Vm ! 2VS
Hence Vdc !
2VS cosE 1 2T
Vm T DISADVANTAGES OF SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER. y The output load voltage has a DC component because the two halves of the output voltage waveform are not symmetrical with respect to 0 level. The input supply current waveform also has a DC component (average value) which can result in the problem of core saturation of the input supply transformer. y The half wave ac voltage controller using a single thyristor and a single diode provides control on the thyristor only in one half cycle of the input supply. Hence ac power flow to the load can be controlled only in one half cycle. y Half wave ac voltage controller gives limited range of RMS output voltage control. Because the RMS value of ac output voltage can be varied from a maximum of 100% of VS at a trigger angle E ! 0 to a low of 70.7% of VS at E ! T Radians .
When 'E ' is varied from 0 to T . Vdc varies from 0 to
These drawbacks of single phase half wave ac voltage controller can be over come by using a single phase full wave ac voltage controller.
16
APPLICATIONS OF RMS VOLTAGE CONTROLLER y Speed control of induction motor (polyphase ac induction motor). y Heater control circuits (industrial heating). y Welding power control. y Induction heating. y On load transformer tap changing. y Lighting control in ac circuits. y Ac magnet controls. Problem 1. A single phase half-wave ac voltage controller has a load resistance R ! 50; , input ac supply voltage is 230V RMS at 50Hz. The input supply transformer has a turns ratio of 1:1. If the thyristor T1 is triggered at E ! 600 . Calculate y RMS output voltage. y Output power. y RMS load current and average load current. y Input power factor. y Average and RMS thyristor current.
Given, Vp ! 230V , RMS primary supply voltage. f ! Input supply requency RL ! 50;
E ! 600 ! ! ! Np
"
50 z.
T radians. 3 secondary voltage.
Vp VS
1 ! !1 NS 1
Therefore
V p ! VS ! 230V
Where, N p = Number of turns in the primary winding.

N S = Number of turns in the secondary winding.
17
RMS Value of Output (Load) Voltage VO RMS VO RMS ! 1 2T

2T
2 m
sin 2 [ t.d [ t
We have obtained the expression for VO RMS as

VO RMS ! VS 1 sin 2E 2T E 2T 2
VO RMS ! 230
1 T sin1200 2T 2T 3 2
1 ?5.669A ! 230 v 0.94986 2T
VO RMS ! 230
VO RMS ! 218.4696 V } 218.47 V y
RMS Load Current I O RMS

I O RMS ! VO RMS RL ! 218.46966 ! 4.36939 Amps 50
Output Load Power PO

2 PO ! I O RMS v RL ! 4.36939 v 50 ! 954.5799 Watts 2
PO ! 0.9545799 KW y
Input Power Factor

PF ! PO VS v I S
VS = RMS secondary supply voltage = 230V.
I S = RMS secondary supply current = RMS load current.

@ I S ! I O RMS ! 4.36939 Amps @ PF ! 954.5799 W ! 0.9498 230 v 4.36939 W
18
Average Output (Load) Voltage

2T 1 VO dc ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
We have obtained the expression for the average / DC output voltage as,
VO dc ! Vm ?cos E 1A 2T 2 v 230 325.2691193 cos 600 1 ! ?0.5 1A 2T 2T 325.2691193 ?0.5A ! 25.88409 2T olts
VO dc ! VO dc ! y
Average DC Load Current IO dc ! VO dc RL

! 25.884094 ! 0.51768 Amps 50
Average & RMS Thyristor Currents
iT1 Im T E E 2T (2T +E) E 3T [t
Fig.: Thyristor Current Waveform Referring to the thyristor current waveform of a single phase half-wave ac voltage controller circuit, we can calculate the average thyristor current IT Avg as IT Avg !
T 1 Im sin [ t.d [ t 2T E T Im sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
IT Avg !
19
IT Avg !
Im cos [ t 2T
IT Avg ! IT Avg !
Im cos T cosE 2T Im ?1 cos E A 2T
Where, I m !
Vm = Peak thyristor current = Peak load current. RL 2 v 230 50
Im !
I m ! 6.505382 Amps IT Avg ! Vm ?1 cos E A 2T RL
IT Avg !
2 v 230 1 cos 600 2T v 50 2 v 230 IT Avg ! ?1 0.5A 100T mps
IT Avg ! 1.5530 y
RMS thyristor current IT RMS can be calculated by using the expression

T 1 2 2 I m sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
IT RMS !
IT RMS !
T 2 I m 1 cos 2[ t .d [ t 2T E 2
IT RMS !
T T 2 Im d [ t cos 2[ t .d [ t 4T E E
IT RMS ! I m
1 [ t 4T
sin 2[ t 2
20
IT RMS ! I m
1 sin 2T sin 2E T E 4T 2
1 sin 2E T E 2 4T 1 sin 2E T E 2 2T 1 2T 2T 3 120 0 T sin T 3 2 0.8660254 2
IT RMS ! I m
IT RMS !
Im 2
IT RMS !
6.50538 2
IT RMS ! 4.6
1 2T
IT RMS ! 4.6 v 0.6342 ! 2.91746A IT RMS ! 2.91746 mps
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER (AC REGULATOR) OR RMS VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD Single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit using two SCRs or a single triac is generally used in most of the ac control applications. The ac power flow to the load can be controlled in both the half cycles by varying the trigger angle E . The RMS value of load voltage can be varied by varying the trigger angle 'E ' . The input supply current is alternating in the case of a full wave ac voltage controller and due to the symmetrical nature of the input supply current waveform there is no dc component of input supply current i.e., the average value of the input supply current is zero. A single phase full wave ac voltage controller with a resistive load is shown in the figure below. It is possible to control the ac power flow to the load in both the half cycles by adjusting the trigger angle 'E ' . Hence the full wave ac voltage controller is also referred to as to a bi-directional controller.
21
Fig.: Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (Bi-directional Controller) using SCRs The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the input supply voltage. The thyristor T1 is triggered at a delay angle of 'E ' 0 e E e T radians . Considering the ON thyristor T1 as an ideal closed switch the input supply voltage appears across the load resistor RL and the output voltage vO ! vS during [ t ! E to T radians. The load current flows through the ON thyristor T1 and through the load resistor RL in the downward direction during the conduction time of T1 from [ t ! E to T radians. At [ t ! T , when the input voltage falls to zero the thyristor current (which is flowing through the load resistor RL ) falls to zero and hence T1 naturally turns off . No current flows in the circuit during [ t ! T to T E . The thyristor T2 is forward biased during the negative cycle of input supply and when thyristor T2 is triggered at a delay angle T E , the output voltage follows the negative halfcycle of input from [ t ! T E to 2T . When T2 is ON, the load current flows in the reverse direction (upward direction) through T2 during [ t ! T E to 2T radians. The time interval (spacing) between the gate trigger pulses of T1 and T2 is kept at T radians or 1800. At [ t ! 2T the input supply voltage falls to zero and hence the load current also falls to zero and thyristor T2 turn off naturally. Instead of using two SCRs in parallel, a Triac can be used for full wave ac voltage control.
Fig.: Single phase full wave ac voltage controller (Bi-directional Controller) using TRIAC
22
Fig: Waveforms of single phase full wave ac voltage controller EQUATIONS Input supply voltage vS ! Vm sin [ t ! 2VS sin [ t ; Output voltage across the load resistor RL ; vO ! vL ! Vm sin [ t ; for [ t ! E to T and [ t ! T E to 2T Output load current v V sin [ t ! I m sin [ t ; iO ! O ! m RL RL for [ t ! E to T and [ t ! T E to 2T
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF OUTPUT (LOAD) VOLTAGE The RMS value of output voltage (load voltage) can be found using the expression VO2RMS ! V 2 LRMS ! 1 2T
2T
v d [ t ;
2 L 0
23
For a full wave ac voltage controller, we can see that the two half cycles of output voltage waveforms are symmetrical and the output pulse time period (or output pulse repetition time) is T radians. Hence we can also calculate the RMS output voltage by using the expression given below.
V 2 L RMS ! 1 Vm 2 sin 2 [ t.d[ t T 0
T
V 2 LRMS !
1 2T
2T
v
0
2 L
.d [ t ;
vL ! vO ! Vm sin [ t ; For [ t ! E to T and [ t ! T E to 2T Hence,

VL2RMS !
T 2T 1 2 2 Vm sin [ t d [ t Vm sin [ t d [ t 2T E T E 2T 2T Vm sin 2 [ t.d [ t Vm 2 sin 2 [ t.d [ t E T E
1 2T
T 2T Vm 2 1 cos 2[ t 1 cos 2[ t d [ t d [ t 2T E 2 2 T E
T T 2T 2T Vm 2 ! d [ t cos 2[ t .d [ t d [ t cos 2[ t .d [t 2T v 2 E E T E T E
Vm 2 [ t 4T
[ t
2T
T E
T 2T sin 2[ t sin 2[ t 2 E 2 T E
Vm 2 1 1 T E T E 2 sin 2T sin 2E 2 sin 4T sin 2 T E 4T Vm 2 4T 1 1 2 T E 2 0 sin 2E 2 0 sin 2 T E
Vm 2 sin 2E sin 2 T E 2 T E 4T 2 2
Vm 2 4T sin 2E sin 2T 2E 2 T E 2 2
24
Vm 2 4T
sin 2E 1 2 T E 2 2 sin 2T .cos 2E cos 2T .sin 2E cos 2T ! 1
sin 2T ! 0
Therefore,
VL2RMS ! Vm 2 4T sin 2E sin 2E 2 T E 2 2
Vm 2 2 T E sin 2E 4T
V 2 LRMS !
Vm 2 2T 2E sin 2E 4T
Taking the square root, we get VLRMS !

VLRMS !
Vm 2 T
Vm
2T 2E sin 2E 2T 2E sin 2E
2 2T Vm 2
VLRMS !
1 2T 2E sin 2E 2T
VLRMS !
Vm 2 Vm
1 2T
sin 2E 2 T E 2
VLRMS !
1 sin 2E T E 2 2 T 1 sin 2E T E 2 T
VLRMS ! ViRMS
VLRMS ! VS
1 sin 2E T E 2 T
Maximum RMS voltage will be applied to the load when E ! 0 , in that case the full sine wave appears across the load. RMS load voltage will be the same as the RMS V supply voltage ! m . When E is increased the RMS load voltage decreases. 2
25
VLRMS
!
E !0
Vm 2 Vm 2 Vm 2
1 sin 2 v 0 T 0 T 2 1 0 T 2 T ! Vi RMS ! VS
VLRMS
!
E !0
VLRMS
!
E !0
The output control characteristic for a single phase full wave ac voltage controller with resistive load can be obtained by plotting the equation for VO RMS CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE FULL-WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD The control characteristic is the plot of RMS output voltage VO RMS versus the trigger angle E ; which can be obtained by using the expression for the RMS output voltage of a full-wave ac controller with resistive load.
VO RMS ! VS 1 sin 2E T E 2 T
Where VS ! Trigger angle E in degrees 0 300 60 0 900 120 0 150 0 180 0
Vm ! RMS value of input supply voltage 2 Trigger angle E in radians 0

T T T 6 3 VO RMS VS
% 100% VS 98.54% VS 89.69% VS 70.7% VS 44.21% VS 16.98% VS 0 VS
2 2T 3 5T 6 T
6 2 ; T 6 3 ; T 6 4 ; T 6 5 ; T 6 6 ; T 6
; 1T
0.985477 VS 0.896938 VS 0.7071 VS 0.44215 VS 0.1698 VS 0 VS
26
VO(RMS) VS
0.6VS
0.2 VS 0 60 120 180
Trigger angle E in degrees

We can notice from the figure, that we obtain a much better output control characteristic by using a single phase full wave ac voltage controller. The RMS output voltage can be varied from a maximum of 100% VS at E ! 0 to a minimum of 0 at
E ! 180 0 . Thus we get a full range output voltage control by using a single phase full wave ac voltage controller.
Need For Isolation In the single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit using two SCRs or Thyristors T1 and T2 in parallel, the gating circuits (gate trigger pulse generating circuits) of Thyristors T1 and T2 must be isolated. Figure shows a pulse transformer with two separate windings to provide isolation between the gating signals of T1 and T2 .
G1
& & $0 $ # $ ( ) & $'' &% $
G t i P l
Fig.: Pulse Transformer
SINGLE PHASE FULL-WAVE COMMON CATHODE
It is possible to design a single phase full wave ac controller with a common cathode configuration by having a common cathode point for T1 and T2 & by adding two diodes in a full wave ac controller circuit as shown in the figure below
to
K1 G2 K2
AC
VOLTAGE
CONTROLLER
WITH
27
Fig.: Single phase full wave ac controller with common cathode (Bidirectional controller in common cathode configuration) Thyristor T1 and diode D1 are forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply. When thyristor T1 is triggered at a delay angle E , Thyristor T1 and diode D1 conduct together from [ t ! E to T during the positive half cycle. The thyristor T2 and diode D2 are forward biased during the negative half cycle of input supply, when trigged at a delay angle E , thyristor T2 and diode D2 conduct together during the negative half cycle from [ t ! T E to 2T . In this circuit as there is one single common cathode point, routing of the gate trigger pulses to the thyristor gates of T1 and T2 is simpler and only one isolation circuit is required. But due to the need of two power diodes the costs of the devices increase. As there are two power devices conducting at the same time the voltage drop across the ON devices increases and the ON state conducting losses of devices increase and hence the efficiency decreases.
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER USING A SINGLE THYRISTOR
D1 + T1 D4 AC Supply
D3
D2 RL
28
A single phase full wave ac controller can also be implemented with one thyristor and four diodes connected in a full wave bridge configuration as shown in the above figure. The four diodes act as a bridge full wave rectifier. The voltage across the thyristor T1 and current through thyristor T1 are always unidirectional. When T1 is triggered at
[ t ! E , during the positive half cycle 0 e E e T , the load current flows through D1 , T1 ,
diode D2 and through the load. With a resistive load, the thyristor current (flowing through the ON thyristor T1 ) , the load current falls to zero at [ t ! T , when the input supply voltage decreases to zero at [ t ! T , the thyristor naturally turns OFF. In the negative half cycle, diodes D3 & D4 are forward biased during
[ t ! T to 2T radians. When T1 is triggered at [ t ! T E , the load current flows in the
opposite direction (upward direction) through the load, through D3 , T1 and D4 . Thus D3 , D4 and T1 conduct together during the negative half cycle to supply the load power. When the input supply voltage becomes zero at [ t ! 2T , the thyristor current (load current) falls to zero at [ t ! 2T and the thyristor T1 naturally turns OFF. The waveforms and the expression for the RMS output voltage are the same as discussed earlier for the single phase full wave ac controller. But however if there is a large inductance in the load circuit, thyristor T1 may not be turned OFF at the zero crossing points, in every half cycle of input voltage and this may result in a loss of output control. This would require detection of the zero crossing of the load current waveform in order to ensure guaranteed turn off of the conducting thyristor before triggering the thyristor in the next half cycle, so that we gain control on the output voltage. In this full wave ac controller circuit using a single thyristor, as there are three power devices conducting together at the same time there is more conduction voltage drop and an increase in the ON state conduction losses and hence efficiency is also reduced. The diode bridge rectifier and thyristor (or a power transistor) act together as a bidirectional switch which is commercially available as a single device module and it has relatively low ON state conduction loss. It can be used for bidirectional load current control and for controlling the RMS output voltage. SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC VOLTAGE (BIDIRECTIONAL CONTROLLER) WITH RL LOAD CONTROLLER
In this section we will discuss the operation and performance of a single phase full wave ac voltage controller with RL load. In practice most of the loads are of RL type. For example if we consider a single phase full wave ac voltage controller controlling the speed of a single phase ac induction motor, the load which is the induction motor winding is an RL type of load, where R represents the motor winding resistance and L represents the motor winding inductance.
29
A single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit (bidirectional controller) with an RL load using two thyristors T1 and T2 ( T1 and T2 are two SCRs) connected in parallel is shown in the figure below. In place of two thyristors a single Triac can be used to implement a full wave ac controller, if a suitable Traic is available for the desired RMS load current and the RMS output voltage ratings.
Fig: Single phase full wave ac voltage controller with RL load The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply. Let us assume that T1 is triggered at [ t ! E , by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse to T1 during the positive half cycle of input supply. The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage when T1 is ON. The load current iO flows through the thyristor T1 and through the load in the downward direction. This load current pulse flowing through T1 can be considered as the positive current pulse. Due to the inductance in the load, the load current iO flowing through T1 would not fall to zero at [ t ! T , when the input supply voltage starts to become negative. The thyristor T1 will continue to conduct the load current until all the inductive energy stored in the load inductor L is completely utilized and the load current through T1 falls to zero at [ t ! F , where F is referred to as the Extinction angle, (the value of [ t ) at which the load current falls to zero. The extinction angle F is measured from the point of the beginning of the positive half cycle of input supply to the point where the load current falls to zero.
30
The thyristor T1 conducts from [ t ! E to F . The conduction angle of T1 is

H ! E , which depends on the delay angle E and the load impedance angle J . The
1
waveforms of the input supply voltage, the gate trigger pulses of T1 and T2 , the thyristor current, the load current and the load voltage waveforms appear as shown in the figure below.
Fig.: Input supply voltage & Thyristor current waveforms

F is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value.
Fig.: Gating Signals
31
Waveforms of single phase full wave ac voltage controller with RL load for E " J . Discontinuous load current operation occurs for E " J and F i.e., F E T , conduction angle
T.
T E ;
Fig.: Waveforms of Input supply voltage, Load Current, Load Voltage and Thyristor Voltage across T1 Note y
y
The RMS value of the output voltage and the load current may be varied by varying the trigger angle E . This circuit, AC RMS voltage controller can be used to regulate the RMS voltage across the terminals of an ac motor (induction motor). It can be used to control the temperature of a furnace by varying the RMS output voltage. 32
For very large load inductance L the SCR may fail to commutate, after it is triggered and the load voltage will be a full sine wave (similar to the applied input supply voltage and the output control will be lost) as long as the gating signals are applied to the thyristors T1 and T2 . The load current waveform will appear as a full continuous sine wave and the load current waveform lags behind the output sine wave by the load power factor angle J.
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE OUTPUT (INDUCTIVE LOAD) CURRENT, DURING [ t ! E to F WHEN THYRISTOR T1 CONDUCTS Considering sinusoidal input supply voltage we can write the expression for the supply voltage as
vS ! Vm sin [ t = instantaneous value of the input supply voltage.
Let us assume that the thyristor T1 is triggered by applying the gating signal to T1 at [ t ! E . The load current which flows through the thyristor T1 during [ t ! E to F can be found from the equation
di L O RiO ! Vm sin [ t ; dt
The solution of the above differential equation gives the general expression for the output load current which is of the form
t Vm sin [ t J A1e X ; iO ! Z
Where Vm ! 2VS = maximum or peak value of input supply voltage. Z ! R 2 [ L = Load impedance.
2
[L J ! tan 1 = Load impedance angle (power factor angle of load). R X! L = Load circuit time constant. R
Therefore the general expression for the output load current is given by the equation R t V iO ! m sin [ t J A1e L ; Z
33
The value of the constant A1 can be determined from the initial condition. i.e. initial value of load current iO ! 0 , at [ t ! E . Hence from the equation for iO equating iO to zero and substituting [ t ! E , we get
R t Vm sin E J A1e L iO ! 0 ! Z R t L
Therefore
A1e
Vm sin E J Z
A1 ! e
A1 ! e
R t L
1 Vm Z sin E J
Vm Z sin E
By substituting [ t ! E , we get the value of constant A1 as

V A1 ! e [ L m sin E J Z
RE
Substituting the value of constant A1 from the above equation into the expression for iO , we obtain R RE t V V iO ! m sin [ t J e L e [ L m sin E J ; Z Z
iO ! Vm sin [ t J e Z
R [ t R E [L [L
iO !
R [ t E Vm Vm sin [ t J e [ L Z sin E J Z
Therefore we obtain the final expression for the inductive load current of a single phase full wave ac voltage controller with RL load as
iO ! Vm Z
R [ t E sin [ t J sin E J e[ L ;
A1 ! e
R [ t [L
Vm Z sin E
R t L
Vm Z sin E J
Where E e [ t e F .
34
The above expression also represents the thyristor current iT 1 , during the conduction time interval of thyristor T1 from [ t ! E to F . To Calculate Extinction Angle F The extinction angle F , which is the value of [ t at which the load current iO falls to zero and T1 is turned off can be estimated by using the condition that iO ! 0 , at [ t ! F By using the above expression for the output load current, we can write iO ! 0 ! As Vm Z
R F E sin F J sin E J e [ L
Vm { 0 we can write Z R F E sin F J sin E J e[ L !0
Therefore we obtain the expression sin F J ! sin E J e

R F E [L
The extinction angle F can be determined from this transcendental equation by using the iterative method of solution (trial and error method). After F is calculated, we can determine the thyristor conduction angle H ! F E . F is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value. Conduction angle H increases as E is decreased for a known value of F . For H T radians, i.e., for F E T radians, for T E " F the load current waveform appears as a discontinuous current waveform as shown in the figure. The output load current remains at zero during [ t ! F to T E . This is referred to as discontinuous load current operation which occurs for F T E . When the trigger angle E is decreased and made equal to the load impedance angle J i.e., when E ! J we obtain from the expression for sin F J ,
sin F J ! 0 ; Therefore
F J ! T
radians.
Extinction angle Conduction angle
F ! T J ! T E ; for the case when E ! J H ! F E ! T radians ! 1800 ; for the case when E ! J
Each thyristor conducts for 1800 ( T radians ) . T1 conducts from [ t ! J to T2 conducts from T J to 2T J and provides a negative load current. Hence we obtain a continuous load current and the
T J and provides a positive load current.
35
output voltage waveform appears as a continuous sine wave identical to the input supply voltage waveform for trigger angle E e J and the control on the output is lost.
vO Vm T
4
vO=vS
2T
3T [t
4
0
4
iO Im
4
Fig.: Output voltage and output current waveforms for a single phase full wave ac voltage controller with RL load for E e J Thus we observe that for trigger angle E e J , the load current tends to flow continuously and we have continuous load current operation, without any break in the load current waveform and we obtain output voltage waveform which is a continuous sinusoidal waveform identical to the input supply voltage waveform. We loose the control on the output voltage for E e J as the output voltage becomes equal to the input supply voltage and thus we obtain V VO RMS ! m ! VS ; for E e J 2 Hence, RMS output voltage = RMS input supply voltage for E e J TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE VO RMS OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL-WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH RL LOAD.
[t
36
When E " O , the load current and load voltage waveforms become discontinuous as shown in the figure above.
1 F 2 2 2 VO RMS ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t T E
1
Output vo ! Vm sin [ t , for [ t ! E to F , when T1 is ON.

