energies

Article
Analysis of High-Frequency Dispersion
Characteristics of Capacitance and Loss Factor of
Aramid Paper Impregnated with Various
Dielectric Liquids
Stefan Wolny
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatic Control and Informatics, Opole University of Technology,
Proszkowska 76 B2, 45-758 Opole, Poland; [email protected]




Received: 19 February 2019; Accepted: 15 March 2019; Published: 19 March 2019


Abstract: This paper presents research results of the loss factor of high voltage insulation samples
made of aramid paper impregnated with various types of insulating oil. The analysis was carried
out in the high frequency domain in the range of 50 Hz to 1 MHz. The experiments were carried
out for three impregnation types: mineral oil, synthetic ester and natural ester. The influence of
temperature in the range of 20 ◦ C to 100 ◦ C, which is typical when using this type of insulation
in power transformers, was taken into account. In addition, the process of influence of initial
aging of aramid paper was simulated by heat soaking the samples before their impregnation at a
temperature of 250 ◦ C in multiple time intervals. Based on the analyses of dispersion characteristics of
insulation sample loss factors, conclusions and recommendations for further diagnostics of aramid-oil
insulations using the method described were delineated.

Keywords: dielectric polarization; relaxation methods; aramid paper insulation; aging effect; power
transformer insulation testing

1. Introduction
Present legal and economic situations make the owners of power networks take intensive steps to
decrease operation costs and the risk of damage to the natural environment due to failure of the facilities
used. One of the actions taken by the manufacturers of professional power equipment to obtain these
goals is designing equipment made of more durable materials. Another action, which should be taken
mainly by the users of such equipment, is proper operation supplemented with monitoring of the key
apparatus of the system. In the case of power transformers, solid and liquid insulation, which so far
has been made of cellulose impregnated with mineral insulating oil will be more often substituted with
synthetic insulation, mostly made of aramid papers ultimately impregnated with environment-friendly
synthetic and natural esters [1–6]. Compared with cellulose, the application of aramids causes a
significant increase in the resistance to high temperatures, which is presently the main factor having
influence on premature aging of insulation [2,6–8]. Moreover, aramid papers definitely show better
mechanical (e.g., tensile strength) and electric properties (e.g., breakdown voltage, and volume and
surface resistivity). However, designing insulation systems of the aramid-oil type, especially in systems
with induced oil flow, high susceptibility of aramid to streaming electrification phenomenon [3] which
result in additional risk to the safe operation of equipment should be considered. It is probable that the
main cause of a possible failure of a high-power transformer with aramid insulation is damage to the
solid insulation caused by aging. Therefore, apart from assessing the degree of moisture, it is important
to develop a method of non-invasive assessment of the degree of thermal degradation [6,8–12].

Energies 2019, 12, 1063; doi:10.3390/en12061063 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2019, 12, 1063 2 of 10

Future diagnostics of appliances using the type of insulation described will be additionally
complicated due to the fact that various types of insulating oils are being used as impregnants.
The process of departing from using only mineral oils in favor of more ecological synthetic and
natural esters can already be observed, even in the case of classical cellulose insulation in new power
transformers [13,14]. Such a situation is imposed on one hand by more and more restrictive provisions
pertaining to natural environment protection and the reduction of the use of petroleum products
and on the other hand better electrical and physicochemical parameters of new esters [3,4,15,16].
Unfortunately, their higher price and lack of wide expert knowledge that science has in the case of
mineral oils resulting from years of being in use constitutes a barrier limiting the use of these insulating
liquids. Summing up, it can be stated that the process of displacing classical insulation made of
cellulose and mineral oil which has been used in power transformers for over a hundred years in favor
of aramid paper impregnated with ester will take some time but it already seems to be predestined.
This paper presents research on the influence of impregnation type of the aramid paper samples
on dispersion characteristics of the loss factor in the high frequency domain. The research takes into
account the influence of temperature and the process which can be called the initial stage of the aramid
paper aging due to accelerated thermal degradation of its fibers. The choice of a high frequency
domain was made because, aramid-oil insulation has not been studied so far. It was initially assumed
that the thermal degradation of aramid fibers influences the polarization mechanisms in the high
frequency domain.