Vm 2 F 1 cos 2[ t VO RMS ! d [ t 2 T E V 2 VO RMS ! m 2T
1 2
F F d [ t cos 2[ t .d [ t E E
V 2 VO RMS ! m [ t 2T
sin 2[ t 2
E
F
V 2 sin 2 F sin 2E VO RMS ! m F E 2 2 2T
1 sin 2E sin 2 F VO RMS ! Vm F E 2 2 2T
V 1 sin 2E sin 2 F VO RMS ! m F E 2 2 2 T
The RMS output voltage across the load can be varied by changing the trigger angle E . For a purely resistive load L ! 0 , therefore load power factor angle J ! 0 . [L J ! tan 1 !0 ; R F ! T radians ! 1800 Extinction angle
37
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD
y
RMS Output Voltage VO RMS ! input supply voltage.
Vm
1 sin 2E T E 2 2 T
Vm 2
! VS = RMS
y y y
IO RMS !
VO RMS RL
= RMS value of load current.
I S ! I ORMS = RMS value of input supply current. Output load power

2 PO ! IORMS v RL
Input Power Factor

PF !
2 I O RMS v RL I ORMS v RL PO ! ! VS v I S VS v I O RMS VS
PF !
y
VORMS VS
1 sin 2E T E 2 T
Average Thyristor Current,

6
T1
T E E
2T (2T+E) E
3T [t
Fig.: Thyristor Current Waveform IT Avg ! 1 1 iT d [ t ! 2T E I m sin [ t.d [t 2T E

T Im Im sin [ t.d [ t ! 2T cos [ t 2T E T T
IT Avg !
IT Avg !
Im I ? cos T cosE A! m ?1 cosE A 2T 2T
38
Maximum Average Thyristor Current, for E ! 0 , I IT Avg ! m T RMS Thyristor Current IT RMS !
T 1 2 2 I m sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
IT RMS !
y
Im 2
1 sin 2E T E 2 2T
Maximum RMS Thyristor Current, for E ! 0 ,

IT RMS !
Im 2 In the case of a single phase full wave ac voltage controller circuit using a Triac with resistive load, the average thyristor current IT Avg ! 0 . Because the Triac conducts in
both the half cycles and the thyristor current is alternating and we obtain a symmetrical thyristor current waveform which gives an average value of zero on integration. PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER WITH R-L LOAD The Expression for the Output (Load) Current The expression for the output (load) current which flows through the thyristor, during [ t ! E to F is given by
R [ t E Vm [L iO ! iT1 ! sin [ t J sin E J e Z
for E e [ t e F
Where,
Vm ! 2VS = Maximum or peak value of input ac supply voltage.
Z ! R 2 [ L = Load impedance.
2
[L J ! tan 1 = Load impedance angle (load power factor angle). R E = Thyristor trigger angle = Delay angle. F = Extinction angle of thyristor, (value of [ t ) at which the thyristor (load) current falls to zero. F is calculated by solving the equation
sin F J ! sin E J e
R F E [L
39
Thyristor Conduction Angle H ! F E Maximum thyristor conduction angle H ! F E ! T radians = 1800 for E e J . RMS Output Voltage
VO RMS ! Vm 1 sin 2E sin 2 F F E 2 2 2 T
The Average Thyristor Current

F 1 IT Avg ! iT1 d [ t 2T E
IT Avg !
1 2T
F Vm E Z
R [ t E sin [ t J sin E J e[ L d [ t
IT Avg !
F F R [ t E Vm d [ t sin [ t J .d [ t sin E J e[ L 2T Z E E
Maximum value of IT Avg occur at E ! 0 . The thyristors should be rated for V I maximum IT Avg ! m , where I m ! m . Z T RMS Thyristor Current IT RMS
1 F 2 IT RMS ! iT1 d [ t 2T E
Maximum value of IT RMS occurs at E ! 0 . Thyristors should be rated for

I maximum IT RMS ! m 2
When a Triac is used in a single phase full wave ac voltage controller with RL I type of load, then IT Avg ! 0 and maximum IT RMS ! m 2
40
PROBLEMS 1. A single phase full wave ac voltage controller supplies an RL load. The input supply voltage is 230V, RMS at 50Hz. The load has L = 10mH, R = 10 ;, the T delay angle of thyristors T1 and T2 are equal, where E1 ! E 2 ! . Determine 3 a. Conduction angle of the thyristor T1 . b. RMS output voltage. c. The input power factor. Comment on the type of operation. Given f ! 50 Hz , E ! 600 , Vs ! 230V , L ! 10mH , R ! 10; , T E ! E1 ! E 2 ! radians, . 3
Vm ! 2VS ! 2 v 230 ! 325.2691193 V
Z ! Load Impedance ! R 2 [ L !
2
10 [ L
2
[ L ! 2T fL ! 2T v 50 v 10 v 103 ! T ! 3.14159;
Z!
10 3.14159
2
! 109.8696 ! 10.4818;
Im !
Vm 2 v 230 ! ! 31.03179 A Z 10.4818
[L Load Impedance Angle J ! tan 1 R T J ! tan 1 ! tan 1 0.314159 ! 17.440590 10
Trigger Angle E " J . Hence the type of operation will be discontinuous load current operation, we get F T E
F
180 60 ;
of
F
240 0
Therefore the range
is
from 180
degrees
to
240
degrees.
180
240
41
Extinction Angle F is calculated by using the equation sin F J ! sin E J e [ L

R
F E
In the exponential term the value of E and F should be substituted in radians. Hence R F Rad E Rad T sin F J ! sin E J e[ L ; E Rad ! 3
E J ! 60 17.44059 ! 42.5594 0
sin F 17.44 ! sin 42.55940 e
0 10 F E T
sin F 17.44 ! 0.676354 e

0
3.183F E
1800 p T radians, F Rad !
F 0 vT 180 0
Assuming F ! 1900 ;
F Rad ! F 0 v T 1900 v T ! ! 3.3161 1800 180
0
L.H.S: sin 190 17.44 ! sin 172.56 ! 0.129487 R.H.S: 0.676354 v e Assuming F ! 1830 ;
F Rad ! F 0 v T 1830 v T ! ! 3.19395 1800 180 T ! 2.14675 3
T 3.183 3.3161 3
! 4.94 v10 4
F E ! 3.19395
L.H.S: sin F J ! sin 183 17.44 ! sin165.560 ! 0.24936 R.H.S: 0.676354e3.1832.14675 ! 7.2876v 104 Assuming F } 1800
F Rad ! F 0 v T 1800 v T ! !T 1800 180 T 2T ! 3 3
F E ! T
42
L.H.S: sin F J ! sin 180 17.44 ! 0.2997 R.H.S: 0.676354 e Assuming F ! 1960
F Rad ! F 0 v T 1960 v T ! ! 3.420845 1800 180
T 3.183 T 3
! 8.6092 v10 4
L.H.S: sin F J ! sin 196 17.44 ! 0.02513 R.H.S: 0.676354e Assuming F ! 1970
F Rad ! F 0 v T 1970 v T ! ! 3.43829 1800 180
T 3.183 3.420845 3
! 3.5394v 104
L.H.S: sin F J ! sin 197 17.44 ! 7.69 ! 7.67937v 103 R.H.S: 0.676354e
T 3.183 3.43829 3
! 4.950386476v 104
Assuming F ! 197.42 0
F Rad ! F 0 v T 197.42 v T ! ! 3.4456 1800 180
L.H.S: sin F J ! sin 197.42 17.44 ! 3.4906v 104 R.H.S: 0.676354e

T 3.183 3.4456 3
! 3.2709v 104
197.42 0 60 0 ! 137.42 0 Conduction Angle H ! F E !
RMS Output Voltage

VO RMS ! VS 1 sin 2E sin 2 F F E 2 2 T 1 T
0 197.420 T sin 2 60 sin 2 3.4456 3 2 2
VO RMS ! 230 VO RMS ! 230
1 2.39843 0.4330 0.285640 T
VO RMS ! 230 v 0.9 ! 207.0445
43
Input Power Factor

PF ! PO VS v I S VO RMS Z ! 207.0445 ! 19.7527 A 10.4818
2
I O RMS !
2 PO ! I O RMS v RL ! 19.7527 v 10 ! 3901.716 W
VS ! 230V , PF !
I S ! IO RMS ! 19.7527
PO 3901.716 ! ! 0.8588 VS v I S 230 v 19.7527
2. A single phase full wave controller has an input voltage of 120 V (RMS) and a load resistance of 6 ohm. The firing angle of thyristor is T 2 . Find a. RMS output voltage b. Power output c. Input power factor d. Average and RMS thyristor current. Solution
E! T ! 900 , VS ! 120 2 , R ! 6;
RMS Value of Output Voltage

1
1 sin 2E 2 VO ! VS T E 2 T
1
T sin180 2 1 VO ! 120 T 2 2 T
VO ! 84.85 olts RMS Output Current

IO ! VO 84.85 ! ! 14.14 R 6
Load Power
2 PO ! I O v R
PO ! 14.14 v 6 ! 1200
2
atts
44
Input Current is same as Load Current Therefore I S ! IO ! 14.14 mps Input Supply Volt-Amp ! VS I S ! 120 v 14.14 ! 1696.8 VA Therefore Input Power Factor =
oad Power 1200 ! ! 0.707 lag Input olt- mp 1696.8
Each Thyristor Conducts only for half a cycle Average thyristor current IT Avg
IT Avg ! 1 Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T R E Vm 1 cos E ; 2T R ! 2VS
T
2 v 120 ?1 cos 90A ! 4.5 A 2T v 6
RMS thyristor current IT RMS

2 1 Vm sin 2 [ t IT RMS ! R 2 d [ t 2T E T
2 1 cos 2[ t Vm d [ t 2 2T R E 2 T
V 1 sin 2E ! m T E 2R T 2 2VS ! 2R
2
1
sin 2E 1 T T E 2
2
1
2 v 120 1 T sin180 2 T T 2 2 ! 10 2v 6
mps
45
3. A single phase half wave ac regulator using one SCR in anti-parallel with a diode feeds 1 kW, 230 V heater. Find load power for a firing angle of 45 0. Solution
T , VS ! 230 V ; PO ! 1KW ! 1000W 4 At standard rms supply voltage of 230V, the heater dissipates 1KW of output E ! 450 !
power Therefore
PO ! VO v I O ! VO v VO VO2 ! R R
Resistance of heater V 2 230 ! 52.9; R! O ! PO 1000

2
RMS value of output voltage

1
1 VO ! VS 2T
sin 2E 2T E 2
2
1
; for firing angle E ! 450
T sin 90 2 1 VO ! 230 2T ! 224.7157 4 2 2T
olts
RMS value of output current V 224.9 IO ! O ! ! 4.2479 mps R 52.9 Load Power
2 PO ! I O v R ! 4.25 v 52.9 ! 954.56 Watts 2
4. Find the RMS and average current flowing through the heater shown in figure. The delay angle of both the SCRs is 45 0.
SCR1
+
io
1-J 220V ac
SCR2
1 kW, 220V heater
46
Solution
E ! 450 ! T , VS ! 220 4
Resistance of heater
R! V 2 220 ! ! 48.4; R 1000
2
Resistance value of output voltage

1 sin 2E VO ! VS T E T 2 T sin 90 1 VO ! 220 T 4 2 T T 1 1 VO ! 220 T ! 209.769 4 2 T
olts
RMS current flowing through heater
VO 209.769 ! ! 4.334 48.4 R
mps
Average current flowing through the heater
I Avg ! 0
5. A single phase voltage controller is employed for controlling the power flow from 220 V, 50 Hz source into a load circuit consisting of R = 4 ; and [L = 6 ;. Calculate the following a. Control range of firing angle b. Maximum value of RMS load current c. Maximum power and power factor d. Maximum value of average and RMS thyristor current. Solution For control of output power, minimum angle of firing angle E is equal to the load impedance angle U
E ! U , load angle [L 1 6 0 U ! tan 1 ! tan ! 56.3 R 4
Maximum possible value of E is 180 0 Therefore control range of firing angle is 56.30
180 0
47
Maximum value of RMS load current occurs when E ! U ! 56.30 . At this value of E the Maximum value of RMS load current
IO ! VS ! Z 220 42 62 ! 30.5085 mps
2 Maximum Power PO ! I O R ! 30.5085 v 4 ! 3723.077 W 2
Input Volt-Amp Power Factor !
! VS I O ! 220 v 30.5085 ! 6711.87 W
PO 3723.077 ! ! 0.5547 Input VA 6711.87
Average thyristor current will be maximum when E ! U and conduction angle K ! 1800 . Therefore maximum value of average thyristor current T E Vm 1 IT Avg ! Z sin [ t U d [ t 2T E Note: At E ! 0 ,
iT1 ! iO ! IT Avg ! IT Avg ! Vm sin [ t U Z
T E Vm cos [ t U E 2T Z
iO ! iT1 !
Vm Z
R [ t E sin [ t U sin E U e [ L
Vm cos T E U cos E U 2T Z
But E ! U , IT Avg ! Vm V V cos T cos 0 ! m ?2A ! m 2T Z TZ 2T Z Vm 2 v 220 ! ! 13.7336 Amps T Z T 42 62
@ IT Avg !
Similarly, maximum RMS value occurs when E ! 0 and K ! T . Therefore maximum value of RMS thyristor current 1 ! 2T
T E
ITM
V m sin [ t U d [ t Z
48
ITM !
2 Vm 2T Z 2
T E
1 cos 2[ t 2U d [ t 2
T E
ITM !
2 Vm 4T Z 2
sin 2[ t 2U [ t 2 E
ITM !
2 Vm ?T E E 0A 4T Z 2
ITM !
Vm 2 v 220 ! ! 21.57277 Amps 2Z 2 42 62
49
CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (Line Commutated AC to DC converters)

INTRODUCTION TO CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS Controlled rectifiers are line commutated ac to dc power converters which are used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply into variable dc output voltage.
+ AC Input Voltage Line Commutated Converter DC Output V0(dc ) Type of input: Fixed voltage, fixed frequency ac power supply. Type of output: Variable dc output voltage The input supply fed to a controlled rectifier is ac supply at a fixed rms voltage and at a fixed frequency. We can obtain variable dc output voltage by using controlled rectifiers. By employing phase controlled thyristors in the controlled rectifier circuits we can obtain variable dc output voltage and variable dc (average) output current by varying the trigger angle (phase angle) at which the thyristors are triggered. We obtain a unidirectional and pulsating load current waveform, which has a specific average value. The thyristors are forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply and can be turned ON by applying suitable gate trigger pulses at the thyristor gate leads. The thyristor current and the load current begin to flow once the thyristors are triggered (turned ON) say at [ t ! E . The load current flows when the thyristors conduct from [ t ! E to F . The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage through the conducting thyristor. At [ t ! F , when the load current falls to zero, the thyristors turn off due to AC line (natural) commutation. In some bridge controlled rectifier circuits the conducting thyristor turns off, when the other thyristor is (other group of thyristors are) turned ON. The thyristor remains reverse biased during the negative half cycle of input supply. The type of commutation used in controlled rectifier circuits is referred to AC line commutation or Natural commutation or AC phase commutation. When the input ac supply voltage reverses and becomes negative during the negative half cycle, the thyristor becomes reverse biased and hence turns off. There are several types of power converters which use ac line commutation. These are referred to as line commutated converters. Different types of line commutated converters are y Phase controlled rectifiers which are AC to DC converters. y AC to AC converters AC voltage controllers, which convert input ac voltage into variable ac output voltage at the same frequency. Cyclo converters, which give low output frequencies. 50
All these power converters operate from ac power supply at a fixed rms input supply voltage and at a fixed input supply frequency. Hence they use ac line commutation for turning off the thyristors after they have been triggered ON by the gating signals. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIODE RECTIFIERS AND PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS The diode rectifiers are referred to as uncontrolled rectifiers which make use of power semiconductor diodes to carry the load current. The diode rectifiers give a fixed dc output voltage (fixed average output voltage) and each diode rectifying element conducts for one half cycle duration (T/2 seconds), that is the diode conduction angle = 1800 or T radians. A single phase half wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal conditions) an average V dc output voltage VO dc ! m and single phase full wave diode rectifier gives (under ideal T 2V conditions) an average dc output voltage VO dc ! m , where Vm is maximum value of T the available ac supply voltage. Thus we note that we can not control (we can not vary) the dc output voltage or the average dc load current in a diode rectifier circuit. In a phase controlled rectifier circuit we use a high current and a high power thyristor device (silicon controlled rectifier; SCR) for conversion of ac input power into dc output power. Phase controlled rectifier circuits are used to provide a variable voltage output dc and a variable dc (average) load current. We can control (we can vary) the average value (dc value) of the output load voltage (and hence the average dc load current) by varying the thyristor trigger angle. We can control the thyristor conduction angle H from 1800 to 00 by varying the trigger angle E from 00 to 1800, where thyristor conduction angle H ! T E APPLICATIONS OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS y DC motor control in steel mills, paper and textile mills employing dc motor drives. y AC fed traction system using dc traction motor. y Electro-chemical and electro-metallurgical processes. y Magnet power supplies. y Reactor controls. y Portable hand tool drives. y Variable speed industrial drives. y Battery charges. y High voltage DC transmission. y Uninterruptible power supply systems (UPS). Some years back ac to dc power conversion was achieved using motor generator sets, mercury arc rectifiers, and thyratorn tubes. The modern ac to dc power converters are designed using high power, high current thyristors and presently most of the ac-dc power converters are thyristorised power converters. The thyristor devices are phase controlled to obtain a variable dc output voltage across the output load terminals. The
51
phase controlled thyristor converter uses ac line commutation (natural commutation) for commutating (turning off) the thyristors that have been turned ON. The phase controlled converters are simple and less expensive and are widely used in industrial applications for industrial dc drives. These converters are classified as two quadrant converters if the output voltage can be made either positive or negative for a given polarity of output load current. There are also single quadrant ac converters -dc where the output voltage is only positive and cannot be made negative for a given polarity of output current. Of course single quadrant converters can also be designed to provide only negative dc output voltage. The two quadrant converter operation can be achieved by using fully controlled bridge converter circuit and for single quadrant operation we use a half controlled bridge converter. CLASSIFICATION OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS The phase controlled rectifiers can be classified based on the type of input power supply as y Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from single phase ac input power supply. y Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers which operate from three phase ac input power supply. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS Single Phase Controlled Rectifiers are further subdivided into different types
y
Half wave controlled rectifier which uses a single thyristor device (which provides output control only in one half cycle of input ac supply, and it provides low dc output). Full wave controlled rectifiers (which provide higher dc output) o Full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer (which requires two thyristors). o Full wave bridge controlled rectifiers (which do not require a center tapped transformer) Single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter, using two SCRs and two diodes, to provide single quadrant operation). Single phase full converter (fully controlled bridge converter which requires four SCRs, to provide two quadrant operation).
Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers are of different types y Three phase half wave controlled rectifiers. y Three phase full wave controlled rectiriers. o Semi converter (half controlled bridge converter). o Full converter (fully controlled bridge converter). PRINCIPLE OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER OPERATION The basic principle of operation of a phase controlled rectifier circuit is explained with reference to a single phase half wave phase controlled rectifier circuit with a resistive load shown in the figure.
52
R ! RL ! Load Resistance Fig.: Single Phase Half-Wave Thyristor Converter with a Resistive Load A single phase half wave thyristor converter which is used for ac-dc power conversion is shown in the above figure. The input ac supply is obtained from a main supply transformer to provide the desired ac supply voltage to the thyristor converter depending on the output dc voltage required. vP represents the primary input ac supply voltage. vS represents the secondary ac supply voltage which is the output of the transformer secondary. During the positive half cycle of input supply when the upper end of the transformer secondary is at a positive potential with respect to the lower end, the thyristor anode is positive with respect to its cathode and the thyristor is in a forward biased state. The thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of [ t ! E , by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse to the gate lead of thyristor. When the thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of [ t ! E , the thyristor conducts and assuming an ideal thyristor, the thyristor behaves as a closed switch and the input supply voltage appears across the load when the thyristor conducts from [ t ! E to T radians. Output voltage vO ! vS , when the thyristor conducts from [ t ! E to T . For a purely resistive load, the load current iO (output current) that flows when the thyristor T1 is on, is given by the expression v iO ! O , for E e [ t e T RL The output load current waveform is similar to the output load voltage waveform during the thyristor conduction time from E to T . The output current and the output voltage waveform are in phase for a resistive load. The load current increases as the input T supply voltage increases and the maximum load current flows at [ t ! , when the input 2 supply voltage is at its maximum value. The maximum value (peak value) of the load current is calculated as V iO max ! I m ! m . RL
53
Note that when the thyristor conducts ( T1 is on) during [ t ! E to T , the thyristor current iT 1 , the load current iO through RL and the source current iS flowing through the transformer secondary winding are all one and the same. Hence we can write v V sin [ t iS ! iT 1 ! iO ! O ! m ; for E e [ t e T R R I m is the maximum (peak) value of the load current that flows through the transformer secondary winding, through T1 and through the load resistor RL at the instant T [ t ! , when the input supply voltage reaches its maximum value. 2 When the input supply voltage decreases the load current decreases. When the supply voltage falls to zero at [ t ! T , the thyristor and the load current also falls to zero at [ t ! T . Thus the thyristor naturally turns off when the current flowing through it falls to zero at [ t ! T . During the negative half cycle of input supply when the supply voltage reverses and becomes negative during [ t ! T to 2T radians, the anode of thyristor is at a negative potential with respect to its cathode and as a result the thyristor is reverse biased and hence it remains cut-off (in the reverse blocking mode). The thyristor cannot conduct during its reverse biased state between [ t ! T to 2T . An ideal thyristor under reverse biased condition behaves as an open switch and hence the load current and load voltage are zero during [ t ! T to 2T . The maximum or peak reverse voltage that appears across the thyristor anode and cathode terminals is Vm . The trigger angle E (delay angle or the phase angle E ) is measured from the beginning of each positive half cycle to the time instant when the gate trigger pulse is applied. The thyristor conduction angle is from E to T , hence the conduction angle H ! T E . The maximum conduction angle is T radians (1800) when the trigger angle
E ! 0.
Fig: Quadrant Diagram The waveforms shows the input ac supply voltage across the secondary winding of the transformer which is represented as vS , the output voltage across the load, the output (load) current, and the thyristor voltage waveform that appears across the anode and cathode terminals.
54
Fig: Waveforms of single phase half-wave controlled rectifier with resistive load EQUATIONS vs ! Vm sin [ t ! the ac supply voltage across the transformer secondary. Vm ! max. (peak) value of input ac supply voltage across transformer secondary. VS ! Vm ! RMS value of input ac supply voltage across transformer secondary. 2
vO ! vL ! the output voltage across the load ; iO ! iL ! output (load) current.
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When the thyristor is triggered at [ t ! E (an ideal thyristor behaves as a closed switch) and hence the output voltage follows the input supply voltage.
vO ! vL ! Vm sin [ t ; for [ t ! E to T , when the thyristor is on. iO ! iL ! vO = Load current for [ t ! E to T , when the thyristor is on. R
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE (DC) OUTPUT VOLTAGE ACROSS THE LOAD If Vm is the peak input supply voltage, the average output voltage Vdc can be found from T 1 VO dc ! Vdc ! vO .d [ t 2T E VO dc ! Vdc !
T
1 Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
VO dc !
1 Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E Vm T sin [ t.d [ t 2T E

Vm 2T cos [ t E
T
VO dc !
VO dc !
VO dc !
Vm ? cos T cosE A 2T
; cos T ! 1
VO dc !
Vm ?1 cosE A ; Vm ! 2VS 2T
The maximum average (dc) output voltage is obtained when E ! 0 and the V maximum dc output voltage Vdcmax ! Vdm ! m . T The average dc output voltage can be varied by varying the trigger angle E from 0 to a maximum of 180 0 T radians . We can plot the control characteristic, which is a plot of dc output voltage versus the trigger angle E by using the equation for VO dc .
56
CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD The average dc output voltage is given by the expression
VO dc ! Vm ?1 cosE A 2T
We can obtain the control characteristic by plotting the expression for the dc output voltage as a function of trigger angle E Trigger angle E in degrees 0 300 60 0 900 120 0 150 0 180 0
VO dc Vm T 0.933 Vdm Vdm !
% 100% Vdm 93.3 % Vdm 75 % Vdm 50 % Vdm 25 % Vdm 6.69 % Vdm 0

Vdm ! Vm ! Vdcmax T
0.75 Vdm 0.5 Vdm 0.25 Vdm 0.06698 Vdm 0
VO(dc) Vdm
0.6Vdm
0.2 Vdm 0
7
60
120
7
180
Tr gger angle E n degrees

Fig.: Control characteristic Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to Vdm , the normalized output voltage Vdcn ! VO ( dc ) Vdcmax
!
Vdc Vdm
57
Vdcn ! Vn !
Vdc Vdm
Vm 1 cos E ! 2T Vm T
Vn !
Vdc 1 ! 1 cos E ! Vdcn Vdm 2
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD The rms output voltage is given by
1 VO RMS ! 2T
2T
v .d [ t
2 O 0
Output voltage vO ! Vm sin [ t ; for [ t ! E to T

1 T 2 2 2 VO RMS ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
1
By substituting sin 2 [ t !
1 cos 2[ t , we get 2
1
1 T 2 1 cos 2[ t 2 .d [ t VO RMS ! Vm 2 2T E
1
V 2 VO RMS ! m 4T
2 1 cos 2[ t .d [ t E
T 1
T 2 T Vm 2 VO RMS ! d [ t cos 2[ t .d [ t 4T E E 1
V VO RMS ! m 2
1 [ t T
sin 2[ t 2
2 E
T 1
V VO RMS ! m 2
1 sin 2T sin 2E 2 T E ; sin 2T ! 0 2 T
58
Hence we get,
1
V 1 sin 2E 2 VO RMS ! m T E 2 T 2
V sin 2E 2 VO RMS ! m T E 2 2 T
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS Output dc power (average or dc output power delivered to the load)
PO dc ! VOdc v I Odc ; i.e., Pdc ! Vdc v I dc
Where
VO dc ! Vdc ! average or dc value of output (load) voltage. I O dc ! I dc ! average or dc value of output (load) current.
Output ac power
PO ac ! VO RMS v I O RMS
Efficiency of Rectification (Rectification Ratio) Efficiency L ! POdc POac ; Efficiency L ! POdc POac

v 100
The output voltage can be considered as being composed of two components

y y
The dc component VO dc = DC or average value of output voltage. The ac component or the ripple component Vac ! Vr rms ! RMS value of all the ac ripple components.
The total RMS value of output voltage is given by
VO RMS ! VO2dc Vr2 rms
Therefore
2 2 Vac ! Vr rms ! VO RMS VOdc
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Form Factor (FF)
which is a measure of the shape of the output voltage is given by FF ! VO RMS VOdc

!
RMS output load voltage output load voltage
The Ripple Factor (RF) which is a measure of the ac ripple content in the output voltage waveform. The output voltage ripple factor defined for the output voltage waveform is given by rv ! RF ! Vr rms VO dc
!
Vac Vdc
VO RMS ! 1 VOdc
2
rv ! Therefore
2 VO2RMS VOdc
VO dc
rv ! FF 2 1 Current Ripple Factor defined for the output (load) current waveform is given by ri ! I r rms I Odc
!
I ac I dc
Where
2 2 I r rms ! I ac ! IO RMS I O dc
Some times the peak to peak output ripple voltage is also considered to express the peak to peak output ripple voltage as
Vr pp ! peak to peak ac ripple output voltage
The peak to peak ac ripple load current is the difference between the maximum and the minimum values of the output load current.
I r pp ! I O max I O min
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF) TUF ! Where

VS !
PO dc VS v I S
RMS value of transformer secondary output voltage (RMS supply voltage at the secondary)
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IS !
RM value of t ansfor er secondary current (RM line or supply current
vS ! Supply voltage at the transfor er secon dary side . iS ! Input supply current (transformer secon dary winding current). iS 1 ! Fundamental component of the input supp current . ly I P ! Peak value of the input supply current. ! Phase angle difference bet een (sine wave co ponents) the funda ental co ponents of input supply current and the input supply voltage. ! Displace ent angle (phase angle) Displ
[L R
A D B @ 8
D ! CosJ Harmoni Factor (HF or Total Harmonic Di tortion Factor (THD) The har onic factor is a easure of the distortion in the output wavefor and is also referred to as the total har onic distortion (THD)
IS IS IS
a b a b b ` Y X
Where
I S ! RMS value of input supply current. I S 1 ! RMS value of funda ental co ponent of the input supply current.
HF
I S I S
b
IH
b a
SP
PQ H V U
b a
SR IH
PQ PIH
Di l
nt F t
(DF or F n
CE
@ J !t
GF
9
1
For an RL load J
m nt ngl = L d imp d n RL l nt l Pow F tor
ng l
61
Input Power Factor (PF)

PF ! VS I S 1 I cos J ! S 1 cos J VS I S IS
The Crest Factor (CF) CF ! I S peak IS

!
Peak input supply current RMS input supply current
For an Ideal Controlled Rectifier FF ! 1 ; which means that VO RMS ! VO dc . Efficiency L ! 100 ; which means that PO dc ! PO ac .
Vac ! Vr rms ! 0 ; so that RF ! rv ! 0 ; Ripple factor = 0 (ripple free converter). TUF ! 1 ; which means that PO dc ! VS v I S
HF ! THD ! 0 ; which means that I S ! I S 1

PF ! DPF ! 1 ; which means that J ! 0
SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH AN RL LOAD In this section we will discuss the operation and performance of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier with RL load. In practice most of the loads are of RL type. For example if we consider a single phase controlled rectifier controlling the speed of a dc motor, the load which is the dc motor winding is an RL type of load, where R represents the motor winding resistance and L represents the motor winding inductance. A single phase half wave controlled rectifier circuit with an RL load using a thyristor T1 ( T1 is an SCR) is shown in the figure below.
62
The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the positive half cycle of input supply. Let us assume that T1 is triggered at [ t ! E , by applying a suitable gate trigger pulse to
T1 during the positive half cycle of input supply. The output voltage across the load
follows the input supply voltage when T1 is ON. The load current iO flows through the thyristor T1 and through the load in the downward direction. This load current pulse flowing through T1 can be considered as the positive current pulse. Due to the inductance in the load, the load current iO flowing through T1 would not fall to zero at [ t ! T , when the input supply voltage starts to become negative. A phase shift appears between the load voltage and the load current waveforms, due to the load inductance. The thyristor T1 will continue to conduct the load current until all the inductive energy stored in the load inductor L is completely utilized and the load current through T1 falls to zero at [ t ! F , where F is referred to as the Extinction angle, (the value of [ t ) at which the load current falls to zero. The extinction angle F is measured from the point of the beginning of the positive half cycle of input supply to the point where the load current falls to zero. The thyristor T1 conducts from [ t ! E to F . The conduction angle of T1 is
H ! F E , which depends on the delay angle E and the load impedance angle J . The
waveforms of the input supply voltage, the gate trigger pulse of T1 , the thyristor current, the load current and the load voltage waveforms appear as shown in the figure below.
i1 ! iO ! iS
Fig.: Input supply voltage & Thyristor current waveforms 63
F is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value.
Fig.: Output (load) voltage waveform of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier with RL load From F to 2T , the thyristor remains cut-off as it is reverse biased and behaves as an open switch. The thyristor current and the load current are zero and the output voltage also remains at zero during the non conduction time interval between F to 2T . In the next cycle the thyristor is triggered again at a phase angle of 2T E , and the same operation repeats. TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE OUTPUT (INDUCTIVE LOAD) CURRENT, DURING [ t ! E to F WHEN THYRISTOR T1 CONDUCTS Considering sinusoidal input supply voltage we can write the expression for the supply voltage as
vS ! Vm sin [ t = instantaneous value of the input supply voltage.
Let us assume that the thyristor T1 is triggered by applying the gating signal to T1 at [ t ! E . The load current which flows through the thyristor T1 during [ t ! E to F can be found from the equation
di L O RiO ! Vm sin [ t ; dt
The solution of the above differential equation gives the general expression for the output load current which is of the form iO !
t Vm sin [ t J A1e X ; Z
Where Vm ! 2VS = maximum or peak value of input supply voltage. Z ! R 2 [ L = Load impedance.
2
64
[L J ! tan 1 = Load impedance angle (power factor angle of load). R X! L = Load circuit time constant. R
Therefore the general expression for the output load current is given by the equation R t V iO ! m sin [ t J A1e L ; Z The value of the constant A1 can be determined from the initial condition. i.e. initial value of load current iO ! 0 , at [ t ! E . Hence from the equation for iO equating iO to zero and substituting [ t ! E , we get iO ! 0 !
R t L R t Vm sin E J A1e L Z
Therefore
A1e
Vm sin E J Z
A1 ! e A1 ! e
R t L
1 Vm Z sin E J
Vm Z sin E J Vm Z sin E J
R t L
A1 ! e
R [ t [L
By substituting [ t ! E , we get the value of constant A1 as

V A1 ! e [ L m sin E J Z
RE
Substituting the value of constant A1 from the above equation into the expression for iO , we obtain R RE t V V iO ! m sin [ t J e L e [ L m sin E J ; Z Z
iO ! Vm sin [ t J e Z
R [ t R E [L [L
Vm Z sin E J
65
R [ t E Vm Vm [L iO ! sin [ t J e Z sin E J Z
Therefore we obtain the final expression for the inductive load current of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier with RL load as iO ! Vm Z
R [ t E sin [ t J sin E J e[ L ;
Where E e [ t e F .
The above expression also represents the thyristor current iT 1 , during the conduction time interval of thyristor T1 from [ t ! E to F . TO CALCULATE EXTINCTION ANGLE F The extinction angle F , which is the value of [ t at which the load current iO falls to zero and T1 is turned off can be estimated by using the condition that iO ! 0 , at [ t ! F By using the above expression for the output load current, we can write iO ! 0 ! As
R F E Vm [L sin F J sin E J e Z
Vm { 0 , we can write Z R F E sin F J sin E J e[ L !0
Therefore we obtain the expression sin F J ! sin E J e [ L

R
F E
The extinction angle F can be determined from this transcendental equation by using the iterative method of solution (trial and error method). After F is calculated, we can determine the thyristor conduction angle H ! F E .
F is the extinction angle which depends upon the load inductance value. Conduction angle H increases as E is decreased for a specific value of F .
Conduction angle H ! F E ; for a purely resistive load or for an RL load when the load inductance L is negligible the extinction angle F ! T and the conduction angle H ! T E
66
Equations
vs ! Vm sin [ t ! Input supply voltage vO ! vL ! Vm sin [ t ! Output load voltage for [ t ! E to F ,
when the thyristor T1 conducts ( T1 is on). Expression for the load current (thyristor current): for [ t ! E to F
R [ t E Vm [L iO ! sin [ t J sin E J e ; Z
Where E e [ t e F .
Extinction angle F can be calculated using the equation sin F J ! sin E J e

R F E [L
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR AVERAGE (DC) LOAD VOLTAGE VO dc ! VL ! 1 2T

2T
v .d [ t
O 0
1 VO dc ! VL ! 2T
F 2T E vO .d [ t vO .d [ t vO .d [t ; 0 E F
vO ! 0 for [ t ! 0 to E
for [ t ! F to 2T ;
VO dc ! VL !
F 1 vO .d [ t ; vO ! Vm sin [ t for [ t ! E to F 2T E F 1 Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
VO dc ! VL !
VO dc ! VL !
Vm 2T
cos [ t
Vm cos E cos F ! 2T E
F
VO dc ! VL !
Vm cos E cos F 2T
Note: During the period [ t ! T to F , we can see from the output load voltage waveform that the instantaneous output voltage is negative and this reduces the average or the dc output voltage when compared to a purely resistive load.
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Average DC Load Current

I O dc ! I L Avg ! VO dc RL ! Vm cos E cos F 2T RL
SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD AND FREE WHEELING DIODE T
d
+ +
s
FWD
Fig. : Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load and Free Wheeling Diode (FWD) With a RL load it was observed that the average output voltage reduces. This disadvantage can be overcome by connecting a diode across the load as shown in figure. The diode is called as a Free Wheeling Diode (FWD). The waveforms are shown below.
Vs Vm Supp y v tage 0 E T
ef e
T
T
iG 0
Gate pulses E
-Vm [t
0 VO
Load voltage
T
fg
iO
ad current [t=F
T
TE
T
[t
[t
[t
68
At [ t ! T , the source voltage vS falls to zero and as vS becomes negative, the free wheeling diode is forward biased. The stored energy in the inductance maintains the load current flow through R, L, and the FWD. Also, as soon as the FWD is forward biased, at [ t ! T , the SCR becomes reverse biased, the current through it becomes zero and the SCR turns off. During the period [ t ! T to F , the load current flows through FWD (free wheeling load current) and decreases exponentially towards zero at [ t ! F . Also during this free wheeling time period the load is shorted by the conducting FWD and the load voltage is almost zero, if the forward voltage drop across the conducting FWD is neglected. Thus there is no negative region in the load voltage wave form. This improves the average output voltage. V The average output voltage Vdc ! m ?1 cos E A, which is the same as that of a 2T purely resistive load. The output voltage across the load appears similar to the output voltage of a purely resistive load. The following points are to be noted. y If the inductance value is not very large, the energy stored in the inductance is able to maintain the load current only upto [ t ! F , where T F 2T , well before the next gate pulse and the load current tends to become discontinuous. y During the conduction period E to T , the load current is carried by the SCR and during the free wheeling period T to F , the load current is carried by the free wheeling diode. y The value of F depends on the value of R and L and the forward resistance of the FWD. Generally T F 2T . If the value of the inductance is very large, the load current does not decrease to zero during the free wheeling time interval and the load current waveform appears as shown in the figure.
i0 t1 t2 t3 t4
SCR
FWD
SCR
FWD
T
2TE
T
[t
Fig. : Waveform of Load Current in Single Phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with a Large Inductance and FWD
69
During the periods t1 , t3 ,..... the SCR carries the load current and during the periods t2 , t4 ,..... the FWD carries the load current. It is to be noted that y The load current becomes continuous and the load current does not fall to zero for large value of load inductance. y The ripple in the load current waveform (the amount of variation in the output load current) decreases. SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH GENERAL LOAD A general load consists of R, L and a DC source E in the load circuit A
iO +
R L + E vO
vS
In the half wave controlled rectifier circuit shown in the figure, the load circuit consists of a dc source E in addition to resistance and inductance. When the thyristor is in the cut-off state, the current in the circuit is zero and the cathode will be at a voltage equal to the dc voltage in the load circuit i.e. the cathode potential will be equal to E. The thyristor will be forward biased for anode supply voltage greater than the load dc voltage. When the supply voltage is less than the dc voltage E in the circuit the thyristor is reverse biased and hence the thyristor cannot conduct for supply voltage less than the load circuit dc voltage. The value of [ t at which the supply voltage increases and becomes equal to the load circuit dc voltage can be calculated by using the equation Vm sin [ t ! E . If we assume the value of [ t is equal to K then we can write Vm sin K ! E . Therefore K is
calculated as K ! sin 1 . Vm For trigger angle E K , the thyristor conducts only from [ t ! K to F .
i
For trigger angle E " K , the thyristor conducts from [ t ! E to F . The waveforms appear as shown in the figure
70
vO
Vm Load voltage
E T K
E
T TE
iO E Im Load current E F F TE TF [t

p
Equations vS ! Vm sin [ t ! Input supply voltage .

vO ! Vm sin [ t ! Output load voltage for [ t ! E to F vO ! E for [ t ! 0 to E & for [ t ! F to 2T
Expression for the Load Current When the thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of E , the equation for the circuit can be written as di Vm sin [ t ! iO v R L O E ; E e [ t e F dt The general expression for the output load current can be written as iO ! Where
Z ! R 2 [ L
2
[t
t Vm E sin [ t J Ae X Z R
Load Impedance
[L J ! tan 1 ! Load impedance angle R X! L ! Load circuit time constant R
The general expression for the output load current can be written as
71
iO !
R t Vm E sin [ t J Ae L Z R
To find the value of the constant A apply the initial condition at [ t ! E , load current iO ! 0 . Equating the general expression for the load current to zero at [ t ! E , we get R E v V E iO ! 0 ! m sin E J Ae L [ Z R We obtain the value of constant A as
E V E A ! m sin E J e [ L R Z
R
Substituting the value of the constant A in the expression for the load current, we get the complete expression for the output load current as
iO !
R [ t E Vm E E V sin [ t J m sin E J e [ L Z R R Z
The Extinction angle F can be calculated from the final condition that the output current iO ! 0 at [ t ! F . By using the above expression we get, iO ! 0 !
R F E Vm E E V sin F J m sin E J e[ L Z R R Z
To derive an expression for the average or dc load voltage VO dc ! 1 2T 1 2T

2T
v .d [ t
O 0
VO dc !
F 2T E vO .d [ t vO .d [ t vO .d [t 0 E F
vO ! Vm sin [ t ! Output load voltage for [ t ! E to F vO ! E for [ t ! 0 to E 1 VO dc ! 2T for [ t ! F to 2T
F 2T E E.d [ t Vm sin [ t E. d [ t 0 E F
VO dc !
1 2T
E [ t
Vm cos [ t
E [ t
2T
72
VO dc !
1 E E 0 Vm cos F cosE E 2T F 2T
VO dc !
Vm E cos E cos F 2T 2T F E 2T
2T F E Vm cosE cos F E 2T 2T
VO dc !
Conduction angle of thyristor H ! F E RMS Output Voltage can be calculated by using the expression
VO RMS !
2T 1 2 vO .d [ t 2T 0
DISADVANTAGES OF SINGLE PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS Single phase half wave controlled rectifier gives y Low dc output voltage. y Low dc output power and lower efficiency. y Higher ripple voltage & ripple current. y Higher ripple factor. y Low transformer utilization factor. y The input supply current waveform has a dc component which can result in dc saturation of the transformer core. Single phase half wave controlled rectifiers are rarely used in practice as they give low dc output and low dc output power. They are only of theoretical interest. The above disadvantages of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier can be over come by using a full wave controlled rectifier circuit. Most of the practical converter circuits use full wave controlled rectifiers. SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS Single phase full wave controlled rectifier circuit combines two half wave controlled rectifiers in one single circuit so as to provide two pulse output across the load. Both the half cycles of the input supply are utilized and converted into a uni-directional output current through the load so as to produce a two pulse output waveform. Hence a full wave controlled rectifier circuit is also referred to as a two pulse converter. Single phase full wave controlled rectifiers are of various types y Single phase full wave controlled rectifier using a center tapped transformer (two pulse converter with mid point configuration). y Single phase full wave bridge controlled rectifier Half controlled bridge converter (semi converter). Fully controlled bridge converter (full converter).
73
SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER USING A CENTER TAPPED TRANSFORMER
iS T1 + vS vO
R L
AC Supply
iO
FWD
T2
vS = Supply Voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding vS ! v AO ! Vm sin [ t v BO ! v AO ! Vm sin [ t ! supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer secondary winding.
This type of full wave controlled rectifier requires a center tapped transformer and two thyristors T1 and T2 . The input supply is fed through the mains supply transformer, the primary side of the transformer is connected to the ac line voltage which is available (normally the primary supply voltage is 230V RMS ac supply voltage at 50Hz supply frequency in India). The secondary side of the transformer has three lines and the center point of the transformer (center line) is used as the reference point to measure the input and output voltages. The upper half of the secondary winding and the thyristor T1 along with the load act as a half wave controlled rectifier, the lower half of the secondary winding and the thyristor T2 with the common load act as the second half wave controlled rectifier so as to produce a full wave load voltage waveform. There are two types of operations possible. Discontinuous load current operation, which occurs for a purely resistive load or an RL load with low inductance value. Continuous load current operation which occurs for an RL type of load with large load inductance. Discontinuous Load Current Operation (for low value of load inductance) Generally the load current is discontinuous when the load is purely resistive or when the RL load has a low value of inductance. During the positive half cycle of input supply, when the upper line of the secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the center point O the thyristor T1 is forward biased and it is triggered at a delay angle of E. The load current 74
flows through the thyristor T1 , through the load and through the upper part of the secondary winding, during the period E to F , when the thyristor T1 conducts. The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage that appears across the upper part of the secondary winding from [ t ! E to F . The load current through the thyristor T1 decreases and drops to zero at [ t ! F , where F " T for RL type of load and the thyristor T1 naturally turns off at [ t ! F .
vO
[t E
iO
E F [t
TF
T
T
(TE)
(TF)
Fig.: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation without FWD During the negative half cycle of the input supply the voltage at the supply line A becomes negative whereas the voltage at line B (at the lower side of the secondary winding) becomes positive with respect to the center point O. The thyristor T2 is forward biased during the negative half cycle and it is triggered at a delay angle of T E . The current flows through the thyristor T2 , through the load, and through the lower part of the secondary winding when T2 conducts during the negative half cycle the load is connected to the lower half of the secondary winding when T2 conducts. For purely resistive loads when L = 0, the extinction angle F ! T . The load current falls to zero at [ t ! F ! T , when the input supply voltage falls to zero at [ t ! T . The load current and the load voltage waveforms are in phase and there is no phase shift between the load voltage and the load current waveform in the case of a purely resistive load. For low values of load inductance the load current would be discontinuous and the extinction angle F " T but F T E . For large values of load inductance the load current would be continuous and does not fall to zero. The thyristor T1 conducts from E to T E , until the next thyristor T2 is triggered. When T2 is triggered at [ t ! T E , the thyristor T1 will be reverse biased and hence T1 turns off.
75
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD (WITHOUT FREE WHEELING DIODE (FWD)) The average or dc output voltage of a full-wave controlled rectifier can be calculated by finding the average value of the output voltage waveform over one output T cycle (i.e., T radians) and note that the output pulse repetition time is seconds where T 2 1 represents the input supply time period and T ! ; where f = input supply frequency. f Assuming the load inductance to be small so that F " T , F T E we obtain discontinuous load current operation. The load current flows through T1 form [ t ! E to F , where E is the trigger angle of thyristor T1 and F is the extinction angle where the load current through T1 falls to zero at [ t ! F . Therefore the average or dc output voltage can be obtained by using the expression VO dc ! Vdc ! 2 2T
F
[ t !E
vO .d [ t
VO dc ! Vdc !
1 vO .d [ t T [ t E !
F 1 VO dc ! Vdc ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t T E
VO dc ! Vdc !
Vm T
cos [ t
E
F
VO dc ! Vdc ! VO dc !
Vm cos E cos F T
Therefore
T F
T E .
Vm cos E cos F , for discontinuous load current operation, T
When the load inductance is small and negligible that is L } 0 , the extinction angle F ! T radians . Hence the average or dc output voltage for resistive load is obtained as VO dc !
VO dc !
Vm cosE cosT ; cos T ! 1 T

Vm cos E 1 T
76
VO dc !
Vm 1 cos E ; for resistive load, when L } 0 T
THE EFFECT OF LOAD INDUCTANCE Due to the presence of load inductance the output voltage reverses and becomes negative during the time period [ t ! T to F . This reduces the dc output voltage. To prevent this reduction of dc output voltage due to the negative region in the output load voltage waveform, we can connect a free wheeling diode across the load. The output voltage waveform and the dc output voltage obtained would be the same as that for a full wave controlled rectifier with resistive load. When the Free wheeling diode (FWD) is connected across the load When T1 is triggered at [ t ! E , during the positive half cycle of the input supply the FWD is reverse biased during the time period [ t ! E to T . FWD remains reverse biased and cut-off from [ t ! E to T . The load current flows through the conducting thyristor T1 , through the RL load and through upper half of the transformer secondary winding during the time period E to T . At [ t ! T , when the input supply voltage across the upper half of the secondary winding reverses and becomes negative the FWD turns-on. The load current continues to flow through the FWD from [ t ! T to F .
vO
0 iO
Vm
[t E E F [t
TF
T
T
(TE)
(TF)
Fig.: Waveform for Discontinuous Load Current Operation with FWD EXPRESSION FOR THE DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH RL LOAD AND FWD 1 VO dc ! Vdc ! vO .d [ t T [ t!0 Thyristor T1 is triggered at [ t ! E . T1 conducts from [ t ! E to T 77
T
Output voltage vO ! Vm sin [ t ; for [ t ! E to T FWD conducts from [ t ! T to F and vO } 0 during discontinuous load current Therefore 1 VO dc ! Vdc ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t TE VO dc ! Vdc ! Vm cos [ t T
E
T T
VO dc ! Vdc !
VO dc ! Vdc !
Vm ? cosT cosE A ; cosT ! 1 T

Vm 1 cosE T
Therefore
The DC output voltage Vdc is same as the DC output voltage of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier with resistive load. Note that the dc output voltage of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier is two times the dc output voltage of a half wave controlled rectifier. CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH R LOAD OR RL LOAD WITH FWD The control characteristic can be obtained by plotting the dc output voltage Vdc versus the trigger angle E . The average or dc output voltage of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier circuit with R load or RL load with FWD is calculated by using the equation VO dc ! Vdc ! Vm 1 cosE T
Vdc can be varied by varying the trigger angle E from 0 to 180 0 . (i.e., the range of trigger angle E is from 0 to T radians). Maximum dc output voltage is obtained when E ! 0 Vdcmax ! Vdc ! Vdcmax ! Vdc ! Vm 2V 1 cos 0 ! m T T 2Vm for a single phase full wave controlled rectifier. T
Therefore
Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum value, we can write the normalized dc output voltage as
78
Vdcn ! Vn !
Vdc Vdcmax
Vdc Vdm
Vdcn
Vm 1 cos E 1 ! Vn ! T ! 1 cos E 2 2Vm T V 1 1 cos E ! dc Vdm 2
Therefore
Vdcn ! Vn !
Vdc !
1 1 cos E Vdm 2 VO dc Vdm ! 2Vm ! 0.636619Vm T 0.593974 Vm
Trigger angle E in degrees 0

300
Normalized dc output voltage Vn 1 0.9330 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.06698 0
60 90
0 0
0.47746 Vm 0.3183098 Vm 0.191549 Vm 0.04264 Vm 0
120 0 150 180 0

0
Fig.: Control characteristic of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier with R load or RL load with FWD
wwt vw
n l E n d
u
w v x t wvvu t
0.2 Vd
0.6Vd
r q
( c)
Vd
60
20
80 s
79
CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION (WITHOUT FWD) For large values of load inductance the load current flows continuously without decreasing and falling to zero and there is always a load current flowing at any point of time. This type of operation is referred to as continuous current operation. Generally the load current is continuous for large load inductance and for low trigger angles. The load current is discontinuous for low values of load inductance and for large values of trigger angles. The waveforms for continuous current operation are as shown.
vO
0 iO
Vm
[t
E
T1 ON
E
T2 ON T1 ON
E [t
T
T
(T )
(TE )
Fig.: Load voltage and load current waveform of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier with RL load & without FWD for continuous load current operation In the case of continuous current operation the thyristor T1 which is triggered at a delay angle of E , conducts from [ t ! E to T E . Output voltage follows the input supply voltage across the upper half of the transformer secondary winding vO ! v AO ! Vm sin [ t . The next thyristor T2 is triggered at [ t ! T E , during the negative half cycle input supply. As soon as T2 is triggered at [ t ! T E , the thyristor T1 will be reverse biased and T1 turns off due to natural commutation (ac line commutation). The load current flows through the thyristor T2 from [ t ! T E to 2T E . Output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage across the lower half of the transformer secondary winding vO ! vBO ! Vm sin [ t . operation.
180 Each thyristor conducts for T radians 0 in the case of continuous current
80
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OR DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF SINGLE PHASE FULL WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER WITH LARGE LOAD INDUCTANCE ASSUMING CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT OPERATION. VO dc ! Vdc ! 1 T
T E
[ t !E
vO .d [ t
T E 1 VO dc ! Vdc ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t T E
VO dc ! Vdc !
Vm cos [ t T
T E
E
cos T E ! cosE
VO dc ! Vdc ! VO dc ! Vdc ! VO dc ! Vdc !
Vm cos E cos T E ; T Vm ?cos E cosE A T 2Vm cosE T
The above equation can be plotted to obtain the control characteristic of a single phase full wave controlled rectifier with RL load assuming continuous load current operation. Normalizing the dc output voltage with respect to its maximum value, the normalized dc output voltage is given by
2Vm cos E ! T ! cos E 2Vm T
Vdcn ! Vn !
Vdc Vdcmax
Therefore
Vdcn ! Vn ! cosE
81
Trigger angle E in degrees 0 300 60