2. Sample Preparation Method

The insulation samples were made of transformer aramid paper Nomex® (DuPont, Wilmington,
DE, USA) Type 410 with a thickness of 50 µm. Currently, it is the most commonly used type of aramid
insulation applied in new power transformers. The aramid paper was cut into 1300 mm × 100 mm
strips. Then, before impregnation, the samples were subjected to the process of accelerated aging by
placing them in a sterilizer and heating them at 250 ◦ C with the access to air for a definite time. This
way 5 degrees of sample aging was obtained: 1–0 h of aging (fresh paper), 2–100 h of aging, 3–200 h,
4–300 h and 5–400 h of aging. According to the technical specification of aramid paper Nomex® Type
410, the process of accelerated thermal aging starts after exceeding the temperature of 220 ◦ C. The use
of lower than 250 ◦ C aging temperature prolongs the aging process to potentially last even years.
Of course, this is not a simulation of paper aging in a transformer, but only a method of accelerating
thermal aging of aramid paper.
After the stage of accelerated aging, the samples were placed in a vacuum and heated at 120 ◦ C
for 2 h to be dried before impregnation. Three types of insulating liquids were used for impregnation
of the samples: A—Nynas inhibited mineral insulating oil marked as Nytro 10X, B—M&I Materials
synthetic ester marked as Midel 7131, C—M&I Materials natural ester marked as Midel eN 1204.
After the impregnation process the samples were wound on the low potential electrode, which
was a brass roll of 160 mm in length and 40 mm in diameter. Thus 10 layers of insulation were obtained.
The high potential electrode was made of a thin 80 mm aluminum foil. The foil was wound on the
roll with the sample. Figure 1 shows a cross section of the electrode system and Figure 2 shows the
system ready for testing. The tests were carried out in a hermetic chamber equipped with a system for
temperature adjustment and stabilization.
It was decided that the insulation samples prepared for testing would not differ in the level of
dampness. Such a decision was made for three reasons. Firstly, as the influence of temperature and the
thermal degradation degree of aramid fibers had already been taken into account, the introduction of
another factor for data analysis would make a proper assessment of the influence of the impregnation
type more complicated. Furthermore, water solubility in selected impregnating liquids vary and
is based on other physical mechanisms. Secondly, it was decided to use in tests a range of high
frequencies, ending with the value of 1 MHz. The conductivity and polarization losses in wet oil–paper
insulations are most pronounced for low frequencies, below 1 Hz [17–19]. Therefore, small changes in
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 3 of 10

the sample’s degree of moisture would most probably affect the shape of the registered characteristics
in high frequencies to a very small degree. Thirdly, the following practical factor should also be taken
into account. In a properly exploited aramid–oil insulation, which is placed in a hermetic transformer
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 3 of 10
tank filled with oil, the increase in insulation moist degree seems to be of little significance. In the case
of a classical istransformer
whichEnergies
placed in1063
2019, 12, cellulose–oil
a hermetic insulation,
transformer waterwith
tank filled is oneoil,of
thethe products
increase of cellulose
in insulation 3 macroparticle
moist degree
of 10
seems to be of little significance. In the case of a classical transformer
decay (processes of oxidation and pyrolysis). Therefore, with years of its exploitation, thecellulose–oil insulation, water
amount
which is placed in a hermetic transformer tank filled with oil, the increase in insulation moist degree
is one
of water will of the products
increase in a of cellulose
natural way macroparticle
[20–22]. decay
Such a (processes
phenomenon of oxidation
will not and
occur pyrolysis).
in the case of
seems to be of little significance. In the case of a classical transformer cellulose–oil insulation, water
Therefore, with years of its exploitation, the amount of water will increase in a natural way [20–22].
aramid-oilisinsulations for obvious
one of the products reasons.
of cellulose macroparticle decay (processes of oxidation and pyrolysis).
Such Therefore,
a phenomenon willof
with years not
itsoccur in the the
exploitation, caseamount
of aramid-oil
of water insulations
will increasefor
in aobvious reasons.
natural way [20–22].
Such a phenomenon will not occur in the case of aramid-oil insulations for obvious reasons.