0
VO dc 2V Vdm ! m T
Remarks Maximum dc output voltage 2V Vdcmax ! Vdm ! m T
0.866 Vdm 0.5 Vdm 0 Vdm -0.5 Vdm -0.866 Vdm

2V Vdm ! m T
900
120 0
150
180 0
V O(dc) Vdm 0.6Vdm 0.2 Vdm 0 -0.2Vdm -0.6 V dm -Vdm
E 30 60 90 120 150 180
Fig.: Control Characteristic We notice from the control characteristic that by varying the trigger angle E we can vary the output dc voltage across the load. Thus it is possible to control the dc output voltage by changing the trigger angle E . For trigger angle E in the range of 0 to 90 degrees i.e., 0 e E e 90 0 , Vdc is positive and the circuit operates as a controlled rectifier to convert ac supply voltage into dc output power which is fed to the load. For trigger angle E 90 0 , cos E becomes negative and as a result the average dc output voltage Vdc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same positive direction. Hence the output power becomes negative. This means that the power flows from the load circuit to the input ac source. This is referred to as line commutated inverter operation. During the inverter mode operation for E " 900 the load energy can be fed back from the load circuit to the input ac source.
Tri
r angl E in degrees
82
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE The rms value of the output voltage is calculated by using the equation
2 VO RMS ! 2T
T E
E 1
2 2 vO .d [ t
1
1 T E 2 2 2 VO RMS ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t T E V 2 VO RMS ! m T V 2 VO RMS ! m T

T E
E 1
2 sin 2 [ t.d [ t 2 1 cos 2[ t .d [ t 2

1 1
T E
E
1 VO RMS ! Vm 2T
T T E E 2 d [ t cos 2[ t .d [ t E E
1
1 VO RMS ! Vm [ t 2T 1 VO RMS ! Vm 2T

sin 2[ t 2
sin 2 T E sin 2E 2 T E E 2
1 sin 2T v cos 2E cos 2T v sin 2E sin 2E 2 VO RMS ! Vm T 2 2T 1 0 sin 2E sin 2E 2 VO RMS ! Vm T 2 2T

1
1 2 V VO RMS ! Vm T ! m 2 2T
Therefore VO RMS ! Vm ; The rms output voltage is same as the input rms supply voltage. 2
T E
T E 2
83
SINGLE PHASE SEMICONVERTERS
Errata: Consider diode D2 as D1 in the figure and diode D1 as D2 Single phase semi-converter circuit is a full wave half controlled bridge converter which uses two thyristors and two diodes connected in the form of a full wave bridge configuration. The two thyristors are controlled power switches which are turned on one after the other by applying suitable gating signals (gate trigger pulses). The two diodes are uncontrolled power switches which turn-on and conduct one after the other as and when they are forward biased. The circuit diagram of a single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter) is shown in the above figure with highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit. When the load inductance is large the load current flows continuously and we can consider the continuous load current operation assuming constant load current, with negligible current ripple (i.e., constant and ripple free load current operation). The ac supply to the semiconverter is normally fed through a mains supply transformer having suitable turns ratio. The transformer is suitably designed to supply the required ac supply voltage (secondary output voltage) to the converter. During the positive half cycle of input ac supply voltage, when the transformer secondary output line A is positive with respect to the line B the thyristor T1 and the diode D1 are both forward biased. The thyristor T1 is triggered at [ t ! E ; 0 e E e T by applying an appropriate gate trigger signal to the gate of T1 . The current in the circuit flows through the secondary line A, through T1 , through the load in the downward direction, through diode D1 back to the secondary line B. T1 and D1 conduct together from [ t ! E to T and the load is connected to the input ac supply. The output load voltage follows the input supply voltage (the secondary output voltage of the transformer) during the period [ t ! E to T . At [ t ! T , the input supply voltage decreases to zero and becomes negative during the period [ t ! T to T E . The free wheeling diode Dm across the load becomes forward biased and conducts during the period [ t ! T to T E .
84
Fig:. Waveforms of single phase semi-converter for RLE load and constant load current for E > 900
85
The load current is transferred from T1 and D1 to the FWD Dm . T1 and D1 are turned off. The load current continues to flow through the FWD Dm . The load current free wheels (flows continuously) through the FWD during the free wheeling time period T to T E . During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage the secondary line A becomes negative with respect to line B. The thyristor T2 and the diode D2 are both forward biased. T2 is triggered at [ t ! T E , during the negative half cycle. The FWD is reverse biased and turns-off as soon as T2 is triggered. The load current continues to flow through T2 and D2 during the period [ t ! T E to 2T TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OR DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE SEMI-CONVERTER The average output voltage can be found from 2 Vdc ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
Vdc ! 2Vm T ? cos [ t AE 2T
T
Vdc !
Vdc !
Vm ? cos T cosE A ; cosT ! 1 T

Vm ?1 cos E A T 2Vm to 0 by varying E from 0 to T . T
Therefore
Vdc can be varied from
The maximum average output voltage is

Vdcmax ! Vdm ! 2Vm T
Normalizing the average output voltage with respect to its maximum value
Vdcn ! Vn ! Vdc ! 0.5 1 cosE Vdm
The output control characteristic can be plotted by using the expression for Vdc
86
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A SINGLE PHASE SEMI-CONVERTER The rms output voltage is found from
2 T 2 2 2 VO RMS ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E
2 Vm VO RMS ! 2T T 1 1
2 1 cos 2[ t .d [ t E
1
V 1 sin 2E 2 VO RMS ! m T E 2 2 T
SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER (FULLY CONTROLLED BRIDGE CONVERTER)
The circuit diagram of a single phase fully controlled bridge converter is shown in the figure with a highly inductive load and a dc source in the load circuit so that the load current is continuous and ripple free (constant load current operation). The fully controlled bridge converter consists of four thyristors T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 connected in the form of full wave bridge configuration as shown in the figure. Each thyristor is controlled and turned on by its gating signal and naturally turns off when a reverse voltage appears across it. During the positive half cycle when the upper line of the transformer secondary winding is at a positive potential with respect to the lower end the thyristors T1 and T2 are forward biased during the time interval [ t ! 0 to T . The thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered simultaneously [ t ! E ;
0 e E e T ,
the load is
connected to the input supply through the conducting thyristors T1 and T2 . The output voltage across the load follows the input supply voltage and hence output voltage vO ! Vm sin [ t . Due to the inductive load T1 and T2 will continue to conduct beyond [ t ! T , even though the input voltage becomes negative. T1 and T2 conduct together
87
during the time period E to T E , for a time duration of T radians (conduction angle of each thyristor = 180 0 ) During the negative half cycle of input supply voltage for [ t ! T to 2T the thyristors T3 and T4 are forward biased. T3 and T4 are triggered at [ t ! T E . As soon as the thyristors T3 and T4 are triggered a reverse voltage appears across the thyristors T1 and T2 and they naturally turn-off and the load current is transferred from T1 and T2 to the thyristors T3 and T4 . The output voltage across the load follows the supply voltage and vO ! Vm sin [ t during the time period [ t ! T E to 2T E . In the next positive half cycle when T1 and T2 are triggered, T3 and T4 are reverse biased and they turn-off. The figure shows the waveforms of the input supply voltage, the output load voltage, the constant load current with negligible ripple and the input supply current.
88
During the time period [ t ! E to T , the input supply voltage vS and the input supply current iS are both positive and the power flows from the supply to the load. The converter operates in the rectification mode during [ t ! E to T . During the time period [ t ! T to T E , the input supply voltage vS is negative and the input supply current iS is positive and there will be reverse power flow from the load circuit to the input supply. The converter operates in the inversion mode during the time period [ t ! T to T E and the load energy is fed back to the input source. The single phase full converter is extensively used in industrial applications up to about 15kW of output power. Depending on the value of trigger angle E , the average output voltage may be either positive or negative and two quadrant operation is possible. TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE (DC) OUTPUT VOLTAGE The average (dc) output voltage can be determined by using the expression
2T 1 VO dc ! Vdc ! vO .d [ t ; 2T 0
The output voltage waveform consists of two output pulses during the input supply time period between 0 & 2T radians . In the continuous load current operation of a single phase full converter (assuming constant load current) each thyristor conduct for T radians (1800) after it is triggered. When thyristors T1 and T2 are triggered at [ t ! E
T1 and T2 conduct from E to T E and the output voltage follows the input supply
voltage. Therefore output voltage vO ! Vm sin [ t ; for [ t ! E to T E Hence the average or dc output voltage can be calculated as
T E 2 VO dc ! Vdc ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T E T E 1 Vm sin [ t.d [ t T E T E Vm sin [ t.d [ t T E
VO dc ! Vdc !
VO dc ! Vdc !
VO dc ! Vdc ! VO dc ! Vdc ! VO dc ! Vdc !
Vm T E ? cos [ t AE T Vm cos T E cosE T 2Vm cos E T
; cos T E ! cosE
Therefore
89
The dc output voltage Vdc can be varied from a maximum value of minimum value of
2Vm for E ! 0 0 to a T
2Vm for E ! T radians ! 180 0 T The maximum average dc output voltage is calculated for a trigger angle E ! 00 and is obtained as 2V 2V Vdcmax ! Vdm ! m v cos 0 ! m T T
Therefore
Vdcmax ! Vdm !
2Vm T
The normalized average output voltage is given by VO dc Vdc Vdcn ! Vn ! ! Vdcmax Vdm
2Vm cosE ! Vn ! T ! cosE 2Vm T
Vdcn
Therefore Vdcn ! Vn ! cosE ; for a single phase full converter assuming continuous and constant load current operation. CONTROL CHARACTERISTIC OF SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER The dc output control characteristic can be obtained by plotting the average or dc output voltage Vdc versus the trigger angle E For a single phase full converter the average dc output voltage is given by the 2V equation VO dc ! Vdc ! m cos E T Trigger angle E in degrees 0 300 60 0 900 120
0
VO dc 2V Vdm ! m T
Remarks Maximum dc output voltage 2V Vdcmax ! Vdm ! m T
0.866 Vdm 0.5 Vdm 0 Vdm -0.5 Vdm -0.866 Vdm

2V Vdm ! m T
150 0 180 0
90
V O(dc)
Fig.: Control Characteristic We notice from the control characteristic that by varying the trigger angle E we can vary the output dc voltage across the load. Thus it is possible to control the dc output voltage by changing the trigger angle E . For trigger angle E in the range of 0 to 90 degrees i.e., 0 e E e 90 0 , Vdc is positive and the average dc load current I dc is also positive. The average or dc output power Pdc is positive, hence the circuit operates as a controlled rectifier to convert ac supply voltage into dc output power which is fed to the load. For trigger angle E " 90 0 , cos E becomes negative and as a result the average dc output voltage Vdc becomes negative, but the load current flows in the same positive direction i.e., I dc is positive . Hence the output power becomes negative. This means that the power flows from the load circuit to the input ac source. This is referred to as line commutated inverter operation. During the inverter mode operation for E " 900 the load energy can be fed back from the load circuit to the input ac source TWO QUADRANT OPERATION OF A SINGLE PHASE FULL CONVERTER
-Vd
- . Vd
- . Vd
Trigger ngle E in degrees
. Vd
. Vd
Vd
91
The above figure shows the two regions of single phase full converter operation in the Vdc versus I dc plane. In the first quadrant when the trigger angle E is less than 900, Vdc and I dc are both positive and the converter operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the ac input power into dc output power. The power flows from the input source to the load circuit. This is the normal controlled rectifier operation where Pdc is positive. When the trigger angle is increased above 900 , Vdc becomes negative but I dc is positive and the average output power (dc output power) Pdc becomes negative and the power flows from the load circuit to the input source. The operation occurs in the fourth quadrant where Vdc is negative and I dc is positive. The converter operates as a line commutated inverter. TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE The rms value of the output voltage is calculated as VO RMS !
2T 1 2 vO .d [ t 2T 0
The single phase full converter gives two output voltage pulses during the input supply time period and hence the single phase full converter is referred to as a two pulse converter. The rms output voltage can be calculated as
VO RMS !
T E 2 2 vO .d [ t 2T E
VO RMS !
T E 1 2 2 Vm sin [ t.d [ t T E
VO RMS !
2 T E Vm 2 sin [ t.d [ t T E
VO RMS !
2 T E Vm 1 cos 2[ t .d [ t T E 2
VO RMS !
T E 2 T E Vm d [ t cos 2[ t.d [ t 2T E E
VO RMS !
2 Vm [ t 2T
T E
sin 2[ t 2
T E
92
VO RMS !
2 sin 2 T E sin 2E Vm T E E 2T 2
VO RMS !
2 Vm 2T
sin 2T 2E sin 2E T 2
; sin 2T 2E ! sin 2E
VO RMS !
2 Vm sin 2E sin 2E T 2T 2
VO RMS !
Vm2 V2 V T 0 ! m ! m 2T 2 2
Therefore
VO RMS !
Vm ! VS 2
Hence the rms output voltage is same as the rms input supply voltage
The rms thyristor current can be calculated as Each thyristor conducts for T radians or 180 0 in a single phase full converter operating at continuous and constant load current. Therefore rms value of the thyristor current is calculated as
IT RMS ! I O RMS I O RMS 2 T 1 ! I ORMS 2T 2
IT RMS !
The average thyristor current can be calculated as

T IT Avg ! I O dc v 2T IT Avg ! I O dc 2 1 ! I Odc v 2
93
SINGLE PHASE DUAL CONVERTER
94
We have seen in the case of a single phase full converter with inductive loads the converter can operate in two different quadrants in the Vdc versus I dc operating diagram. If two single phase full converters are connected in parallel and in opposite direction (connected in back to back) across a common load four quadrant operation is possible. Such a converter is called as a dual converter which is shown in the figure. The dual converter system will provide four quadrant operation and is normally used in high power industrial variable speed drives. The converter number 1 provides a positive dc output voltage and a positive dc load current, when operated in the rectification mode. The converter number 2 provides a negative dc output voltage and a negative dc load current when operated in the rectification mode. We can thus have bi directional load current and bi-directional dc output voltage. The magnitude of output dc load voltage and the dc load current can be controlled by varying the trigger angles E1 & E 2 of the converters 1 and 2 respectively.
Fig.: Four quadrant operation of a dual converter There are two modes of operations possible for a dual converter system. y Non circulating current mode of operation (circulating current free mode of operation). y Circulating current mode of operation. NON CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION (CIRCULATING CURRENT FREE MODE OF OPERATION) In this mode of operation only one converter is switched on at a time while the second converter is switched off. When the converter 1 is switched on and the gate trigger signals are released to the gates of thyristors in converter 1, we get an average output voltage across the load, which can be varied by adjusting the trigger angle E1 of the converter 1. If E1 is less than 900, the converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the input ac power into dc output power to feed the load. Vdc and I dc are both positive and the operation occurs in the first quadrant. The average output power Pdc ! Vdc v I dc is positive. The power flows from the input ac supply to the load. When E1 is increased above 900 converter 1 operates as a line commutated inverter and Vdc becomes negative while I dc is positive and the output power Pdc becomes negative. The power is fed back from the load circuit to the input ac source through the converter 1. The load current falls to zero when the load energy is utilized completely. The second converter 2 is switched on after a small delay of about 10 to 20 mill seconds to allow all the thyristors of converter 1 to turn off completely. The gate signals
95
are released to the thyristor gates of converter 2 and the trigger angle E 2 is adjusted such that 0 e E 2 e 90 0 so that converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier. The dc output voltage Vdc and I dc are both negative and the load current flows in the reverse direction. The magnitude of Vdc and I dc are controlled by the trigger angle E 2 . The operation occurs in the third quadrant where Vdc and I dc are both negative and output power Pdc is positive and the converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the ac supply power into dc output power which is fed to the load. When we want to reverse the load current flow so that I dc is positive we have to operate converter 2 in the inverter mode by increasing the trigger angle E 2 above 900 . When E 2 is made greater than 900 , the converter 2 operates as a line commutated inverter and the load power (load energy) is fed back to ac mains. The current falls to zero when all the load energy is utilized and the converter 1 can be switched on after a short delay of 10 to 20 milli seconds to ensure that the converter 2 thyristors are completely turned off. The advantage of non circulating current mode of operation is that there is no circulating current flowing between the two converters as only one converter operates and conducts at a time while the other converter is switched off. Hence there is no need of the series current limiting inductors between the outputs of the two converters. The current rating of thyristors is low in this mode. But the disadvantage is that the load current tends to become discontinuous and the transfer characteristic becomes non linear. The control circuit becomes complex and the output response is sluggish as the load current reversal takes some time due to the time delay between the switching off of one converter and the switching on of the other converter. Hence the output dynamic response is poor. Whenever a fast and frequent reversal of the load current is required, the dual converter is operated in the circulating current mode. CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION In this mode of operation both the converters 1 and 2 are switched on and operated simultaneously and both the converters are in a state of conduction. If converter 1 is operated as a controlled rectifier by adjusting the trigger angle E1 between 0 to 900 the second converter 2 is operated as a line commutated inverter by increasing its trigger angle E 2 above 900. The trigger angles E1 and E 2 are adjusted such that they produce the same average dc output voltage across the load terminals. The average dc output voltage of converter 1 is
Vdc1 ! 2Vm cos E1 T
The average dc output voltage of converter 2 is

Vdc 2 ! 2Vm cos E 2 T
96
In the dual converter operation one converter is operated as a controlled rectifier with E1 900 and the second converter is operated as a line commutated inverter in the
d
inversion mode with E 2
900 .
Vdc1 ! Vdc 2 2Vm 2Vm 2V cos E1 ! cos E 2 ! m cos E 2 T T T
Therefore Therefore Which gives
cos E1 ! cosE 2 or cosE 2 ! cosE1 ! cosT E1 E 2 ! T E1 E 2 ! T E1
or
E1 E 2 ! T
radians
180 of the second converter is adjusted such that E 2 ! 0 E1 . Hence for circulating current mode of operation where both converters are conducting at the same time E1 E 2 ! 1800 so that they produce the same dc output voltage across the load. When E1 900 (say E1 ! 300 ) the converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier and converts the ac supply into dc output power and the average load current I dc is positive. At the same time the converter 2 is switched on and operated as a line 180 commutated inverter, by adjusting the trigger angle E 2 such that E 2 ! 0 E1 , which is equal to 1500 , when E1 ! 300 . The converter 2 will operate in the inversion mode and feeds the load energy back to the ac supply. When we want to reverse the load current flow we have to switch the roles of the two converters. When converter 2 is operated as a controlled rectifier by adjusting the trigger angle E 2 such that E 2 90 0 , the first converter1 is operated as a line commutated inverter, by adjusting the trigger angle E1 such that E1 " 900 . The trigger angle E1 is adjusted such that E1 ! 0 E 2 for a set value of E 2 . 180 In the circulating current mode a current builds up between the two converters even when the load current falls to zero. In order to limit the circulating current flowing between the two converters, we have to include current limiting reactors in series between the output terminals of the two converters. The advantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that we can have faster reversal of load current as the two converters are in a state of conduction simultaneously. This greatly improves the dynamic response of the output giving a faster dynamic response. The output voltage and the load current can be linearly varied by adjusting the trigger angles E1 E 2 to obtain a smooth and linear output control. The control circuit becomes relatively simple. The transfer characteristic between the output voltage and the trigger angle is linear and hence the output response is very fast. The load current is free to flow in either direction at any time. The reversal of the load current can be done in a faster and smoother way. 97
When the trigger angle E1 of converter 1 is set to some value the trigger angle E 2
The disadvantage of the circulating current mode of operation is that a current flows continuously in the dual converter circuit even at times when the load current is zero. Hence we should connect current limiting inductors (reactors) in order to limit the peak circulating current within specified value. The circulating current flowing through the series inductors gives rise to increased power losses, due to dc voltage drop across the series inductors which decreases the efficiency. Also the power factor of operation is low. The current limiting series inductors are heavier and bulkier which increases the cost and weight of the dual converter system. The current flowing through the converter thyristors is much greater than the dc load current. Hence the thyristors should be rated for a peak thyristor current of IT max ! I dcmax ir max , where I dcmax is the maximum dc load current and ir max is the maximum value of the circulating current. TO CALCULATE THE CIRCULATING CURRENT
Fig.: Waveforms of dual converter 98
As the instantaneous output voltages of the two converters are out of phase, there will be an instantaneous voltage difference and this will result in circulating current between the two converters. In order to limit the circulating current, current limiting reactors are connected in series between the outputs of the two converters. This circulating current will not flow through the load and is normally limited by the current reactor Lr . If vO1 and vO2 are the instantaneous output voltages of the converters 1 and 2, respectively the circulating current can be determined by integrating the instantaneous voltage difference (which is the voltage drop across the circulating current reactor Lr), starting from [t = (2T - E1). As the two average output voltages during the interval [t = (T+E1) to (2T - E1) are equal and opposite their contribution to the instantaneous circulating current ir is zero.
ir !
[t 1 vr .d [ t ; [ Lr 2T E1
v r ! v O1 v O 2
As the output voltage vO 2 is negative

vr ! vO1 vO 2 1 [ Lr [t vO1 vO 2 .d [ t ; 2T E1
Therefore
ir !
vO1 ! Vm sin [ t for 2T E1 to [ t V ir ! m [ Lr

[t [t sin [ t.d [ t sin [ t.d [ t 2T E1 2T E1
ir !
Vm cos [ t [ Lr
[t
2T E1
cos [ t
2T E1
[t
ir !
Vm cos [ t cos 2T E1 cos [ t cos 2T E1 [ Lr Vm 2 cos [ t 2 cos 2T E1 [ Lr 2Vm cos [ t cosE1 [ Lr
ir !
ir !
The instantaneous value of the circulating current depends on the delay angle.
99
For trigger angle (delay angle) E1 = 0, its magnitude becomes minimum when [ t ! nT , n ! 0, 2, 4,.... and magnitude becomes maximum when [ t ! nT , n ! 1,3,5,.... If the peak load current is I p , one of the converters that controls the power flow may carry a peak current of Ip 4Vm , [ Lr Vm , RL ir max ! 4Vm [ Lr
Where Problems
I p ! I Lmax !
1. What will be the average power in the load for the circuit shown, when E !
T . 4 Assume SCR to be ideal. Supply voltage is 330 sin314t. Also calculate the RMS power and the rectification efficiency.
R
100
The circuit is that of a single phase half wave controlled rectifier with a resistive load
Vdc ! Vm 1 cos E 2T ; E! T radians 4
Vdc !
330 T 1 cos 4 2T
Vdc ! 89.66 Volts Average Power

!
2 Vdc 89.66 2 ! ! 80.38 Watts R 100
I dc !
Vdc 89.66 ! ! 0.8966 R 100
mps
1
VRMS
V 1 sin 2E 2 ! m T E 2 T 2
0 Sin314t
100
VRMS
T sin 2 v 1 330 T 4 ! T 2 T 4 2
VRMS ! 157.32 V
RMS Power (AC power)

!
2 VRMS 157.32 2 ! ! 247.50 Watts R 100
Rectification Efficiency !
Average power RMS power

80.38 ! 0.3248 247.47
2. In the circuit shown find out the average voltage across the load assuming that the conduction drop across the SCR is 1 volt. Take E = 45 0.
VAK
+ in3 4t
ggf h
The wave form of the load voltage is shown below (not to scale).
ad v tage
l
VAK F T T T
m
K
k
It is observed that the SCR turns off when [ t ! F , where F ! T K because the SCR turns-off for anode supply voltage below 1 Volt. VAK ! Vm sin K ! 1 volt (given)
f j gii
V tage acr re i tance
101
V Therefore K ! sin 1 AK Vm
1 1 0 ! sin ! 0.17 0.003 radians 330
F ! 0 K 180 F ! 179.83 0 Vdc ! 1 2T

F
; By symmetry of the curve.
; 3.138 radians.
sin [ t V AK d [ t
F F 1 Vdc ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t VAK d [ t 2T E E
Vdc !
1 2T
Vm cos [ t
VAK [ t
E
F
Vdc ! Vdc !
1 Vm cos E cos F VAK F E 2T 1 330 cos 450 cos179.830 1 3.138 0.003 2T olts
Vdc ! 89.15
Note: F and E values should be in radians 3. In the figure find out the battery charging current when E ! SCR.
R 1 ;
rq op oo o
T . Assume ideal 4
V
Solution It is obvious that the SCR cannot conduct when the instantaneous value of the supply voltage is less than 24 V, the battery voltage. The load voltage waveform is as shown (voltage across ion).
24V (V )
102
oltage across resistance

u
K
t
F T
T
T
VB ! Vm sin K 24 ! 200 2 sin K

24 0 K ! sin 1 ! 4.8675 ! 0.085 radians 200 v 2 F ! T K ! 3.056 radians
Average value of voltage across 10;

!
F 1 Vm sin [ t VB .d [ t 2T E
(The integral gives the shaded area)

3.056 1 ! 200 v 2 sin [ t 24 .d [t 2T T 4
1 2T
T T 200 2 cos 4 cos 3.056 24 3.056 4
! 68 Vots
Therefore charging current