FigureFigureA1.view
1. Figure ofview
A1.view
A the measuring
of
of the the electrode
measuring
measuring electrodesystem
electrode system
systemand andthe
and the
the insulation
insulation sample
sample
insulation studied:
studied:
sample 1—a1—a
1—a roll
studied: roll roll
mademade
of brass
made (low
of potential
brass (low electrode),
potential 2—aramid-oil
electrode), insulation
2—aramid-oil sample,
insulation 3—metal
sample, 3—metal
of brass (low potential electrode), 2—aramid-oil insulation sample, 3—metal foil (high foil
foil (high
(high potential
electrode),potential
4—heater,electrode), 4—heater, 5—temperature
5—temperature sensor, 6—insulator,
sensor, 6—insulator, 7—hermetic
7—hermetic vessel.
vessel.
potential electrode), 4—heater, 5—temperature sensor, 6—insulator, 7—hermetic vessel.

2. A photograph
Figure Figure ofofthe
2. A photograph theinsulation sample
insulation sample prepared
prepared for testing.
for testing.

3. Experimental
3. Experimental Results Results
Figure 2. A photograph of the insulation sample prepared for testing.
The measurements of loss factor tan δ and capacitance C of the samples were carried out using a
The measurements of loss factor tan δ and capacitance C of the samples were carried out using
GwINSTEK RLC
3. Experimental Resultsbridge type LCR-8101 (Good Will Instrument Co. Ltd., New Taipei, Taiwan) in the
a GwINSTEK RLCrange
frequency bridge type LCR-8101
of measurement voltage (Good
from 50 Will
Hz Instrument
to 1 MHz. TheCo. testsLtd.,
were NewperformedTaipei,for 5Taiwan) in
the frequencyThe measurements
range
insulation of
of measurement
temperatures loss factor
ranging from tan
voltage δ and
20 °C from capacitance
to 100 50 Hz20to
°C in C of the samples
°C1increments.
MHz. The were
tests were
Exemplary carried out using a for 5
data,performed
which
GwINSTEK
were RLC
obtained bridge
for a type
non-aged LCR-8101
sample (Good
◦
impregnated Will Instrument
◦
with
insulation temperatures ranging from 20 C to 100 C in 20 C increments. Exemplary data, mineral ◦ Co. Ltd.,
insulating New
oil, is Taipei,
shown in Taiwan)
Figure 3. in the
which
frequency
It was range
observedof measurement
that the increasevoltage from 50also
in temperature Hzcaused
to 1 MHz. The tests
the increase were performed
in capacitance C of the for 5
were obtained for a non-aged sample impregnated with mineral insulating oil, is shown in Figure 3.
sampletemperatures
insulation (Figure 3a) inrangingthe whole from range
20 °C of to
the100
frequencies
°C in 20 registered.
°C increments.The registered
Exemplary change
data,ofwhich
It was observed that C,
the increase innottemperature also caused the increase
exceededin5% capacitance C of the sample
were capacitance
obtained for ahowever,
non-aged was sample significant
impregnated and onwith
average never
mineral insulating in is
oil, the temperature
shown in Figure 3.
(Figure 3a) in
range the whole
of 20–100 °Crange
for all of the frequencies
frequencies. A similar registered.
phenomenon The
It was observed that the increase in temperature also caused the increase in capacitance registered
also occurred in the change
case of of capacitance
C of the C,
classical
however, cellulose–oil
was(Figure insulation
not significant but
and for lower
on average frequency
never ranges, e.g.,
exceeded 5% 1 mHz–1 kHz [17,19,23].
in the temperature range of 20–100 ◦C
sample 3a) in the whole range of the frequencies registered. The registered change of
The increase in insulation temperature caused a significant increase in loss factor tan δ (Figure
for allcapacitance
frequencies. C, A similarwas
however, phenomenon
not significant also occurred in thenever
case exceeded
of classical cellulose–oil insulation
3b), especially in the lower frequency range, and on average
50 Hz–1 kHz. Moreover, a shift of the5% in the temperature
maximum of the
but for lower
range of frequency
20–100 °C ranges,
for all e.g.,
frequencies.1 mHz–1A kHz
similar [17,19,23].
phenomenon also occurred
process of aramid fiber relaxation with increasing temperature towards higher frequencies was in the case of classical
cellulose–oil
The observed.insulation
increase in insulation
This but for
phenomenon lower
can be frequency
temperature caused
observed ranges,
very aclearlye.g.,
significant 1 mHz–1
if the increase
analysis kHz
wasin[17,19,23].
loss factor
carried tan δ (Figure 3b),
out removing
especially in the lower frequency range, 50 Hz–1 kHz. Moreover, a shift ofin
The increase
initial results in
to insulation
frequencies temperature
ca. 1 kHz (Figurecaused
4). a
For significant
all increase
characteristics, the loss
starting
the factor
point tan
maximum wasofδthe
(Figure
the process
of aramid fiber relaxation with increasing temperature towards higher frequencies was of
3b), especially in the lower frequency range, 50 Hz–1 kHz. Moreover, a shift of the maximum the
observed.
process of aramid fiber relaxation with increasing temperature towards higher frequencies was
This phenomenon can be observed very clearly if the analysis was carried out removing initial results
observed. This phenomenon can be observed very clearly if the analysis was carried out removing
to frequencies ca. 1 kHz (Figure 4). For all characteristics, the starting point was the moment when the
initial results to frequencies ca. 1 kHz (Figure 4). For all characteristics, the starting point was the
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 4 of 10
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 4 of 10

slope
momentof the lossthe
when factor characteristics
slope increases
of the loss factor at the localincreases
characteristics minimum. It should
at the be added here
local minimum. that the
It should be
observations of the influence of temperature were confirmed for all thermal degradation
added here that the observations of the influence of temperature were confirmed for all thermal degrees of
aramid fibers,degrees
degradation regardless of the impregnating
of aramid fluidofused.
fibers, regardless the impregnating fluid used.

(a) (b)
Figure 3.
Figure 3. The
The influence
influence ofof temperature
temperature onon the
thecharacteristics
characteristicsof
ofcapacitance
capacitanceCC(a)
(a)and
andloss
lossfactor
factortan
tanδ
(b) of the non-aged aramid insulation sample impregnated with mineral insulating oil:
δ (b) of the non-aged aramid insulation sample impregnated with mineral insulating oil: 1–20 ◦ C,1–20 °C, 2–40
◦ C, 3–60
°C, 3–60
2–40 ◦ C, °C,
°C, 4–80 ◦ C, 5–100
4–805–100 °C. ◦ C.

Figure 4. The influence of temperature on the characteristics of loss factor tan δδ of

Figure 4. of the
the non-aged
non-aged
aramid ◦ C, 2–40 ◦ C, 3–60 ◦ C, 4–80 ◦ C,
aramid insulation
insulationsample
sampleimpregnated
impregnatedwith
withmineral
mineralinsulating oil:oil:
insulating 1–201–20 °C, 2–40 °C, 3–60 °C, 4–80
5–100 ◦ C.
°C, 5–100 °C.