! verage voltage across R R 68 ! 6.8 10 mps
Note: If value of K is more than E , then the SCR will trigger only at [ t ! K , (assuming that the gate signal persists till then), when it becomes forward biased.
103
Therefore
1 Vdc ! 2T
F Vm sin [ t VB .d [ t K
4. In a single phase full wave rectifier supply is 200 V AC. The load resistance is 10; , E ! 600 . Find the average voltage across the load and the power consumed in the load. Solution In a single phase full wave rectifier
Vdc ! Vm 1 cos E T 200 v 2 1 cos 600 T olts
Vdc !
Vdc ! 135
Average Power
!
2 Vdc 1352 ! ! 1.823 kW R 10
5. In the circuit shown find the charging current if the trigger angle E ! 900 .
10
Solution With the usual notation VB ! Vm sin K

10 ! 200 2 sin K
Therefore
10 K ! sin 1 ! 0.035 radians 200 v 2
{~ {
}| {
200 50
10
xw z
104
E ! 900 !
T radians ; F ! T K ! 3.10659 2
Average voltage across 10; !
F 2 Vm sin [ t VB .d [ t 2T E
F 1 Vm cos [ t VB [ t E T
1 Vm cos E cos F VB F E T 1 T T T 200 v 2 cos 2 cos 3.106 10 3.106 2
! 85 V
Note that the values of E Charging current !
F are in radians.
dc voltage across resistance resistance 85 ! 8.5 Amps 10
6. A single phase full wave controlled rectifier is used to supply a resistive load of 10 ; from a 230 V, 50 Hz, supply and firing angle of 90 0. What is its mean load voltage? If a large inductance is added in series with the load resistance, what will be the new output load voltage? Solution For a single phase full wave controlled rectifier with resistive load,
Vdc ! Vm 1 cos E T 230 v 2 T 1 cos T 2 olts
Vdc !
Vdc ! 103.5
When a large inductance is added in series with the load, the output voltage wave form will be as shown below, for trigger angle E ! 900 .
105
T 0 T T [t
E
Vdc ! T 2 2Vm cos E T T cosE ! cos ! 0 2
Since E !
Therefore Vdc ! 0 and this is evident from the waveform also.
7. The figure shows a battery charging circuit using SCRs. The input voltage to the circuit is 230 V RMS. Find the charging current for a firing angle of 450. If any one of the SCR is open circuited, what is the charging current? Solution
10; +
~
100
With the usual notations VS ! Vm sin [ t

VS ! 2 v 230 sin [ t Vm sin K ! VB , the battery voltage 2 v 230 sin K ! 100
106
Therefore
100 K ! sin 1 2 v 230 K ! 17.90 or 0.312 radians F ! T K ! T 0.312 F ! 2.829 radians
Average value of voltage across load resistance

!
F 2 Vm sin [ t VB d [ t 2T E
F 1 Vm cos [ t VB [ t E T
1 Vm cos E cos F VB F E T 1 T T T 230 v 2 cos 4 cos 2.829 100 2.829 4
1 230 v 2 0.707 0.9517 204.36 T
! 106.68 Volts
Charging current !
Voltage across resistance R 106.68 ! 10.668 mps 10
If one of the SCRs is open circuited, the circuit behaves like a half wave rectifier. The average voltage across the resistance and the charging current will be half of that of a full wave rectifier. Therefore Charging Current !
10.668 ! 5.334 2 mps
107
THREE PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

INTRODUCTION TO 3-PHASE CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS Single phase half controlled bridge converters & fully controlled bridge converters are used extensively in industrial applications up to about 15kW of output power. The 2V single phase controlled rectifiers provide a maximum dc output of Vdcmax ! m . T The output ripple frequency is equal to the twice the ac supply frequency. The single phase full wave controlled rectifiers provide two output pulses during every input supply cycle and hence are referred to as two pulse converters. Three phase converters are 3-phase controlled rectifiers which are used to convert ac input power supply into dc output power across the load. Features of 3-phase controlled rectifiers are y Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage. y They provide higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power. y Higher output voltage ripple frequency. y Filtering requirements are simplified for smoothing out load voltage and load current Three phase controlled rectifiers are extensively used in high power variable speed industrial dc drives.
3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER

Three single phase half-wave converters are connected together to form a three phase half-wave converter as shown in the figure.
108
T EE PHASE SUPPL VOLTAGE E UAT ONS We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows vRN ! van ! Vm sin [ t; Vm ! Max. Phase Voltage
YN
bn
vYN ! vbn ! Vm si [ t 1200

!
BN
cn
vBN ! vc ! Vm sin [ t
00
VBN
Vector di ram of 3-phase suppl voltages
vBN ! vcn ! Vm sin t 2400 [
2T ! V si [ t
2T ! V si [ t
VCN
VAN
109
The 3-phase half wave converter combines three single phase half wave controlled rectifiers in one single circuit feeding a common load. The thyristor T1 in series with one of the supply phase windings ' a n ' acts as one half wave controlled rectifier. The second thyristor T2 in series with the supply phase winding ' b n ' acts as the second half wave controlled rectifier. The third thyristor T3 in series with the supply phase winding ' c n ' acts as the third half wave controlled rectifier. The 3-phase input supply is applied through the star connected supply transformer as shown in the figure. The common neutral point of the supply is connected to one end of the load while the other end of the load connected to the common cathode point.
T When the thyristor T1 is triggered at [ t ! E ! 300 E , the phase voltage 6 van appears across the load when T1 conducts. The load current flows through the supply phase winding ' a n ' and through thyristor T1 as long as T1 conducts. 5T When thyristor T2 is triggered at [ t ! E ! 0 E , T1 becomes reverse 150 6 biased and turns-off. The load current flows through the thyristor T2 and through the supply phase winding ' b n ' . When T2 conducts the phase voltage vbn appears across the
load until the thyristor T3 is triggered .

3T E ! 2700 E , T2 is reversed When the thyristor T3 is triggered at [ t ! 2 biased and hence T2 turns-off. The phase voltage vcn appears across the load when T3 conducts.
When T1 is triggered again at the beginning of the next input cycle the thyristor T3 turns off as it is reverse biased naturally as soon as T1 is triggered. The figure shows the 3-phase input supply voltages, the output voltage which appears across the load, and the load current assuming a constant and ripple free load current for a highly inductive load and the current through the thyristor T1 . For a purely resistive load where the load inductance L = 0 and the trigger angle T E " , the load current appears as discontinuous load current and each thyristor is 6 naturally commutated when the polarity of the corresponding phase supply voltage reverses. The frequency of output ripple frequency for a 3-phase half wave converter is 3 f S , where f S is the input supply frequency. The 3-phase half wave converter is not normally used in practical converter systems because of the disadvantage that the supply current waveforms contain dc components (i.e., the supply current waveforms have an average or dc value).
110
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A 3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER FOR CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT The reference phase voltage is v RN ! van ! Vm sin [ t . The trigger angle E is measured from the cross over points of the 3-phase supply voltage waveforms. When the phase supply voltage van begins its positive half cycle at [ t ! 0 , the first cross over point
T appears at [ t ! radians ! 30 0 . 6
The trigger angle E for the thyristor T1 is measured from the cross over point at
[ t ! 30 . The thyristor T1 is forward biased during the period [ t ! 300 to 1500 , when the
0
phase supply voltage van has a higher amplitude than the other phase supply voltages. Hence T1 can be triggered between 300 to 1500 . When the thyristor T1 is triggered at a trigger angle E , the average or dc output voltage for continuous load current is calculated using the equation
5 T E 3 6 Vdc ! vO .d [ t 2T T 6 E
Output voltage
vO ! van ! Vm sin [ t for [ t ! 30 0 E to 0 E 150
5T E 3 6 Vdc ! Vm sin [ t.d [ t 2T T 6 E
As the output load voltage waveform has three output pulses during the input cycle of 2T radians
T 56 E 3Vm Vdc ! sin [ t.d [ t 2T T 6 E
3Vm Vdc ! cos [ t 2T
5T E 6
T E 6
111
Vdc !
3Vm 2T
5T T cos 6 E cos 6 E
Note from the trigonometric relationship

cos A B ! cos A.cos B sin A.sin B
Vdc !
3Vm 2T
5T cos 6
5T cos E sin 6
T T sin E cos .cos E sin sin E 6 6
Vdc !
3Vm cos 0 cos E sin 1500 sin E cos 300 .cosE sin 300 sin E 150 2T
Vdc !
3Vm cos 0 300 cos E sin 1800 300 sin E cos300 .cosE sin 300 sin E 180 2T
Note: cos 1800 300 ! cos 300

sin 0 30 0 ! sin 0 180 30
Therefore
Vdc ! 3Vm cos 300 cos E sin 300 sin E cos 300 .cos E sin 300 sin E 2T
Vdc !
3Vm 2 cos 300 cos E 2T
Vdc !
3Vm 2T
3 cos E 2 v 2
Vdc !
3Vm 3 3Vm 3 cos E ! cos E 2T 2T
112
Vdc !
3VLm cos E 2T
Where
VLm ! 3Vm ! Max. line to line supply voltage for a 3-phase star connected transformer.
The maximum average or dc output voltage is obtained at a delay angle E = 0 and is given by 3 3 Vm Vdcmax ! Vdm ! 2T Where Vm is the peak phase voltage.
And the normalized average output voltage is
Vdcn ! Vn !
Vdc ! cos E Vdm
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE RMS VALUE OF THE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A 3-PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER FOR CONTINUOUS LOAD CURRENT The rms value of output voltage is found by using the equation
3 VO RMS ! 2T
5T E 6 T E 6 1
2 2 Vm sin 2 [ t.d [ t
and we obtain
1
1 2 3 VO RMS ! 3Vm cos 2E 6 8T
113
3 PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS FOR DIFFERENT TRIGGER ANGLES WITH RL LOAD
60
0
Vbn
Vcn
o V0
E 30
0
30
0
90
120
150
180 210 240 270 300 330 360
390
420
Van
Vbn
Vcn
E 60
0
30
60
90
120
150
180 210 240 270 300 330 360
390
420
E Van
Vbn
Vcn
o V0
E 90
0
30
0
60
90
120
150
180 210 240 270 300 330 360
390
420
o V0
[t
[t
[t
114
3 PHASE HALF WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER OUTPUT VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS FOR DIFFERENT TRIGGER ANGLES WITH R LOAD

0 0
Vs
0
30
0
30
60
90
120
150
1 0
210
240
270 300
330
360
390
420
V0
Va
30
60
90
120
150
1 0
210
240
270 300
330
360
390
420
Vb
Vc
E=600
V0
Va
V0
0
30
60
90
120
150
1 0
210
240
270 300
330
360
390
420
Vb
Vc
E=30
Va
60
90
120
150
1 0
210
240
270 300
330
360
390
420
Vb
Vc
E=150
t
Va
Vb
Vc
E=0
115
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OR DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF A 3 PHASE HALF WAVE CONVERTER WITH RESISTIVE LOAD OR RL LOAD WITH FWD. In the case of a three-phase half wave controlled rectifier with resistive load, the thyristor T1 is triggered at [ t ! 30 0 E and T1 conducts up to [ t ! 180 0 ! T radians. When the phase supply voltage van decreases to zero at [ t ! T , the load current falls to
180 zero and the thyristor T1 turns off. Thus T1 conducts from [ t ! 30 0 E to 0 .
Hence the average dc output voltage for a 3-pulse converter (3-phase half wave controlled rectifier) is calculated by using the equation
180 3 Vdc ! vO .d [ t 2T E 300
0
vO ! van ! Vm sin [ t; for [ t ! 300 to 0 E 180 3 Vdc ! 2T 3Vm 2T 180 Vm sin [ t.d [ t E 300
0
Vdc !
180 sin [ t.d [ t E 300

0
3V Vdc ! m cos [ t 2T Vdc !
E 300
1800
3Vm cos1800 cos 300 E 2T
Since We get
cos1800 ! 1, Vdc ! 3Vm 1 cos 300 E 2T
116
THREE PHASE SEMICONVERTERS

3-phase semi-converters are three phase half controlled bridge controlled rectifiers which employ three thyristors and three diodes connected in the form of a bridge configuration. Three thyristors are controlled switches which are turned on at appropriate times by applying appropriate gating signals. The three diodes conduct when they are forward biased by the corresponding phase supply voltages. 3-phase semi-converters are used in industrial power applications up to about 120kW output power level, where single quadrant operation is required. The power factor of 3-phase semi-converter decreases as the trigger angle E increases. The power factor of a 3-phase semi-converter is better than three phase half wave converter. The figure shows a 3-phase semi-converter with a highly inductive load and the load current is assumed to be a constant and continuous load current with negligible ripple.
Thyristor T1 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage van is positive and greater than the other phase voltages vbn and vcn . The diode D1 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage vcn is more negative than the other phase supply voltages. Thyristor T2 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage vbn is positive and greater than the other phase voltages. Diode D2 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage van is more negative than the other phase supply voltages. Thyristor T3 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage vcn is positive and greater than the other phase voltages. Diode D3 is forward biased when the phase supply voltage vbn is more negative than the other phase supply voltages. The figure shows the waveforms for the three phase input supply voltages, the output voltage, the thyristor and diode current waveforms, the current through the free wheeling diode Dm and the supply current ia . The frequency of the output supply waveform is 3 f S , where f S is the input ac supply frequency. The trigger angle E can be varied from 0 0 to 1800 .
T 7T 0 0 During the time period e [ t e i.e., for 30 e [ t e 210 , thyristor T1 is 6 6 T forward biased. If T1 is triggered at [ t ! E , T1 and D1 conduct together and the 6
117
7T line to line supply voltage vac appears across the load. At [ t ! , vac starts to 6 become negative and the free wheeling diode Dm turns on and conducts. The load current continues to flow through the free wheeling diode Dm and thyristor T1 and diode D1 are turned off.
If the free wheeling diode Dm is not connected across the load, then T1 would
5T E and the free continue to conduct until the thyristor T2 is triggered at [ t ! 6 wheeling action is accomplished through T1 and D2 , when D2 turns on as soon as van T 7T becomes more negative at [ t ! . If the trigger angle E e each thyristor 3 6 2T 120 conducts for radians 0 and the free wheeling diode Dm does not conduct. The 3 T waveforms for a 3-phase semi-converter with E e is shown in figure 3
118
119
We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows vRN ! van ! Vm sin [ t; Vm ! Max. Phase Voltage 2T vYN ! vbn ! Vm sin [ t 3 vYN ! vbn ! Vm sin [ t 1200 2T vBN ! vcn ! Vm sin [ t 3 vBN ! vcn ! Vm sin [ t 120 0 vBN ! vcn ! Vm sin [ t 2400 The corresponding line-to-line voltages are
T v RB ! vac ! v an v cn ! 3Vm sin [ t 6 5T vYR ! vba ! vbn v an ! 3Vm sin [ t 6 T v BY ! vcb ! vcn vbn ! 3Vm sin [ t 2 T v RY ! v ab ! v an vbn ! 3Vm sin [ t 6
Where Vm is the peak phase voltage of a star (Y) connected source. TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF T THREE PHASE SEMICONVERTER FOR E " AND DISCONTINUOUS 3 OUTPUT VOLTAGE For E u from
7T
T and discontinuous output voltage: the average output voltage is found 3
3 Vdc ! 2T
vac .d [ t
6 E
120
7T
3 Vdc ! 2T
6 E
T 3 Vm sin [ t d [ t 6
Vdc !
3 3Vm 1 cos E 2T 3VmL 1 cos E 2T
Vdc !
The maximum average output voltage that occurs at a delay angle of E ! 0 is

Vdm ! 3 3Vm T
The normalized average output voltage is

Vn ! Vdc ! 0.5 1 cos E Vdm
The rms output voltage is found from

1
3 VO RMS ! 2T
2 6 T 2 2 3Vm sin [ t 6 d [ t T 6 E
7T 1
3 VO RMS ! 3Vm 4T
1 2 T E sin 2E 2
For E e
T , and continuous output voltage 3
T T T Output voltage vO ! vab ! 3Vm sin [ t ; for [ t ! E to 6 6 2 T T 5T E Output voltage vO ! vac ! 3Vm sin [ t ; for [ t ! to 6 2 6
The average or dc output voltage is calculated by using the equation

5T T 6 E 3 2 Vdc ! vab .d [ t vac .d [ t 2T T T 2 6 E
121
Vdc !
3 3Vm 1 cos E 2T
Vn !
Vdc ! 0.5 1 cos E Vdm
The RMS value of the output voltage is calculated by using the equation
1
3 VO RMS ! 2T
5T 2 vab .d [ t
6 E
6 E
2 2 vac .d [ t
1
3 2T 2 VO RMS ! 3Vm 3 cos 2 E 4T 3
THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER

Three phase full converter is a fully controlled bridge controlled rectifier using six thyristors connected in the form of a full wave bridge configuration. All the six thyristors are controlled switches which are turned on at a appropriate times by applying suitable gate trigger signals. The three phase full converter is extensively used in industrial power applications upto about 120kW output power level, where two quadrant operation is required. The figure shows a three phase full converter with highly inductive load. This circuit is also known as three phase full wave bridge or as a six pulse converter. T The thyristors are triggered at an interval of radians (i.e. at an interval of 3 0 60 ). The frequency of output ripple voltage is 6 f S and the filtering requirement is less than that of three phase semi and half wave converters.
122
T At [ t ! E , thyristor T6 is already conducting when the thyristor T1 is 6 turned on by applying the gating signal to the gate of T1 . During the time period T T [ t ! E to E , thyristors T1 and T6 conduct together and the line to line 6 2 supply voltage vab appears across the load. T At [ t ! E , the thyristor T2 is triggered and T6 is reverse biased 2 immediately and T6 turns off due to natural commutation. During the time period T 5T [ t ! E to E , thyristor T1 and T2 conduct together and the line to line 2 6 supply voltage vac appears across the load. The thyristors are numbered in the circuit diagram corresponding to the order in which they are triggered. The trigger sequence (firing sequence) of the thyristors is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, 61, 12, 23, and so on. The figure shows the waveforms of three phase input supply voltages, output voltage, the thyristor current through T1 and T4 , the supply current through the line a.
We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows vRN ! van ! Vm sin [ t ; Vm ! Max. Phase Voltage
2T 0 vYN ! vbn ! Vm sin [ t ! Vm sin [ t 120 3 2T vBN ! vcn ! Vm sin [ t 3

0 0 [ [ ! Vm sin t 120 !! Vm sin t 240
Where Vm is the peak phase voltage of a star (Y) connected source. The corresponding line-to-line voltages are
T v RY ! v ab ! v an vbn ! 3Vm sin [ t 6 T vYB ! vbc ! vbn vcn ! 3Vm sin [ t 2 T v BR ! vca ! vcn van ! 3Vm sin [ t 2
123
T6 iG1
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T1
T2
t
(360 30 E) 60
0
iG2 iG3 iG4 iG5 iG6
60
60
60
60
Gating (Control) Signals of 3-phase full converter
(30 E )
t t
124
TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR THE AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE OF THREE PHASE FULL CONVERTER WITH HIGHLY INDUCTIVE LOAD ASSUMING CONTINUOUS AND CONSTANT LOAD CURRENT The output load voltage consists of 6 voltage pulses over a period of 2T radians, hence the average output voltage is calculated as
6 VO dc ! Vdc ! 2T
T E 2
T E 6
vO .d [ t
T vO ! vab ! 3Vm sin [ t 6 3 T T

6 T E 2
Vdc !
E
T 3Vm sin [ t .d[ t 6
Vdc !
3 3Vm 3V cos E ! mL cos E T T
Where VmL ! 3Vm ! Max. line-to-line supply voltage The maximum average dc output voltage is obtained for a delay angle E = 0, Vdcmax ! Vdm ! 3 3Vm 3VmL ! T T
The normalized average dc output voltage is Vdcn ! Vn ! Vdc ! cos E Vdm
The rms value of the output voltage is found from

1
6 VO rms ! 2T
2 2 vO .d [ t T E 6
T E 2
125
6 VO rms ! 2T 3 VO rms ! 2T
2 2 vab .d [ t T E 6
T E 2 T E 2 1
2 T 2 2 3Vm sin [ t 6 .d [ t T E 6
1
1 3 3 2 VO rms ! 3Vm cos 2E 2 4T
126
THREE PHASE DUAL CONVERTERS

In many variable speed drives, the four quadrant operation is generally required and three phase dual converters are extensively used in applications up to the 2000 kW level. Figure shows three phase dual converters where two three phase full converters are connected back to back across a common load. We have seen that due to the instantaneous voltage differences between the output voltages of converters, a circulating current flows through the converters. The circulating current is normally limited by circulating reactor, Lr . The two converters are controlled in such a way that if E1 is the delay angle of converter 1, the delay angle of converter 2 is E 2 ! T E1 . The operation of a three phase dual converter is similar that of a single phase dual converter system. The main difference being that a three phase dual converter gives much higher dc output voltage and higher dc output power than a single phase dual converter system. But the drawback is that the three phase dual converter is more expensive and the design of control circuit is more complex.
The figure below shows the waveforms for the input supply voltages, output voltages of converter1 and conveter2 , and the voltage across current limiting reactor (inductor) Lr . The operation of each converter is identical to that of a three phase full converter. T T During the interval E1 to E1 , the line to line voltage vab appears 6 2 across the output of converter 1 and vbc appears across the output of converter 2 We define three line neutral voltages (3 phase voltages) as follows
v RN ! van ! Vm sin [ t ; Vm ! Max. Phase Voltage 0 ! Vm sin [ t 120
2T vYN ! vbn ! Vm sin [ t 3
127
2T v BN ! vcn ! Vm sin [ t 3
0 0 [ ! Vm sin [ t 120 ! Vm sin t 240
128
The corresponding line-to-line supply voltages are

T vRY ! vab ! van vbn ! 3Vm sin [ t 6 T vYB ! vbc ! vbn vcn ! 3Vm sin [ t 2 T vBR ! vca ! vcn van ! 3Vm sin [ t 2
129
TO OBTAIN AN EXPRESSION FOR THE CIRCULATING CURRENT If vO1 and vO 2 are the output voltages of converters 1 and 2 respectively, the instantaneous voltage across the current limiting inductor during the interval T T E1 e [ t e E1 is 6 2
vr ! vO1 vO 2 ! vab vbc T T vr ! 3Vm sin [ t sin [ t 6 2 T vr ! 3Vm cos [ t 6
The circulating current can be calculated by using the equation ir t ! 1 [ Lr