Undoubtedly,
Undoubtedly, aa decrease
decrease in in volume
volume resistivity
resistivity of
of aramid–oil
aramid–oil insulation
insulation generated
generated by by increasing
increasing
temperature
temperature was responsible for
was responsible for aa general
general increase
increasein inloss
lossfactor
factortantanδ,δ,which
whichforforaatime
timeofof300
300s satata
aselected
selectedsample
sampleisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure5.5.The
Thereading
readingdelay
delayof of the
the resistance
resistance values
values ofof 300
300 ss made
made it it
possible to limit the influence of polarization current, which would generate
possible to limit the influence of polarization current, which would generate significant significant discrepancies
in the test results
discrepancies registered.
in the test results registered.
The main goal
The main goal of the
of research was the
the research analysis
was of the influence
the analysis of the of the aramid
influence of paper impregnation
the aramid paper
type
impregnation type on dispersive characteristics of loss factor tan δ in the high frequency domain.to
on dispersive characteristics of loss factor tan δ in the high frequency domain. It was decided It
use
wasthree typestoofuse
decided dielectric
three liquids
types ofwhich are often
dielectric usedwhich
liquids for impregnation
are often usedof high-power insulation
for impregnation of
of electric power
high-power facilities
insulation operating
of electric in electric
power facilitiespower distribution
operating in electricsystems
powerof the European
distribution Union
systems of
countries.
the European These
Unionwere, respectively:
countries. These Inhibited mineral insulating
were, respectively: oil, synthetic
Inhibited mineral ester oil,
insulating andsynthetic
natural
ester and natural ester. The manufacturers of the insulating liquids mentioned are specified in point
2 of the paper. Before the impregnation process, the liquids were degassed and demoisturized under
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 5 of 10

ester. The2019,
Energies manufacturers
12, 1063 of the insulating liquids mentioned are specified in point 2 of the5 of paper.
10
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 5 of 10
Before the impregnation process, the liquids were degassed and demoisturized under vacuum.
vacuum. After ◦
After After impregnation,
impregnation,
vacuum. the samplesthe
impregnation, samples
were
the were
seasoned
samples seasoned
werefor 24 h infor
seasoned 6024
for 24Chhtemperature
in
in 60
60 °C
°C temperature in
in aa hermetic
in a hermetic
temperature chamber.
hermetic
chamber.
Thechamber. The
biggest influence biggest
The biggest influence
of the of the
impregnating
influence impregnating liquid
liquid type was
of the impregnating type
observed
liquid was
type was observed
at observed at the
the measurement measurement
temperature
at the measurement
temperature
of 20 of
of 20
◦ C. The relevant
temperature 20 °C. The
The relevant
research
°C. research
results
relevant results
are shown
research are
are shown
in Figure
results 6. in
shown in Figure
Figure 6. 6.

Figure 5. The
Figure influence ofoftemperature on resistance of the non-aged aramid
aramid insulationsample
sample
Figure 5.
5. The
The influence
influence of temperature
temperature on
on resistance
resistance of the non-aged
non-aged aramid insulation
insulation sample
impregnated
impregnatedwith
withmineral insulating
mineral oil
insulating measured
oil measured after
after 300
300 s.
s.
impregnated with mineral insulating oil measured after 300 s.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure
Figure 6.
6. The
6. TheThe influence
influence
influenceofof
the
of the impregnating
impregnating
the liquid
impregnatingliquid type
liquidtype on
typeon the
the characteristics
on the characteristics of
characteristics ofcapacitance
of capacitanceCCC(a)
capacitance and
(a)
(a) and
and
lossloss factor
factor tantan
δ δ
(b)(b)
of of
thethe non-aged
non-aged aramid
aramid insulation
insulation samples:
samples: 1—mineral
1—mineral oil, 2—synthetic
oil, 2—synthetic
loss factor tan δ (b) of the non-aged aramid insulation samples: 1—mineral oil, 2—synthetic ester, ester,
ester,
3—natural
3—natural
3—natural ester.
ester.
ester.