1 [ Lr 3Vm [ Lr
[t
T E1 6 [t
vr .d [ t
ir t !
T E1 6
T 3Vm cos [ t .d [ t 6
ir t !
T sin [ t 6 sin E1
ir max !
3Vm [ Lr
= maximum value of the circulating current.
There are two different modes of operation of a three phase dual converter system. y Circulating current free (non circulating) mode of operation y Circulating current mode of operation CIRCULATING CURRENT FREE (NON-CIRCULATING) MODE OF OPERATION In this mode of operation only one converter is switched on at a time when the converter number 1 is switched on and the gate signals are applied to the thyristors the average output voltage and the average load current are controlled by adjusting the trigger angle E1 and the gating signals of converter 1 thyristors. The load current flows in the downward direction giving a positive average load current when the converter 1 is switched on. For E1 900 the converter 1 operates in the rectification mode Vdc is positive, I dc is positive and hence the average load power Pdc is positive.
130
The converter 1 converts the input ac supply and feeds a dc power to the load. Power flows from the ac supply to the load during the rectification mode. When the trigger angle E1 is increased above 900 , Vdc becomes negative where as I dc is positive because the thyristors of converter 1 conduct in only one direction and reversal of load current through thyristors of converter 1 is not possible. For E1 " 900 converter 1 operates in the inversion mode & the load energy is supplied back to the ac supply. The thyristors are switched-off when the load current decreases to zero & after a short delay time of about 10 to 20 milliseconds, the converter 2 can be switched on by releasing the gate control signals to the thyristors of converter 2. We obtain a reverse or negative load current when the converter 2 is switched ON. The average or dc output voltage and the average load current are controlled by adjusting the trigger angle E 2 of the gate trigger pulses supplied to the thyristors of converter 2. When E 2 is less than 900 , converter 2 operates in the rectification mode and converts the input ac supply in to dc output power which is fed to the load. When E 2 is less than 900 for converter 2, Vdc is negative & I dc is negative, converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier & power flows from the ac source to the load circuit. When E 2 is increased above 900, the converter 2 operates in the inversion mode with Vdc positive and I dc negative and hence Pdc is negative, which means that power flows from the load circuit to the input ac supply. The power flow from the load circuit to the input ac source is possible if the load circuit has a dc source of appropriate polarity. When the load current falls to zero the thyristors of converter 2 turn-off and the converter 2 can be turned off. CIRCULATING CURRENT MODE OF OPERATION Both the converters are switched on at the same time in the mode of operation. One converter operates in the rectification mode while the other operates in the inversion mode. Trigger angles E1 & E 2 are adjusted such that E1 E 2 ! 180 0 When E1 When E 2
900 , converter 1 operates as a controlled rectifier. When E 2 is made
greater than 900 , converter 2 operates in the inversion mode. Vdc , I dc , Pdc are positive. 90 0 , converter 2 operates as a controlled rectifier. When E1 is made greater than 900 , converter 1 operates as an Inverter. Vdc and I dc are negative while Pdc is positive.
131
Problems 1. A 3 phase fully controlled bridge rectifier is operating from a 400 V, 50 Hz T supply. The thyristors are fired at E ! . There is a FWD across the load. Find 4 0 the average output voltage for E ! 45 and E ! 750 . Solution For E ! 450 , Vdc ! 3Vm cos E T 3 v 2 v 400 cos 450 ! 382 Volts T 6Vm 1 cos 600 E 2T 6 v 2 v 400 1 cos 600 750 2T
Vdc ! For E ! 750 , Vdc !
Vdc !
Vdc ! 158.4 Volts 2. A 6 pulse converter connected to 415 V ac supply is controlling a 440 V dc motor. Find the angle at which the converter must be triggered so that the voltage drop in the circuit is 10% of the motor rated voltage. Solution
Ra - Armature resistance of motor. La - Armature Inductance.
If the voltage across the armature has to be the rated voltage i.e., 440 V, then the output voltage of the rectifier should be 440 drop in the motor That is 440 01v 440 ! 484 Volts .
132
Therefore
VO !
3Vm cos E ! 484 T
That is Therefore
3 v 2 v 415 v cosE ! 484 T E ! 30.270
3. A 3 phase half controlled bridge rectifier is feeding a RL load. If input voltage is T 400 sin314t and SCR is fired at E ! . Find average load voltage. If any one 4 supply line is disconnected what is the average load voltage. Solution
E! T T radians which is less than 4 3 Vdc ! 3Vm ?1 cos E A 2T 3 v 400 1 cos 450 2T
Therefore
Vdc !
Vdc ! 326.18 Volts
If any one supply line is disconnected, the circuit behaves like a single phase half controlled rectifies with RL load. Vdc !
Vdc !
Vm ?1 cosE A T
400 1 cos 450 T
Vdc ! 217.45 Volts
133
EDUSAT PROGRAMME LECTURE NOTES ON POWER ELECTRONICS BY PROF. T.K. ANANTHA KUMAR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGG.
M.S. RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BANGALORE 560 054
134
THYRISTOR COMMUTATION TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION In practice it becomes necessary to turn off a conducting thyristor. (Often thyristors are used as switches to turn on and off power to the load). The process of turning off a conducting thyristor is called commutation. The principle involved is that either the anode should be made negative with respect to cathode (voltage commutation) or the anode current should be reduced below the holding current value (current commutation). The reverse voltage must be maintained for a time at least equal to the turn-off time of SCR otherwise a reapplication of a positive voltage will cause the thyristor to conduct even without a gate signal. On similar lines the anode current should be held at a value less than the holding current at least for a time equal to turn-off time otherwise the SCR will start conducting if the current in the circuit increases beyond the holding current level even without a gate signal. Commutation circuits have been developed to hasten the turn-off process of Thyristors. The study of commutation techniques helps in understanding the transient phenomena under switching conditions. The reverse voltage or the small anode current condition must be maintained for a time at least equal to the TURN OFF time of SCR; Otherwise the SCR may again start conducting. The techniques to turn off a SCR can be broadly classified as y Natural Commutation y Forced Commutation. NATURAL COMMUTATION (CLASS F) This type of commutation takes place when supply voltage is AC, because a negative voltage will appear across the SCR in the negative half cycle of the supply voltage and the SCR turns off by itself. Hence no special circuits are required to turn off the SCR. That is the reason that this type of commutation is called Natural or Line Commutation. Figure 1.1 shows the circuit where natural commutation takes place and figure 1.2 shows the related waveforms. tc is the time offered by the circuit within which the SCR should turn off completely. Thus tc should be greater than tq , the turn off time of the SCR. Otherwise, the SCR will become forward biased before it has turned off completely and will start conducting even without a gate signal.
T +

Fig. 1.1: Circuit for Natural Commutation
vs
vo
135
ly olta e
Si soi al
T 0 2T
3T
[t
E oa olta e
o
[t
T r off occ rs here [t
T 0 2T
3T
[t
Volta e across SCR tc Fig. 1.2: Natural Commutation Waveforms of Supply and Load Voltages (Resistive Load) This type of commutation is applied in ac voltage controllers, phase controlled rectifiers and cyclo converters. FORCED COMMUTATION When supply is DC, natural commutation is not possible because the polarity of the supply remains unchanged. Hence special methods must be used to reduce the SCR current below the holding value or to apply a negative voltage across the SCR for a time interval greater than the turn off time of the SCR. This technique is called FORCED COMMUTATION and is applied in all circuits where the supply voltage is DC - namely, Choppers (fixed DC to variable DC), inverters (DC to AC). Forced commutation techniques are as follows: y Self Commutation y Resonant Pulse Commutation y Complementary Commutation y Impulse Commutation y External Pulse Commutation. y Load Side Commutation.
136
y Line Side Commutation. SELF COMMUTATION OR LOAD COMMUTATION OR CLASS A COMMUTATION: (COMMUTATION BY RESONATING THE LOAD) In this type of commutation the current through the SCR is reduced below the holding current value by resonating the load. i.e., the load circuit is so designed that even though the supply voltage is positive, an oscillating current tends to flow and when the current through the SCR reaches zero, the device turns off. This is done by including an inductance and a capacitor in series with the load and keeping the circuit under-damped. Figure 1.3 shows the circuit. This type of commutation is used in Series Inverter Circuit.
Fig. 1.3: Circuit for Self Commutation
EXPRESSION FOR CURRENT At t ! 0 , when the SCR turns ON on the application of gate pulse assume the current in the circuit is zero and the capacitor voltage is VC 0 . Writing the Laplace Transformation circuit of figure 1.3 the following circuit is obtained when the SCR is conducting.
R I(S)
sL
1 VC(0) S CS + - + C
V S
Fig.: 1.4.
137
I S
V VC 0 S ! 1 R sL CS CS V VC 0 S ! RCs s 2 LC 1 !
C V VC 0 R 1 LC s 2 s L LC
V VC 0 L ! R 1 s2 s L LC
V V 0
C
L ! 2 2 1 R R R 2 s s L LC 2 L 2 L
V V 0
C
L 2 2 1 R R s 2 L LC 2 L
2
s H
[ 2
Where A!
V V 0 ,
C
H !
R , 2L
[!
1 LC
R 2L
[ is called the natural frequency I S ! [ A [ s H 2 [ 2
138
Taking inverse Laplace transforms

i t ! A H t e sin [ t [
Therefore expression for current i t ! V VC 0

[L
C R
e 2 L sin [ t
Peak value of current !
V V 0
[L
Expression for voltage across capacitor at the time of turn off Applying KVL to figure 1.3 vc ! V vR VL vc ! V iR L Substituting for i,
vc ! V R A H t d A e sin [ t L e H t sin [ t dt [ [ A H t A e sin [ t L eH t [ cos [ t H eH t sin [ t [ [
di dt
vc ! V R
vc ! V
A H t e ?R sin [ t [ L cos [ t LH sin [ t A [ A H t R e R sin [ t [ L cos [ t L sin [ t 2L [ A H t R e sin [ t [ L cos [ t [ 2
vc ! V
vc ! V Substituting for A,
vc t ! V
V V 0 e
C
H t
[L
C
R 2 sin [ t [ L cos [ t R 2 L sin [ t [ cos [ t
vc t ! V
V V 0 e
[
H t
139
SCR turns off when current goes to zero. i.e., at [ t ! T . Therefore at turn off
vc ! V
V V 0 e
C
HT [
0 [ cos T
vc ! V V VC 0 e Therefore
HT [
vc ! V V VC 0 e 2 L[
RT
Note: For effective commutation the circuit should be under damped. That is
y R 2L
2
1 LC
With R = 0, and the capacitor initially uncharged that is VC 0 ! 0 i!

1 LC i! V L LC sin t LC !V C t sin L LC
V t sin [L LC
But
[!
Therefore
and capacitor voltage at turn off is equal to 2V.

y y
Figure 1.5 shows the waveforms for the above conditions. Once the SCR turns off voltage across it is negative voltage. T Conduction time of SCR ! . [
140
C L
Current i [t
T/2
2V V Capacitor voltage [t
Gate pulse [t
[t V Voltage across SCR

Fig. 1.5: Self Commutation Wave forms of Current and Capacitors Voltage Problem 1.1 : Calculate the conduction time of SCR and the peak SCR current that flows in the circuit employing series resonant commutation (self commutation or class A commutation), if the supply voltage is 300 V, C = 1Q F, L = 5 mH and RL = 100 ;. Assume that the circuit is initially relaxed.
RL 100 ;
L 5 mH
+ 1 QF
V =300V
Fig. 1.6.
141
Solution:
[!
1 RL LC 2 L
1 100 [! 3 6 3 5 v10 v1 v10 2 v 5 v10

[ ! 10, 000 rad/sec
Since the circuit is initially relaxed, initial voltage across capacitor is zero as also the initial current through L and the expression for current i is i! R V H t , e sin [ t , where H ! 2L [L
Therefore peak value of
i!
V [L 300 ! 6A 10000 v 5 v 103
i!
Conducting time of SCR
T T ! ! 0.314msec [ 10000
Problem 1.2 : Figure 1.7 shows a self commutating circuit. The inductance carries an initial current of 200 A and the initial voltage across the capacitor is V, the supply voltage. Determine the conduction time of the SCR and the capacitor voltage at turn off.
L p IO 10 QH V =100V
i(t)
C 50 QF
+ VC(0)=V
Fig. 1.7.
142
Solution : The transformed circuit of figure 1.7 is shown in figure 1.8.
sL I(S) + S
IOL + + (0) = S
1 S
Fig.1.8: Transformed Circuit of Fig. 1.7
The governing equation is V 0 1 V ! I S sL IO L C I S s s Cs V VC 0 IO L s I S ! s 1 sL Cs

V VC 0 Cs s I LCs s I S ! 2O 2 s LC 1 s LC 1 V VC 0 C IO LCs I S ! 1 1 2 LC s 2 LC s LC LC
Therefore
I S !
V VC 0 L s [
2 2
sIO s [2
2
V VC 0 [ sI O where [ ! I S ! 2 2 2 [ L s [ 2 s [
1 LC
Taking inverse LT
i t ! V VC 0 C sin [ t I O cos [ t L
143
The capacitor voltage is given by vc t ! 1 i t dt VC 0 C 0

t C 1 V VC 0 L sin [ t IO cos [ t dt VC 0 C 0 t
vc t !
vc t !
1 C
V VC 0 C t I t cos [ t O sin [ t VC 0 [ L o [ o V VC 0 C I 1 cos [ t O sin [ t VC 0 [ L [
vc t !
1 C
vc t !
IO C 1 v LC sin [ t V VC 0 LC 1 cos [ t VC 0 C C L L sin [ t V V cos [ t VC 0 VC 0 cos[ t VC 0 C L sin [ t V VC 0 cos [ t V C
vc t ! I O
vc t ! I O
In this problem VC 0 ! V Therefore we get,

i t ! I O cos [ t and
vc t ! IO
L sin [ t V C
144
The waveforms are as shown in figure 1.9
V [t T/2
Fig.: 1.9 Turn off occurs at a time to so that [ tO ! tO ! 0.5T ! 0.5T LC [
T 2
Therefore
tO ! 0.5 v T 10 v 10 6 v 50 v 10 6
tO ! 0.5 v T v 106 500 ! 35.1Q seconds
and the capacitor voltage at turn off is given by

vc tO ! I O L sin [ tO V C 10 v 10 6 sin 90 0 100 50 v 10 6
vc tO ! 200
35.12 vc tO ! 200 v 0.447 v sin 100 22.36 vc tO ! 89.4 100 ! 189.4 V
T/2 vc(t)
[t
145
Problem 1.3: In the circuit shown in figure 1.10. V = 600 volts, initial capacitor voltage is zero, L = 20 Q H, C = 50Q F and the current through the inductance at the time of SCR triggering is Io = 350 A. Determine (a) the peak values of capacitor voltage and current (b) the conduction time of T 1.
Solution: (Refer to problem 1.2). The expression for i t is given by i t ! V VC 0 C sin [ t IO cos [ t L
It is given that the initial voltage across the capacitor, VC O is zero. Therefore
i t ! V C sin [ t I O cos [ t L
i t can be written as
2 i t ! I O V 2
C sin [ t E L
where
E ! tan 1
IO V
L C
and
[!
1 LC
The peak capacitor current is

2 IO V 2
C L
Substituting the values, the peak capacitor current

! 3502 6002 v 50 v 106 ! 1011.19 A 20 v 106
Fig. 1.10
146
The expression for capacitor voltage is

vc t ! I O L sin [ t V VC 0 cos [ t V C L sin [ t V cos [ t V C
with
VC 0 ! 0, vc t ! I O
This can be rewritten as

2 vc t ! V 2 I O
L sin [ t F V C
V Where
F ! tan 1
C L IO
The peak value of capacitor voltage is

2 ! V 2 IO
L V C
Substituting the values, the peak value of capacitor voltage

! 6002 3502 v 20 v 106 600 50 v 106
! 639.5 600 ! 1239.5V
To calculate conduction time of T1 The waveform of capacitor current is shown in figure 1.11. When the capacitor current becomes zero the SCR turns off. Capacitor current
[t E 0
E Fig. 1.11.
147
Therefore conduction time of SCR !
T E [
L IO C T tan 1 V ! 1
LC Substituting the values

L IO C E ! tan 1 V E ! tan 1
350 20 v 106 600 50 v 106
E ! 20.250 i.e., 0.3534 radians [!
1 LC
1 20 v 10 v 50 v 106
6
! 31622.8 rad/sec
Therefore conduction time of SCR

T 0.3534 ! 88.17Q sec 31622.8
RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION (CLASS B COMMUTATION) The circuit for resonant pulse commutation is shown in figure 1.12.
L T
a b
V FW
IL Load
Fig. 1.12: Circuit for Resonant Pulse Commutation
148
This is a type of commutation in which a LC series circuit is connected across the SCR. Since the commutation circuit has negligible resistance it is always under-damped i.e., the current in LC circuit tends to oscillate whenever the SCR is on. Initially the SCR is off and the capacitor is charged to V volts with plate a being positive. Referring to figure 1.13 at t ! t1 the SCR is turned ON by giving a gate pulse. A current I L flows through the load and this is assumed to be constant. At the same time SCR short circuits the LC combination which starts oscillating. A current i starts flowing in the direction shown in figure. As i reaches its maximum value, the capacitor voltage reduces to zero and then the polarity of the capacitor voltage reverses b becomes positive). When i falls to zero this reverse voltage becomes maximum, and then direction of i reverses i.e., through SCR the load current I L and i flow in opposite direction. When the instantaneous value of i becomes equal to I L , the SCR current becomes zero and the SCR turns off. Now the capacitor starts charging and its voltage reaches the supply voltage with plate a being positive. The related waveforms are shown in figure 1.13. Gate lse of S R t t1 T
Ca acito
ab
olta e t
Ip
t i
IL
T [ (t
IS
t Volta e ac oss S R t
Fig. 1.13: Resonant Pulse Commutation Various Waveforms
149
EXPRESSION FOR tc , THE CIRCUIT TURN OFF TIME Assume that at the time of turn off of the SCR the capacitor voltage vab } V and load current I L is constant. tc is the time taken for the capacitor voltage to reach 0 volts from V volts and is derived as follows.
V! 1 c I L dt C 0 I L tc C
t
V!
tc !
VC seconds IL
For proper commutation tc should be greater than tq , the turn off time of T. Also, the magnitude of I p , the peak value of i should be greater than the load current I L and the expression for i is derived as follows The LC circuit during the commutation period is shown in figure 1.14.
i VC(0) =V
Fig. 1.14.
The transformed circuit is shown in figure 1.15.
I(S) sL T + V s
Fig. 1.15.
1 Cs
150
I S !
V s sL 1 Cs
V Cs s I S ! 2 s LC 1
I S !
VC 1 LC s 2 LC V 1 v L s2 1 LC
I S !
1 1 V LC v I S ! v L s2 1 1 LC LC 1 C LC I S ! V v 1 L s2 LC Taking inverse LT i t ! V 1 LC V sin [ t ! I p sin [ t [L C amps . L C sin [ t L
Where
[!
Or
i t !
Therefore
Ip ! V
151
EXPRESSION FOR CONDUCTION TIME OF SCR For figure 1.13 (waveform of i), the conduction time of SCR
! T (t [
I sin 1 L I T p ! [ [
ALTERNATE CIRCUIT FOR RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION The working of the circuit can be explained as follows. The capacitor C is assumed to be charged to VC 0 with polarity as shown, T1 is conducting and the load current I L is a constant. To turn off T1 , T2 is triggered. L, C, T1 and T2 forms a resonant circuit. A resonant current ic t flows in the direction shown, i.e., in a direction opposite to that of load current I L .
ic t = I p sin [ t (refer to the previous circuit description). Where I p ! VC 0 C L
& and the capacitor voltage is given by vc t ! 1 iC t .dt C C 1 VC 0 L sin [ t.dt . C
vc t !
vc t ! VC 0 cos [ t
T1 C
iC(t) T2
ab
iC(t)

C
(0) T3 FWD
L O D
Fig. 1.16: Resonant Pulse Commutation An Alternate Circuit
152
When ic t becomes equal to I L (the load current), the current through T1 becomes zero and T1 turns off. This happens at time t1 such that I L ! I p sin t1 LC C L
I p ! VC 0
I L t1 ! LC sin 1 L V 0 C C
and the corresponding capacitor voltage is

vc t1 ! V1 ! VC 0 cos [ t1
Once the thyristor T1 turns off, the capacitor starts charging towards the supply voltage through T2 and load. As the capacitor charges through the load capacitor current is same as load current I L , which is constant. When the capacitor voltage reaches V, the supply voltage, the FWD starts conducting and the energy stored in L charges C to a still higher voltage. The triggering of T3 reverses the polarity of the capacitor voltage and the circuit is ready for another triggering of T1 . The waveforms are shown in figure 1.17. EXPRESSION FOR tc Assuming a constant load current I L which charges the capacitor tc ! CV1 seconds IL
Normally V1 } VC 0 For reliable commutation tc should be greater than tq , the turn off time of SCR T1 . It is to be noted that tc depends upon I L and becomes smaller for higher values of load current.
153
Fig. 1.17: Resonant Pulse Commutation Alternate Circuit Various Waveforms RESONANT PULSE COMMUTATION WITH ACCELERATING DIODE
D2
iC(t)
Fig. 1.17(a)
154
iC IL 0 VC 0 V1 VC(O) t t
t1 tC
Fig. 1.17(b)
t2
A diode D2 is connected as shown in the figure 1.17(a) to accelerate the discharging of the capacitor C. When thyristor T2 is fired a resonant current iC t flows through the capacitor and thyristor T1 . At time t ! t1 , the capacitor current iC t equals the load current I L and hence current through T1 is reduced to zero resulting in turning off of T1 . Now the capacitor current iC t continues to flow through the diode D2 until it reduces to load current level I L at time t2 . Thus the presence of D2 has accelerated the discharge of capacitor C. Now the capacitor gets charged through the load and the charging current is constant. Once capacitor is fully charged T2 turns off by itself. But once current of thyristor T1 reduces to zero the reverse voltage appearing across T1 is the forward voltage drop of D2 which is very small. This makes the thyristor recovery process very slow and it becomes necessary to provide longer reverse bias time. From figure 1.17(b)
t2 ! T LC t1 VC t2 ! VC O cos [ t2
Circuit turn-off time tC ! t2 t1 Problem 1.4 : The circuit in figure 1.18 shows a resonant pulse commutation circuit. The initial capacitor voltage VC O ! 200V , C = 30Q F and L = 3QH. Determine the circuit turn off time tc , if the load current I L is (a) 200 A and (b) 50 A.
155
T1 C + VC 0 T3 iC t T2
IL
Fig. 1.18. Solution (a) When I L ! 200 A Let T2 be triggered at t ! 0 . The capacitor current ic t reaches a value I L at t ! t1 , when T1 turns off
I L t1 ! LC sin 1 L V 0 C C 200 3 v 106 t1 ! 3 v 106 v 30 v 106 sin 1 200 30 v 106
t1 ! 3.05 Q sec .
[!
1 LC
1 3 v 10 v 30 v 106
6
[ ! 0.105 v10 6 rad / sec .
At t ! t1 , the magnitude of capacitor voltage is V1 ! VC 0 cos [ t1 That is

V1 ! 200 cos 0.105v 106 v 3.05v 106 V1 ! 200 v 0.9487 V1 ! 189.75 Volts
and
tc !
CV1 IL
156
tc ! (b)
30 v 106 v 189.75 ! 28.46Q sec . 200
When I L ! 50 A
50 3 v 106 t1 ! 3 v 106 v 30 v 106 sin 1 200 30 v 106 t1 ! 0.749Q sec .
V1 ! 200 cos 0.105v 106 v 0.749v 106 V1 ! 200 v1 ! 200 Volts . tc ! CV1 IL 30 v 106 v 200 ! 120Q sec . 50
tc !
It is observed that as load current increases the value of tc reduces. Problem 1.4a : Repeat the above problem for I L ! 200 A , if an antiparallel diode D2 is connected across thyristor T1 as shown in figure 1.18a.
D2
iC(t
IL i t
L VC(0 V
3
FWD
L O A D
Fig. 1.18(a)
157
Solution I L ! 200 A Let T2 be triggered at t ! 0 . Capacitor current iC t reaches the value I L at t ! t1 ,

I L t1 ! LC sin 1 L VC O C 200 3 v 106 t1 ! 3 v 106 v 30 v 106 sin 1 200 30 v 106
hen T1 turns off
Therefore
t1 ! 3.05 Q sec . [! 1 LC ! 1 3 v 10 v 30 v 106

6
[ ! 0.105 v10 6 radians/sec
At t ! t1
VC t1 ! V1 ! VC O cos [ t1
VC t1 ! 200 cos 0.105v 106 v 3.05v 106

VC t1 ! 189.75V iC t flows through diode D2 after T1 turns off. iC t current falls back to I L at t2 t2 ! T LC t1
t2 ! T 3 v 106 v 30 v 106 3.05v 106 t2 ! 26.75Q sec .

[!
1 LC
1 3 v 10 v 30 v 106
6
[ ! 0.105 v 106 rad/sec.
158
At t ! t2 VC t2 ! V2 ! 200 cos 0.105v 106 v 26.75v 106 VC t2 ! V2 ! 189.02 V
Therefore
tC ! t2 t1 ! 26.75v 106 3.05v 106
tC ! 23.7Q secs Problem 1.5: For the circuit shown in figure 1.19 calculate the value of L for proper commutation of SCR. Also find the conduction time of SCR.
4Q
;
Solution: The load current I L !
Fig. 1.19. V 30 ! ! 1 mp RL 30 For proper SCR commutation I p , the peak value of resonant current i, should be Let Also I p ! 2I L , Ip ! V ! [L Therefore V C !V 1 L vL LC I p ! 2 Amps .
greater than I L ,
Therefore Therefore
2 ! 30 v
4 v 106 L
L ! 0.9mH . [! 1 LC ! 1 0.9 v 10 3 v 4 v 10 6 ! 16666 rad/sec
159
I sin 1 L I T p Conduction time of SCR = [ [
1 sin 1 T 2 ! 16666 16666 ! T 0.523 radians 16666
! 0.00022 seconds ! 0.22 msec
Problem 1.6: For the circuit shown in figure 1.20 given that the load current to be commutated is 10 A, turn off time required is 40Qsec and the supply voltage is 100 V. Obtain the proper values of commutating elements.
100
IL IL
Fig. 1.20. Solution

I p peak value of i ! V C and this should be greater than I L . Let I p ! 1.5 I L . L C L ...a
Therefore 1.5 v 10 ! 100
Also, assuming that at the time of turn off the capacitor voltage is approximately equal to V, (and referring to waveform of capacitor voltage in figure 1.13) and the load current linearly charges the capacitor
tc ! CV seconds IL
and this tc is given to be 40 Qsec. Therefore

40 v 106 ! C v 100 10
160
Therefore
C ! 4Q F
Substituting this in equation (a)

1.5 v 10 ! 100 4 v 10 6 L
1.52 v 102 ! Therefore
104 v 4 v 106 L
L ! 1.777 v 104 H
L ! 0.177mH .
Problem 1.7 : In a resonant commutation circuit supply voltage is 200 V. Load current is 10 A and the device turn off time is 20Q s. The ratio of peak resonant current to load current is 1.5. Determine the value of L and C of the commutation circuit. Solution Given Therefore
Ip IL ! 1.5
I p ! 1.5 I L ! 1.5 v 10 ! 15 A . Ip ! V C ! 15 A L ... a
That is
It is given that the device turn off time is 20 Qsec. Therefore tc , the circuit turn off time should be greater than this, Let And Therefore Therefore tc ! 30 Q sec . tc ! CV IL
200 v C 10
30 v 106 !
C ! 1.5Q F .
Substituting in (a)
15 ! 200 1.5 v 106 L
161
152 ! 200 2 v Therefore
1.5 v 10 6 L
L ! 0.2666 mH
COMPLEMENTARY COMMUTATION (CLASS PARALLEL CAPACITOR COMMUTATION)
COMMUTATION,
In complementary commutation the current can be transferred between two loads. Two SCRs are used and firing of one SCR turns off the other. The circuit is shown in figure 1.21.
IL
1 2
ab
Fig. 1.21: Complementary Commutation The working of the circuit can be explained as follows. Initially both T1 and T2 are off; Now, T1 is fired. Load current I L flows through R1 . At the same time, the capacitor C gets charged to V volts through R2 and T1 (b becomes positive with respect to a). When the capacitor gets fully charged, the capacitor current ic becomes zero. To turn off T1 , T2 is fired; the voltage across C comes across T1 and reverse biases it, hence T1 turns off. At the same time, the load current flows through R2 and T2 . The capacitor C charges towards V through R1 and T2 and is finally charged to V volts with a plate positive. When the capacitor is fully charged, the capacitor current becomes zero. To turn off T2 , T1 is triggered, the capacitor voltage (with a positive) comes across T2 and T2 turns off. The related waveforms are shown in figure 1.22. EXPRESSION FOR CIRCUIT TURN OFF TIME tc From the waveforms of the voltages across T1 and capacitor, it is obvious that tc is the time taken by the capacitor voltage to reach 0 volts from V volts, the time constant being RC and the final voltage reached by the capacitor being V volts. The equation for capacitor voltage vc t can be written as
162
vc t ! V f i V f e t X V
Where V f is the final voltage, Vi is the initial voltage and X is the time constant. At
t ! tc , vc t ! 0 , X ! R1C , V f ! V , Vi ! V ,
Therefore 0 ! V V V e
tc
tc R1C
0 ! V 2Ve R1C Therefore V ! 2Ve 0.5 ! e

tc R1C
tc R1C
Taking natural logarithms on both sides t ln 0.5 ! c R1C

tc ! 0.693R1C
This time should be greater than the turn off time tq of T1 . Similarly when T2 is commutated
tc ! 0.693R2 C
And this time should be greater than tq of T2 . Usually

R1 ! R2 ! R
163
Gate pulse of 1 p IL urrent through R 1 urrent through

V R1
2V R1
Gate pulse of 2
t
2V R2
V R1
t urrent through
2
2V R1
V R2
oltage across apacitor v ab
Fig. 1.22
oltage across
164
Problem 1.8 : In the circuit shown in figure 1.23 the load resistances R1 ! R2 ! R ! 5; and the capacitance C = 7.5 QF, V = 100 volts. Determine the circuit turn off time tc .
R1 V C T1
R2
T2
Fig. 1.23. Solution The circuit turn-off time

tc ! 0.693 RC seconds tc ! 0.693 v 5 v 7.5 v10 6
tc ! 26 Q sec . Problem 1.9: Calculate the values of RL and C to be used for commutating the main SCR in the circuit shown in figure 1.24. When it is conducting a full load current of 25 A flows. The minimum time for which the SCR has to be reverse biased for proper commutation is 40Qsec. Also find R1 , given that the auxiliary SCR will undergo natural commutation when its forward current falls below the holding current value of 2 mA.
i1
R1 V 1 V Auxiliary SCR iC C
ain SCR
Fig. 1.24. Solution In this circuit only the main SCR carries the load and the auxiliary SCR is used to turn off the main SCR. Once the main SCR turns off the current through the auxiliary SCR is the sum of the capacitor charging current ic and the current i1 through R1 , ic reduces to zero after a time tc and hence the auxiliary SCR turns off automatically after a time tc , i1 should be less than the holding current.
165
Given That is
I L ! 25 A 25 A ! V 100 ! RL RL
Therefore
RL ! 4; tc ! 40 Q sec ! 0.693 RL C
That is Therefore
40 v 10 6 ! 0.693 v 4 v C
C! 40 v10 6 4 v 0.693
C ! 14.43Q F V should be less than the holding current of auxiliary SCR. R1 100 Therefore should be < 2mA. R1 i1 ! Therefore That is
R1 " 100 2 v 103
R1 " 50 K ;
IMPULSE COMMUTATION (CLASS D COMMUTATION) The circuit for impulse commutation is as shown in figure 1.25.
Fig. 1.25: Circuit for Impulse Commutation
( )
T2
T1
166
The working of the circuit can be explained as follows. It is assumed that initially the capacitor C is charged to a voltage VC O with polarity as shown. Let the thyristor T1 be conducting and carry a load current I L . If the thyristor T1 is to be turned off, T2 is fired. The capacitor voltage comes across T1 , T1 is reverse biased and it turns off. Now the capacitor starts charging through T2 and the load. The capacitor voltage reaches V with top plate being positive. By this time the capacitor charging current (current through T2 ) would have reduced to zero and T2 automatically turns off. Now T1 and T2 are both off. Before firing T1 again, the capacitor voltage should be reversed. This is done by turning on T3 , C discharges through T3 and L and the capacitor voltage reverses. The waveforms are shown in figure 1.26.
t lse of T2
Gate lse of T3
apacitor voltage t
Fig. 1.26: Impulse Commutation Waveforms of Capacitor Voltage, Voltage across T1 .
oltage across T1 t
Gate pulse of T1 t
167
EXPRESSION FOR CIRCUIT TURN OFF TIME (AVAILABLE TURN OFF TIME) tc tc depends on the load current I L and is given by the expression 1 c VC ! I L dt C0 (assuming the load current to be constant)
VC ! I L tc C
t
tc !
VC C seconds IL
For proper commutation tc should be > tq , turn off time of T1 . Note: y T1 is turned off by applying a negative voltage across its terminals. Hence this is voltage commutation. y tc depends on load current. For higher load currents tc is small. This is a disadvantage of this circuit. y When T2 is fired, voltage across the load is V VC ; hence the current through load shoots up and then decays as the capacitor starts charging.
AN ALTERNATIVE CIRCUIT FOR IMPULSE COMMUTATION Is shown in figure 1.27.
T1 I T1 T2 VC(O)
i + _ C
D L
IL RL
Fig. 1.27: Impulse Commutation An Alternate Circuit
168
The working of the circuit can be explained as follows: Initially let the voltage across the capacitor be VC O with the top plate positive. Now T1 is triggered. Load current flows through T1 and load. At the same time, C discharges through T1 , L and D (the current is i) and the voltage across C reverses i.e., the bottom plate becomes positive. The diode D ensures that the bottom plate of the capacitor remains positive. To turn off T1 , T2 is triggered; the voltage across the capacitor comes across T1 . T1 is reverse biased and it turns off (voltage commutation). The capacitor now starts charging through T2 and load. When it charges to V volts (with the top plate positive), the current through T2 becomes zero and T2 automatically turns off. The related waveforms are shown in figure 1.28.
Gate pulse of T1 Gate pulse of T2 t
VC Capacitor voltage t
V
tC This is due to i IT 1 IL Current through SCR V RL t
2V RL IL Load current t
Voltage across T1 t tC
Fig. 1.28: Impulse Commutation (Alternate Circuit) Various Waveforms
169
Problem 1.10: An impulse commutated thyristor circuit is shown in figure 1.29. Determine the available turn off time of the circuit if V = 100 V, R = 10 ; and C = 10 QF. Voltage across capacitor before T2 is fired is V volts with polarity as shown.
Fig. 1.29. Solution When T2 is triggered the circuit is as shown in figure 1.30.
O +
Fig. 1.30. Writing the transform circuit, we obtain
s +
s
Fig. 1.31.
V (0)
2
it
T2 R
s +
I(s
170
We have to obtain an expression for capacitor voltage. It is done as follows:

1 V VC 0 I S ! s 1 R Cs I S ! C V VC 0 1 RCs
I S !
V V 0
C
1 Rs RC
1 VC 0 Cs s
Voltage across capacitor
VC s ! I s
VC s !
1 V VC 0 VC 0 1 RCs s s RC V VC 0 V VC 0 VC 0 1 s s s RC
V 0 V V C 1 s s 1 s RC RC
VC s !
VC s !
vc t ! V 1 e In the given problem VC 0 ! V Therefore

vc t ! V 1 2e
t
RC
V 0 e
C
t
RC
t
RC
The waveform of vc t is shown in figure 1.32.
171
V vC(t) t
VC( ) tC Fig. 1.32. At t ! tc , vc t ! 0 Therefore

tc 0 ! V 1 2e RC tc
1 ! 2e
RC
tc 1 ! e RC 2
Taking natural logarithms 1 t log e ! c 2 RC

tc ! RC ln 2 tc ! 10 v 10 v 106 ln 2 tc ! 69.3Q sec .
Problem 1.11 : In the commutation circuit shown in figure 1.33. C = 20 Q F, the input voltage V varies between 180 and 220 V and the load current varies between 50 and 200 A. Determine the minimum and maximum values of available turn off time tc .

C V
+
VC( )=V
Fig. 1.33.
172
Solution It is given that V varies between 180 and 220 V and I O varies between 50 and 200 A. The expression for available turn off time tc is given by
tc ! CV IO
tc is maximum when V is maximum and I O is minimum.
Therefore
tc max !
CVmax I O min 220 ! 88Q sec 50
tc max ! 20 v 106 v
and
tc min !
CVmin IO max
180 ! 18Q sec 200
tc min ! 20 v 106 v
EXTERNAL PULSE COMMUTATION (CLASS E COMMUTATION)

T3
Fig. 1.34: External Pulse Commutation In this type of commutation an additional source is required to turn-off the conducting thyristor. Figure 1.34 shows a circuit for external pulse commutation. VS is the main voltage source and VA X is the auxiliary supply. Assume thyristor T1 is conducting and load RL is connected across supply VS . When thyristor T3 is turned ON at , T3 , L and C from an oscillatory circuit. Assuming capacitor is initially uncharged, capacitor C is now charged to a voltage 2VA X with upper plate positive at
X
t ! T LC . When current through T3 falls to zero, T3 gets commutated. To turn-off the
t ! 0 , VA
RL
2VAUX
UX
173
main thyristor T1 , thyristor T2 is turned ON. Then T1 is subjected to a reverse voltage equal to VS 2VAU . This results in thyristor T1 being turned-off. Once T1 is off capacitor C discharges through the load RL LOAD SIDE COMMUTATION In load side commutation the discharging and recharging of capacitor takes place through the load. Hence to test the commutation circuit the load has to be connected. Examples of load side commutation are Resonant Pulse Commutation and Impulse Commutation. LINE SIDE COMMUTATION In this type of commutation the discharging and recharging of capacitor takes place through the supply.
T1
L
T3 V
_C
FWD Lr T2
L O A D
Figure 1.35 shows line side commutation circuit. Thyristor T2 is fired to charge the capacitor C. When C charges to a voltage of 2V, T2 is self commutated. To reverse the voltage of capacitor to -2V, thyristor T3 is fired and T3 commutates by itself. Assuming that T1 is conducting and carries a load current I L thyristor T2 is fired to turn off T1 . The turning ON of T2 will result in forward biasing the diode (FWD) and applying a reverse voltage of 2V across T1 . This turns off T1 , thus the discharging and recharging of capacitor is done through the supply and the commutation circuit can be tested without load.
_
Fig.: 1.35 Line Side Commutation Circuit
174
DC CHOPPERS
INTRODUCTION A chopper is a static device which is used to obtain a variable dc voltage from a constant dc voltage source. A chopper is also known as dc-to-dc converter. The thyristor converter offers greater efficiency, faster response, lower maintenance, smaller size and smooth control. Choppers are widely used in trolley cars, battery operated vehicles, traction motor control, control of large number of dc motors, etc.. They are also used in regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back to supply and also as dc voltage regulators. Choppers are of two types y Step-down choppers y Step-up choppers. In step-down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input voltage whereas in step-up choppers output voltage will be more than the input voltage.
PRINCIPLE OF STEP-DOWN CHOPPER
hopper i0

Fig. 2.1: Step-down Chopper with Resistive Load
Figure 2.1 shows a step-down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the circuit acts as a switch. When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load and when thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero. The output voltage and current waveforms are as shown in figure 2.2.
175
v0 V Vdc t i0 VR Idc t
Fig. 2.2: Step-down choppers output voltage and current waveforms Vdc
I dc

FF
= average value of output or load voltage = average value of output or load current = time interval for which SCR conducts
tON
tOFF
= time interval for which SCR is OFF. T ! tON tOFF = period of switching or chopping period 1 f ! ! frequency of chopper switching or chopping frequency. T Average output voltage tON Vdc ! V tON tOFF
t Vdc ! V ON T ! V .d
...2.1
...2.2
but
tON t
! d ! duty cycle
...2.3
Average output current, V I dc ! dc R

I dc ! V tON R T V ! d R
... 2.4 ... 2.5
176
RMS value of output voltage

1 VO ! T
tON
v dt
2 o 0
But during tON , vo ! V Therefore RMS output voltage VO ! 1 T

tON
V
0
dt
VO !
V2 t tON ! ON .V T T
... 2.6 ... 2.7
VO ! d .V
Output power But
PO ! VO I O IO ! VO R
Therefore output power
PO !
VO2 R dV 2 R ...2.8
PO !
Effective input resistance of chopper V Ri ! I dc

Ri !
... 2.9
R ... 2.10 d The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.
METHODS OF CONTROL The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods. y Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation. y Variable frequency control.
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION In pulse width modulation the pulse width tON of the output waveform is varied keeping chopping frequency f and hence chopping period T constant. Therefore output voltage is varied by varying the ON time, tON . Figure 2.3 shows the output voltage waveforms for different ON times. 177
V0 V

t T V0 V
t
Fig. 2.3: Pulse Width Modulation Control VARIABLE FREQUENCY CONTROL In this method of control, chopping frequency f is varied keeping either tON or tOFF constant. This method is also known as frequency modulation. Figure 2.4 shows the output voltage waveforms for a constant tON and variable chopping period T. In frequency modulation to obtain full output voltage, range frequency has to be varied over a wide range. This method produces harmonics in the output and for large tOFF load current may become discontinuous.
v0
v0
Fig. 2.4: Output Voltage Waveforms for Time Ratio Control
178
STEP-DOWN CHOPPER WITH R-L LOAD Figure 2.5 shows a step-down chopper with R-L load and free wheeling diode. When chopper is ON, the supply is connected across the load. Current flows from the supply to the load. When chopper is OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through the free-wheeling diode due to the energy stored in the inductor L. The load current can be continuous or discontinuous depending on the values of L and duty cycle, d. For a continuous current operation the load current is assumed to vary between two limits I min and I max . Figure 2.6 shows the output current and output voltage waveforms for a continuous current and discontinuous current operation.
Choppe
i0 R
FWD E
V0

Fig. 2.5: Step Down Chopper with R-L Load
v0 V tON i0 Imax Imin i0 T tOFF
Output voltag
t Output cu nt Continuous cu nt t Output cu nt Discontinuous cu nt t
Fig. 2.6: Output Voltage and Load Current Waveforms (Continuous Current)
179
When the current exceeds I max the chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on when current reduces to I min . EXPRESSIONS FOR LOAD CURRENT iO FOR CONTINUOUS CURRENT OPERATION WHEN CHOPPER IS ON 0 e t e tON
i0 + R V E Fig. 2.5 (a) Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(a) is V ! iO R L diO E dt ...2.11
V0
Taking Laplace Transform V E ! RI O S L S .I O S iO 0 S S At t ! 0 , initial current iO 0 ! I min I O S ! V E I min R R LS S S L L
... 2.12
...2.13
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

R R t t V E L L iO t ! 1 e I min e R
...2.14
This expression is valid for 0 e t e tON . i.e., during the period chopper is ON. At the instant the chopper is turned off, load current is
iO tON ! I max
180
When Chopper is OFF
0 e t e tOFF
Fig. 2.5 (b) Voltage equation for the circuit shown in figure 2.5(b) is
0 ! RiO L diO E dt ... 2.15
Taking Laplace transform

0 ! RI O S L SI O S iO 0 E S
Redefining time origin we have at t ! 0 , initial current iO 0 ! I max Therefore I O S ! I max E R R S LS S L L
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform iO t ! I max e

R t L
R t E L 1 e R
... 2.16
The expression is valid for 0 e t e tOFF , i.e., during the period chopper is OFF. At the instant the chopper is turned ON or at the end of the off period, the load current is
iO tOFF ! I min
181
TO FIND I max AND I min From equation (2.14), At

t ! tON ! dT , iO t ! I max I max !
dRT dRT V E L L 1 e I min e R
Therefore
... 2.17
From equation (2.16), At

t ! tOFF ! T tON , iO t ! I min t ! tOFF ! 1 d T
Therefore
I min ! I max e
1 d RT
L
E 1 e R
1 d RT
L
...2.18
Substituting for I min in equation (2.17) we get,

dRT V 1 e L ! RT R 1 e L
I max
E R
...2.19
Substituting for I max in equation (2.18) we get,

dRT V e L 1 E ! R R RT L e 1
I min
... 2.20
I max I min is known as the steady state ripple.

Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current (I ! I max I min Average output voltage Vdc ! d .V Average output current I dcapprox ! I max I min 2 ...2.22
... 2.21
182
Assuming load current varies linearly from I min to I max instantaneous load current is given by
iO ! I min
(I .t
dT
for 0 e t e tON dT ... 2.23
I I iO ! I min max min t dT
RMS value of load current IO RMS ! 1 dT

1 dT
dT
i dt
2 0 0 dT
I O RMS !
0 dT
I max I min t I min dt dT

2 2 2 2 I I I t I I I min max min t 2 min max min dt dT dT
IO RMS ! RMS value of output current
1 dT
2 2 2 I max I min I min I max I min IO RMS ! I min 3
...2.24
RMS chopper current ICH ! 1 T

dT
i dt
2 0 0 dT
ICH
1 ! T
I max I min t dt I min dT

1
ICH
2 2 2 I I ! d I min max min I min I max I min 3
I CH ! d I O RMS
... 2.25
Effective input resistance is Ri ! V IS
183
Where I S = Average source current

I S ! dI dc
Therefore
Ri !
V dI dc
... 2.26
PRINCIPLE OF STEP-UP CHOPPER
I +
L
V Chopp r
L O A D
VO

Fig. 2.13: Step-up Chopper Figure 2.13 shows a step-up chopper to obtain a load voltage VO higher than the input voltage V. The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of output voltage and current. When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across the supply. The inductor current I rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON time of the chopper, tON . When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow through the diode D and load for a period, tOFF . The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the polarity of induced EMF in L. Therefore voltage across load is given by
VO ! V L dI i.e., VO " V dt ... 2.27
If a large capacitor C is connected across the load then the capacitor will provide a continuous output voltage VO . Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the source. Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of dc motors.
EXPRESSION FOR OUTPUT VOLTAGE Assume the average inductor current to be I during ON and OFF time of Chopper. When Chopper is ON Voltage across inductor L ! V
184
Therefore energy stored in inductor = V . I .tON where tON ! ON period of chopper. When Chopper is OFF (energy is supplied by inductor to load) Voltage across L ! VO V
... 2.28 ,
Energy supplied by inductor L ! VO V ItOFF , where tOFF ! OFF period of Chopper. Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor L = energy supplied by inductor L Therefore
VItON ! VO V ItOFF VO ! V ?tON tOFF A tOFF
T VO ! V T tON
Where
T = Chopping period or period of switching. T ! tON tOFF

1 VO ! V t 1 ON T
Therefore
1 VO ! V 1 d d! tON ! duty cyle T
...2.29
Where
For variation of duty cycle d in the range of 0 in the range V VO g .
d 1 the output voltage VO will vary
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to turn ON and turn OFF. Hence duty cycle d can be varied only between a minimum and a maximum value, limiting the minimum and maximum value of the output voltage. Ripple in the load current depends inversely on the chopping frequency, f. Therefore to reduce the load ripple current, frequency should be as high as possible. 185
CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPERS Choppers are classified as follows y Class A Chopper y Class B Chopper y Class C Chopper y Class D Chopper y Class E Chopper
CLASS A CHOPPER
i0 Chopper V F D
O A D
v0
v0 V
i0
Fig. 2.14: Class A Chopper and vO iO Characteristic Figure 2.14 shows a Class A Chopper circuit with inductive load and freewheeling diode. When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is connected across the load i.e., vO ! V and current i0 flows as shown in figure. When chopper is OFF, v0 = 0 and the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through the free wheeling diode. Therefore the average values of output voltage and current i.e., vO and iO are always positive. Hence, Class A Chopper is a first quadrant chopper (or single quadrant chopper). Figure 2.15 shows output voltage and current waveforms for a continuous load current.
186
ig
Thyristor gate pulse t
i0 Output current CH ON t v0 FWD Conducts Output voltage
tON
t T
Fig. 2.15: First quadrant Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper in which power always flows from source to load. It is used to control the speed of dc motor. The output current equations obtained in step down chopper with R-L load can be used to study the performance of Class A Chopper. CLASS B CHOPPER D
i0 R
v0
V Chopper
L v0 E i0
Fig. 2.16: Class B Chopper Fig. 2.16 shows a Class B Chopper circuit. When chopper is ON, vO ! 0 and E drives a current iO through L and R in a direction opposite to that shown in figure 2.16. During the ON period of the chopper, the inductance L stores energy. When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts, vO ! V and part of the energy stored in inductor L is returned to the supply. Also the current iO continues to flow from the load to source. Hence the average output voltage is positive and average output current is negative. Therefore Class 187
B Chopper operates in second quadrant. In this chopper, power flows from load to source. Class B Chopper is used for regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.17 shows the output voltage and current waveforms of a Class B Chopper. The output current equations can be obtained as follows. During the interval diode D conducts (chopper is off) voltage equation is given by
Conduc ing
V! LdiO RiO E dt
For the initial condition i.e., iO t ! I min at t ! 0 . The solution of the above equation is obtained along similar lines as in step-down chopper with R-L load Therefore At t ! tOFF
iO t !
R R t t V E L L 1 e I min e R
0 t
tOFF
iO t ! I max I max !
R tOFF V E 1 e L R R tOFF I min e L
During the interval chopper is ON voltage equation is given by
i0
C opp
V0
0! LdiO RiO E dt
188
Redefining the time origin, at t ! 0
iO t ! I max .
The solution for the stated initial condition is

iO t ! I max e
R t L
R t E 1 e L R
0 t
tON
At t ! tON Therefore
iO t ! I min
I min ! I max e
R tON L
R tON E 1 e L R
Imin
conducts hopper conducts
CLASS C CHOPPER Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A and Class B Choppers. Figure 2.18 shows a Class C two quadrant Chopper circuit. For first quadrant operation, CH1 is ON or D2 conducts and for second quadrant operation, CH 2 is ON or D1 conducts. When CH1 is ON, the load current iO is positive. i.e., iO flows in the direction as shown in figure 2.18. The output voltage is equal to V vO ! V and the load receives power from the source. 189
Ima
Fig. 2.17: Class B Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
h ristor ate pulse t t t

N
t utput current
utput volta e
CH1
D1 i0 + R v0
V CH2 Chopper D2
L v0 E i0
Fig. 2.18: Class C Chopper When CH1 is turned OFF, energy stored in inductance L forces current to flow through the diode D2 and the output voltage vO ! 0 , but iO continues to flow in positive direction. When CH 2 is triggered, the voltage E forces iO to flow in opposite direction through L and CH 2 . The output voltage vO ! 0 . On turning OFF CH 2 , the energy stored in the inductance drives current through diode D1 and the supply; output voltage vO ! V the input current becomes negative and power flows from load to source. Thus the average output voltage vO is positive but the average output current iO can take both positive and negative values. Choppers CH1 and CH 2 should not be turned ON simultaneously as it would result in short circuiting the supply. Class C Chopper can be used both for dc motor control and regenerative braking of dc motor. Figure 2.19 shows the output voltage and current waveforms.
ig1
ls Gat f CH1 t Gat ls f CH2 t
ig2
i0 Out ut urrent t
D1 CH1 ON D2 CH2 ON D1 CH1 ON D2 CH2 ON
V0
Out ut
ltage
t
Fig. 2.19: Class C Chopper - Output Voltage and Current Waveforms
190
CLASS D CHOPPER v0 CH1 R i0 V v0

1 2
E CH2 i0
Fig. 2.20: Class D Chopper Figure 2.20 shows a class D two quadrant chopper circuit. When both CH1 and CH 2 are triggered simultaneously, the output voltage vO ! V and output current iO flows through the load in the direction shown in figure 2.20. When CH1 and CH 2 are turned OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through load, D1 and D2 , due to the energy stored in the inductor L, but output voltage vO ! V . The average load voltage vO is positive if chopper ON-time tON is more than their OFF-time tOFF and average output voltage becomes negative if tON tOFF . Hence the direction of load current is always positive but load voltage can be positive or negative. Waveforms are shown in figures 2.21 and 2.22.
ig1
G CH1 t
ig2
G CH2 t
i0 Out ut current
v0 V
CH1 CH2 ON
t 1 2 C nducting Out ut v ltage Average v0
Fig. 2.21: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON " tOFF 191
ig2
ate ulse f CH2 t
i0 Out ut urrent
CH CH2 v0 V
Out ut
A erage v0
Fig. 2.22: Output Voltage and Current Waveforms for tON
CLASS E CHOPPER
i0 V + CH2
2
Fig. 2.23: Class E Chopper
CH
CH3 R L E CH4
v0
ig
ate ulse f CH t
t ltage
tOFF
192
v0 CH2 1Conducts 4 Conducts

4
H1 - H4 ON CH4 - 2 Conducts i0
CH3 - CH2 ON CH2 - 4 Conducts
D2 - 3 Conducts CH4 - 2 Conducts
Fig. 2.23(a): Four Quadrant Operation Figure 2.23 shows a class E 4 quadrant chopper circuit. When CH1 and CH 4 are triggered, output current iO flows in positive direction as shown in figure 2.23 through CH1 and CH 4 , with output voltage vO ! V . This gives the first quadrant operation. When both CH1 and CH 4 are OFF, the energy stored in the inductor L drives iO through D3 and D2 in the same direction, but output voltage vO ! V . Therefore the chopper operates in the fourth quadrant. For fourth quadrant operation the direction of battery must be reversed. When CH 2 and CH 3 are triggered, the load current iO flows in opposite direction and output voltage vO ! V . Since both iO and vO are negative, the chopper operates in third quadrant. When both CH 2 and CH 3 are OFF, the load current iO continues to flow in the same direction through D1 and D4 and the output voltage vO ! V . Therefore the chopper operates in second quadrant as vO is positive but iO is negative. Figure 2.23(a) shows the devices which are operative in different quadrants. EFFECT OF SOURCE AND LOAD INDUCTANCE In choppers, the source inductance should be as small as possible to limit the transient voltage. Usually an input filter is used to overcome the problem of source inductance. Also source inductance may cause commutation problem for the chopper. The load ripple current is inversely proportional to load inductance and chopping frequency. Therefore the peak load current depends on load inductance. To limit the load ripple current, a smoothing inductor is connected in series with the load. Problem 2.1 : For the first quadrant chopper shown in figure 2.24, express the following variables as functions of V, R and duty cycle d in case load is resistive. y Average output voltage and current y Output current at the instant of commutation y Average and rms free wheeling diode current. y RMS value of output voltage y RMS and average thyristor currents.
193
i0 hopper WD
L O A D
v0

Fig. 6.24. Solution
y t Average output voltage, Vdc ! ON T V ! dV
Average output current, I dc !

y
Vdc dV ! R R
The thyristor is commutated at the instant t ! tON . Therefore output current at the instant of commutation is voltage at that instant.
V , since V is the output R
y y
Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never conduct in a resistive load. Therefore average and RMS free wheeling diode currents are zero. RMS value of output voltage VO RMS ! But 1 T
tON
v dt
2 0 0
vO ! V during tON 1 VO RMS ! T

tON
V
0
dt
t VO RMS ! V 2 ON T VO RMS ! dV
Where duty cycle,
d!
tON T
194
RMS value of thyristor current = RMS value of load current

!
VO RMS R dV R
Average value of thyristor current = Average value of load current

! dV R
Problem 2.2 : A Chopper circuit is operating on TRC at a frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V supply. If the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the conduction period of the thyristor in each cycle. Solution V = 460 V, Vdc = 350 V, f = 2 kHz Chopping period
T! 1 f
T!
1 ! 0.5 m sec 2 v 10 3
V
Output voltage
t Vdc ! ON T
Conduction period of thyristor T v Vdc tON ! V

tON ! 0.5 v 103 v 350 460
tON ! 0.38 msec
Problem 2.3 : Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The output required is 600 V. If the conducting time of thyristor is 200 Qssec. Compute y Chopping frequency, y If the pulse width is halved for constant frequency of operation, find the new output voltage.
195
Solution V = 200 V,
tON ! 200Q s , Vdc ! 600V T Vdc ! V T tON T 600 ! 200 T 200 v 106
Solving for T T ! 300Q s

y
Chopping frequency 1 f ! T f ! 1 ! 3.33KHz 300 v 106
Pulse width is halved Therefore Frequency is constant Therefore f ! 3.33KHz T! 1 ! 300Q s f

T = V T tON 300 v10 6 ! 200 ! 300 Volts 300 100 10 6
tON !
200 v 106 ! 100Q s 2
Therefore output voltage
Problem 2.4: A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20; and input voltage VS ! 220V . When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If the duty cycle is 80%, determine the average output voltage and the chopper on time.
196
Solution VS ! 220V , R ! 20; , f = 10 kHz

d! tON ! 0.80 T
Vch = Voltage drop across chopper = 1.5 volts Average output voltage
t Vdc ! ON VS Vch T Vdc ! 0.80 220 1.5 ! 174.8 Volts
Chopper ON time, Chopping period,
tON ! dT T!
T!
1 f
1 ! 0.1v 103 secs ! 100 secs 10 v 103
Chopper ON time,
tON ! dT tON ! 0.80 v 0.1v 103
tON ! 0.08 v 103 ! 80 secs Problem 2.5: In a dc chopper, the average load current is 30 Amps, chopping frequency is 250 Hz. Supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate the ON and OFF periods of the chopper if the load resistance is 2 ohms. Solution I dc ! 30
mps , f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V, R ! 2;
Chopping period,
T!
1 1 ! ! 4 v 103 ! 4 msecs f 250 Vdc and Vdc ! dV R

dV R
I dc !
I dc !
Therefore
197
d!
I dc R 30 v 2 ! ! 0.545 V 110
Chopper ON period, tON ! dT ! 0.545 v 4 v 103 ! 2.18 msecs Chopper OFF period, tOFF ! T tON
tOFF ! 4 v10 3 2.18 v10 3
tOFF ! 1.82 v 103 ! 1.82 msec Problem 2.6: A dc chopper in figure 2.25 has a resistive load of R ! 10; and input voltage of V = 200 V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 2 V and the chopping frequency is 1 kHz. If the duty cycle is 60%, determine y Average output voltage y RMS value of output voltage y Effective input resistance of chopper y Chopper efficiency.
v0
Fig. 2.25 Solution
V = 200 V, R ! 10; , Chopper voltage drop, Vch ! 2V , d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.

y
Average output voltage Vdc ! d V Vch

Vdc ! 0.60 ?200 2A ! 118.8 Volts
RMS value of output voltage VO ! d V Vch

VO ! 0.6 200 2 ! 153.37 Volts
198
Effective input resistance of chopper is V V Ri ! ! I S I dc I dc ! Ri ! Vdc 118.8 ! ! 11.88 Amps R 10 V V 200 ! ! ! 16.83; I S I dc 11.88
Output power is PO ! 1 T
dT
0 dT
2 v0 dt R
1 PO ! T
V Vch
R
2
dt
PO !
d V Vch R
PO !
0.6 ?200 2A 10
! 2352.24 watts
Input power,
Pi !
1 T
1 T
dT
Vi
0
dT
dt
PO !
V V Vch R !
dt
PO !
y
dV V Vch R
0.6 v 200 ?200 2 A 10
! 2376
atts
Chopper efficiency, P L ! O v 100 Pi

L! 2352.24 v 100 ! 99 2376
Problem 2.7: A chopper is supplying an inductive load with a free-wheeling diode. The load inductance is 5 H and resistance is 10 ;. The input voltage to the chopper is 200
199
volts and the chopper is operating at a frequency of 1000 Hz. If the ON/OFF time ratio is 2:3. Calculate y Maximum and minimum values of load current in one cycle of chopper operation. y Average load current Solution: L = 5 H, R = 10 ;, f = 1000 Hz, V = 200 V, tON : tOFF ! 2 : 3 Chopping period, T! 1 1 ! ! 1 msecs f 1000
tON 2 ! tOFF 3
tON ! 2 tOFF 3
T ! tON tOFF T! 2 tOFF tOFF 3
5 T ! tOFF 3 3 tOFF ! T 5
3 T ! v 1v 103 ! 0.6 msec 5 tON ! T tOFF

tON ! 1 0.6 v 10 3 ! 0.4 msec
Duty cycle,
y
d!
tON 0.4 v 103 ! ! 0.4 T 1v 10 3
Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of I max and I min . Maximum value of load current [equation (2.19)] is
I max
E R
200
Since there is no voltage source in the load circuit, E = 0

Therefore
I max

3
I max
0.4v10v1v10 5 200 1 e ! 10v1v103 10 1 e 5
I max
1 e 0.8v10 ! 20 2v103 1 e
3
I max ! 8.0047 Minimum value of load current from equation (2.20) with E = 0 is
dRT V e L 1 ! R RT e L 1 0.4v10v1v10 5 200 e 1 ! 3 ! 7.995 10 10v1v10 e 5 1
3
I min
I min
Average load current I I I dc ! max min 2

I dc ! 8.0047 7.995 }8 2
Problem 2.8 : A chopper feeding on RL load is shown in figure 2.26. With V = 200 V, R = 5;, L = 5 mH, f = 1 kHz, d = 0.5 and E = 0 V. Calculate y Maximum and minimum values of load current y Average value of load current y RMS load current y Effective input resistance as seen by source y RMS chopper current. Solution V = 200 V, R = 5 ;, L = 5 mH, f = 1kHz, d = 0.5, E = 0
201
Chopping period is T !
1 1 ! ! 1v 10 3 secs f 1 v10 3
Chopper
R L E
Fig.: 2.26 Refer equations (2.19) and (2.20) for expressions of I max and I min . Maximum value of load current dRT V 1 e L I max ! RT R 1 e L
v0
E R
3
I max
0.5v 5v1v10 3 200 1 e 5v10 ! 5v1v103 5 1 e 5v103
0
1 e 0.5 ! 24.9 I max ! 40 1 1 e
Minimum value of load current is dRT V e L 1 E I min ! R R RT L e 1

0.5v5v1v10 3 200 e 5v10 1 ! 3 0 5 5v1v103 e 5v10 1
3
I min
e 0.5 1 I min ! 40 1 ! 15.1 A e 1
Average value of load current is I I I dc ! 1 2 for linear variation of currents 2 202
Therefore
I dc !
24.9 15.1 ! 20 2
Refer equations (2.24) and (2.25) for RMS load current and RMS chopper current. RMS load current from equation (2.24) is
2 2 2 I I IO RMS ! I min max min I min I max I min 3 1 1
2 24.9 15.1 15.1 24.9 15.1 2 IO RMS ! 15.12 3
96.04 2 I O RMS ! 228.01 147.98 ! 20.2 3
RMS chopper current from equation is (2.25) is

I ch ! d I O RMS ! 0.5 v 20.2 ! 14.28
Effective input resistance is Ri ! V IS
I S = Average source current I S ! dI dc I S ! 0.5 v 20 ! 10
Therefore effective input resistance is

Ri ! V 200 ! ! 20 ; 10 IS
Problem 2.9: A 200 V dc motor fed by a chopper, runs at 1000 rpm with a duty ratio of 0.8. What must be the ON time of the chopper if the motor has to run at 800 rpm. The chopper operates at 100 Hz. Solution Speed of motor N1 = 1000 rpm Duty ratio d1 ! 0.8 , f = 100 Hz
203
We know that back EMF of motor Eb is given by J ZNP Eb ! 60 A Where N J Z P A Therefore = = = = = speed in rpm flux/pole in wbs Number of Armature conductors Number of poles Number of parallel paths Eb E J N
Eb E N if flux J is constant
e +
Ia Ra
Vdc
+ M Eb
Eb ! Vdc I a Ra
where I a = Ra =
Since Ra is not given, I a Ra drop is neglected. Therefore Eb1 ! Vdc1 ! 200 volts
Vdc1 ! d1V
Supply,
Fig. 2.27
Armature current Armature Resistance
V!
Vdc1 d1 200 0.8
V!
V ! 250 Volts
204
Eb1 E N1 200 E 1000 ... 2.30
Now speed changes hence d also changes. Given N 2 ! 800 rpm Eb2 ! ? Eb 2 E N 2
Eb2 E 800 ...2.31
Dividing equation (2.30) by equation (2.31) we get

200 1000 ! Eb2 800
Eb2 ! But
800 v 200 ! 160 V 1000
Eb2 ! Vdc2 ! d 2V
d2 !
Vdc2 V
160 ! 0.64 250
Chopping frequency f = 100 Hz 1 1 T! ! ! 0.01 sec f 100 T ! 10 msecs

tON ! d2 T
ON time of chopper tON ! d 2T

tON ! 0.64 v 10 v 103
tON ! 6.4 msecs
205
IMPULSE COMMUTATED CHOPPER Impulse commutated choppers are widely used in high power circuits where load fluctuation is not large. This chopper is also known as parallel capacitor turn-off chopper or voltage commutated chopper or classical chopper. Fig. 2.28 shows an impulse commutated chopper with two thyristors T1 and T2. We shall assume that the load current remains constant at a value IL during the commutation process.
LS + a b VS + iC
iT1 IL + L O A D
To start the circuit, capacitor C is initially charged with polarity (with plate a positive) as shown in the fig. 2.28 by triggering the thyristor T2. Capacitor C gets charged through VS, C, T2 and load. As the charging current decays to zero thyristor T2 will be turned-off. With capacitor charged with plate a positive the circuit is ready for operation. For convenience the chopper operation is divided into five modes. MODE 1 Thyristor T1 is fired at t = 0. The supply voltage comes across the load. Load current IL flows through T1 and load. At the same time capacitor discharges through T1, D1, L1, and C and the capacitor reverses its voltage. This reverse voltage on capacitor is held constant by diode D1. Fig. 2.29 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode 1.
LS + VC VS L +
_C
_
Fig. 2.29
_C
FWD
vO
D1
Fig. 2.28
T1 IL iC L O D
D1
206
Capacitor Discharge Current

iC t ! V C sin [ t L C L
iC t ! I P sin [ t ; where I P ! V [! 1 LC
Where
& Capacitor Voltage

VC t ! V cos [ t
MODE 2 Thyristor T2 is now fired to commutate thyristor T1. When T2 is ON capacitor voltage reverse biases T1 and turns it off. Now the capacitor discharges through the load from VS to 0 and the discharge time is known as circuit turn-off time. Circuit turn-off time is given by VC v C IL Where IL is load current. tC ! Since tC depends on load current, it must be designed for the worst case condition which occur at the maximum value of load current and minimum value of capacitor voltage. Then the capacitor recharges back to the supply voltage (with plate a positive). This time is called the recharging time and is given by td ! VS v C IL
The total time required for the capacitor to discharge and recharge is called the commutation time and it is given by
t r ! tC t d
At the end of Mode-2 capacitor has recharged to VS and the free wheeling diode starts conducting. The equivalent circuit for Mode-2 is shown in fig. 2.30.
207
IL + VS LS VC
_
C + T2
IL L
_
Fig. 2.30. MODE 3 Free wheeling diode FWD starts conducting and the load current decays. The energy stored in source inductance LS is transferred to capacitor. Instantaneous current is i t ! I L cos [ t Hence capacitor charges to a voltage higher than supply voltage. T2 naturally turns-off. The instantaneous capacitor voltage is
VC t ! VS I L 1 LS C LS sin [ S t C
Where
[S !
Fig. 2.31 shows the equivalent circuit of Mode 3.
IL + VS W LS VS + IL T2 L
_C
_
Fig. 2.31 MODE 4 Since the capacitor has been overcharged i.e. its voltage is above supply voltage it starts discharging in reverse direction. Hence capacitor current becomes negative. The capacitor discharges through LS, VS, FWD, D1 and L. When this current reduces to zero D1 will stop conducting and the capacitor voltage will be same as the supply voltage fig. 2.32 shows in equivalent circuit of Mode 4. 208
LS +
C S
IL
1
_C
L
_
Fig. 2.32
MODE 5 In mode 5 both thyristors are off and the load current flows through the free wheeling diode (FWD). This mode will end once thyristor T1 is fired. The equivalent circuit for mode 5 is shown in fig. 2.33
IL L F
Fig. 2.33 Fig. 2.34 shows the current and voltage waveforms for a voltage commutated chopper.
209
ic
apacitor urrent
L
t Ip i
p L
urrent through t
v Vc vo Vs V c Vs vc Vc apacitor Voltage -Vc Voltage across t
utput Voltage t
tc
Fig. 2.34
td
Though voltage commutated chopper is a simple circuit it has the following disadvantages. y A starting circuit is required and the starting circuit should be such that it triggers thyristor T2 first. y Load voltage jumps to twice the supply voltage when the commutation is initiated. y The discharging and charging time of commutation capacitor are dependent on the load current and this limits high frequency operation, especially at low load current. y Chopper cannot be tested without connecting load. y Thyristor T1 has to carry load current as well as resonant current resulting in increasing its peak current rating.
210
Jones Chopper
T1 T2 + D V
2 1
Fig. 2.35: Jones Chopper Figure 2.35 shows a Jones Chopper circuit for an inductive load with free wheeling diode. Jones Chopper is an example of class D commutation. Two thyristors are used, T1 is the main thyristor and T2 is the auxiliary thyristor. Commutating circuit for T1 consists of thyristor T2, capacitor C, diode D and autotransformer (L1 and L2). Initially thyristor T2 is turned ON and capacitor C is charged to a voltage V with a polarity as shown in figure 2.35. As C charges, the charging current through thyristor T2 decays exponentially and when current falls below holding current level, thyristor T2 turns OFF by itself. When thyristor T1 is triggered, load current flows through thyristor T1, L2 and load. The capacitor discharges through thyristor T1, L1 and diode D. Due to resonant action of the auto transformer inductance L2 and capacitance C, the voltage across the capacitor reverses after some time. It is to be noted that the load current in L1 induces a voltage in L2 due to autotransformer action. Due to this voltage in L2 in the reverse direction, the capacitor charges to a voltage greater than the supply voltage. (The capacitor now tries to discharge in opposite direction but it is blocked by diode D and hence capacitor maintains the reverse voltage across it). When thyristor T1 is to be commutated, thyristor T2 is turned ON resulting in connecting capacitor C directly across thyristor T1. Capacitor voltage reverse biases thyristor T1 and turns it off. The capacitor again begins to charge through thyristor T2 and the load for the next cycle of operation. The various waveforms are shown in figure 2.36
FW
+ R v0
211
VC Ca acit r V ltage

Res nant acti n V Aut transf r er acti n tC

Ca acit r isc arge current Current

T1
V ltage acr ss T 1
tC
Ig
ate ulse
T2
ate ulse
T1
ate ulse
T2 t
212

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EDUSAT PROGRAMME LECTURE NOTES ON POWER ELECTRONICS BY PROF. M.

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGG.

M.S. RAMAIAH INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY BANGALORE 560 054

AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER CIRCUITS (RMS VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS)

On-Off control Phase control

Gate pulse of T 1 wt Gate pulse of T 2 wt

TO = Output time period = tON  tO

m ! One input cycle. Thyristors are turned OFF during tO

for one input cycle

We can show that, Output RMS voltage VO RMS ! Vi RMS

[ tON [ tON d [ t  Cos 2[ t.d [ t 0 0

Vm 2 sin 2[ tON  sin 0 [ tON  0  2[ TO 2

tON = An integral number of input cycles; Hence

Vm ! VS = RMS value of input supply voltage; 2

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS

RMS Output (Load) Voltage

VO RMS ! Vi RMS k ! VS k Where VS ! Vi RMS = RMS value of input supply voltage.

Duty Cycle t tON nT k ! ON ! ! TO tON  tOFF m  n T Where, k !

RMS Load Current

Output AC (Load) Power

tON tON ! TO tON  tO

nT n ! ! k = duty cycle (d). nT  mT n  m

for a resistive load Z ! RL .

Input Power Factor

Vi RMS v I in RMS n mn

The Average Current of Thyristor IT Avg

Waveform of Thyristor Current

RMS Current of Thyristor IT RMS

T 2 nI m 2 IT RMS ! sin [ t.d [ t 2T n  m 0

T T 2 nI m IT RMS ! d [ t  cos 2[ t.d [ t 4T n  m 0 0 1

2 nI m sin 2T  sin 0 IT RMS ! T  0  2 4T n  m

tON n ! tON  tOFF n  m

Vm = maximum or peak thyristor current. RL

tOFF ! m v T ! 0.8sec = controller OFF time. Duty cycle k ! n 30 ! ! 0.4285 m  n 40  30

RMS output voltage VO RMS ! Vi RMS v n m  n

VO RMS ! 230V 0.42857 ! 230 v 0.65465 VO RMS ! 150.570V

150.570V ! 3.0114 A 50;

2 PO ! I O RMS v RL ! 3.01142 v 50 ! 453.426498 W

Input Power Factor P.F ! k PF ! 30 n ! ! 0.4285 m  n 70

Average Thyristor Current Rating I n k v Im IT Avg ! m v ! T mn T where Im ! Vm ! RL 2 v 230 325.269 ! 50 50

I m ! 6.505382 A = Peak (maximum) thyristor current. IT Avg ! 6.505382 3 v T 7

RMS Current Rating of Thyristor I IT RMS ! m 2

Fig.: Halfwave AC phase controller (Unidirectional Controller)

Equations Input AC Supply Voltage across the Transformer Secondary Winding.

Vm = RMS value of secondary supply voltage. 2

Output Load Voltage vo ! vL ! 0 ; for [ t ! 0 to E

Output Load Current

TO DERIVE AN EXPRESSION FOR RMS OUTPUT VOLTAGE VO RMS

Trigger angle E in radians 0

0.992765 VS 0.949868 VS 0.866025 VS 0.77314 VS 0.717228 VS 0.707106 VS

When 'E ' is varied from 0 to T . Vdc varies from 0 to

T radians. 3 secondary voltage.

Where, N p = Number of turns in the primary winding.

RMS Value of Output (Load) Voltage VO RMS VO RMS ! 1 2T

We have obtained the expression for VO RMS as

VO RMS ! 218.4696 V } 218.47 V y

RMS Load Current I O RMS

Output Load Power PO

Input Power Factor

VS = RMS secondary supply voltage = 230V.

TO = Output time period = tON tO

[ tON [ tON d [ t Cos 2[ t.d [ t 0 0

Vm 2 sin 2[ tON sin 0 [ tON 0 2[ TO 2

VO RMS ! ViRMS k ! VS k Where VS ! Vi RMS = RMS value of input supply voltage.

Duty Cycle t tON nT k ! ON ! ! TO tON tOFF m n T Where, k !

tON tON ! TO tON tO

nT n ! ! k = duty cycle (d). nT mT n m

ViRMS v I inRMS n mn

T 2 nI m 2 IT RMS ! sin [ t.d [ t 2T n m 0

T T 2 nI m IT RMS ! d [ t cos 2[ t.d [ t 4T n m 0 0 1

2 nI m sin 2T sin 0 IT RMS ! T 0 2 4T n m

tON n ! tON tOFF n m

tOFF ! m v T ! 0.8sec = controller OFF time. Duty cycle k ! n 30 ! ! 0.4285 m n 40 30

RMS output voltage VO RMS ! Vi RMS v n m n

Input Power Factor P.F ! k PF ! 30 n ! ! 0.4285 m n 70

Average Thyristor Current Rating I n k v Im IT Avg ! m v ! T mn T where Im ! Vm ! RL 2 v 230 325.269 ! 50 50

Im cos T cosE 2T Im ?1 cos E A 2T

I m ! 6.505382 Amps IT Avg ! Vm ?1 cos E A 2T RL

2 v 230 1 cos 600 2T v 50 2 v 230 IT Avg ! ?1 0.5A 100T mps

vL ! vO ! Vm sin [ t ; For [ t ! E to T and [ t ! T E to 2T Hence,

Vm 2 1 1 T E T E 2 sin 2T sin 2E 2 sin 4T sin 2 T E 4T Vm 2 4T 1 1 2 T E 2 0 sin 2E 2 0 sin 2 T E

sin 2E 1 2 T E 2 2 sin 2T .cos 2E cos 2T .sin 2E cos 2T ! 1

Taking the square root, we get VLRMS !

R [ t E Vm Vm sin [ t J e [ L Z sin E J Z

Vm { 0 we can write Z R F E sin F J sin E J e[ L !0

Therefore we obtain the expression sin F J ! sin E J e

T J and provides a positive load current.

V 2 sin 2 F sin 2E VO RMS ! m F E 2 2 2T

1 sin 2E sin 2 F VO RMS ! Vm F E 2 2 2T

V 1 sin 2E sin 2 F VO RMS ! m F E 2 2 2 T

I S ! I ORMS = RMS value of input supply current. Output load power

Im I ? cos T cosE A! m ?1 cosE A 2T 2T

[L Load Impedance Angle J ! tan 1 R T J ! tan 1 ! tan 1 0.314159 ! 17.440590 10

Extinction Angle F is calculated by using the equation sin F J ! sin E J e [ L

sin F 17.44 ! 0.676354 e

L.H.S: sin F J ! sin 197.42 17.44 ! 3.4906v 104 R.H.S: 0.676354e

197.42 0 60 0 ! 137.42 0 Conduction Angle H ! F E !

1 2.39843 0.4330 0.285640 T

2 v 120 ?1 cos 90A ! 4.5 A 2T v 6

T sin 90 2 1 VO ! 230 2T ! 224.7157 4 2 2T