Undoubtedly,
Undoubtedly,
Undoubtedly, forfor
the
for the increase
increaseinin
increase
the capacitance
incapacitance
capacitanceC C of
C of the
of the insulation
insulation samples
the insulation samples(Figure
samples (Figure6a)
(Figure 6a)aa abigger
6a) bigger
bigger
permittivity
permittivity
permittivity of
of of esters
esters
esters in
in in relation
relation to mineral
relationtotomineral
mineraloil oil is responsible.
oilisisresponsible. The difference
responsible. The difference between
difference between
betweenthe the
thesamples
samples
samples
impregnated
impregnated
impregnated withwith
with insulating
insulating
insulating oil and
oiland
oil esters
andesters
esterswaswas
wason on average
average 120
onaverage 120pFpFin
pF inthe
in thewhole
the wholefrequency
whole frequency
frequency range
range
range (ca.
(ca.
(ca.
30%
30% increase
increase in
in the
the capacitance
capacitance value).
value). In
In the
the case
case of
of loss
loss factor
factor tan
tan δδ aa similar
similar dependency
dependency was
was
30% increase in the capacitance value). In the case of loss factor tan δ a similar dependency was
observed
observed (Figure
(Figure 6b), which also manifested itself in an
an increased value of
of tan δδ when the
the samples
observed (Figure 6b),6b), which
which alsoalso manifested
manifested itselfitself
in an in increased
increased
value value
of tan tan
δ when when
the samplessampleswere
were impregnated
were impregnated with esters in the whole frequency range under study. Furthermore, the
impregnated with esterswith in theesters
whole in frequency
the wholerange frequency range Furthermore,
under study. under study. the Furthermore,
frequency ofthe the
frequency
frequency of
of the
the characteristic
characteristic maximum
maximum of
of the
the aramid
aramid paper
paper fiber
fiber ◦polarization
polarization for
for 20
20 °C
°C (ca.
(ca. 10
10
characteristic maximum of the aramid paper fiber polarization for 20 C (ca. 10 kHz) did not change,
kHz)
kHz)thedid not
diduse
notof change,
change, despite
despite the
the use
use of various
ofliquids.
variousThis impregnating
impregnating liquids. This
liquids.thatThisatresult
result confirms
confirms that at
despite various impregnating result confirms this point, the that at
process
this
this point, the process of dipole relaxation connected only with polarization of aramid fibers took
point, the process of dipole relaxation connected only with polarization of aramid fibers took
place.
place. This
This is
is important
important because
because the the results
results of of this
this research
research can can be
be used
used in in diagnostic
diagnostic investigations,
investigations,
 Energies 2019, 12, 1063 6 of 10
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 6 of 10
e.g., aramid paper aging changes regardless of the impregnation type used. The results of putting
this method to the test are presented further in this paper.
of dipole In relaxation
diagnosticsconnected only insulation,
of impregnated with polarization of aramid
which uses fibersoftook
the analysis place. of
variability This
lossisfactor
important
tan
because the results of this research can be used in diagnostic investigations, e.g.,
δ, it is especially important to take into account the influence of temperature. Therefore, it was aramid paper aging
changes
decided regardless
to take a of the of
series impregnation
measurements type used.
in the The results
temperature of putting
range from 20this°C method
to 100 °Ctowiththe 20
test°Care
presented further
increments. Thein thisimportant
most paper. test results are shown in Figure 7. Dispersive characteristics of loss
In diagnostics
factor tan δ for 20of°Cimpregnated insulation,
is shown in Figure which uses
6a. Generally, anthe analysis
increase of variabilitycaused
in temperature of lossshifting
factor tanof δ,
it isthe maximum
especially of the aramid
important to takepaper fiber polarization
into account towards
the influence higher frequencies
of temperature. regardless
Therefore, of the
it was decided
impregnation
to take a series oftype used. Another
measurements especially
in the important
temperature from 20 ◦ C to
rangeobservation is 100 ◦ C with
the fact the◦ C
that 20 differences
increments.
Thebetween the characteristics
most important test resultsof areloss factor
shown tan δ of
in Figure 7. the samplescharacteristics
Dispersive studied blurred with
of loss increasing
factor tan δ for
◦
temperature. At 100 °C, practically all characteristics overlap (Figure 7d)
20 C is shown in Figure 6a. Generally, an increase in temperature caused shifting of the maximum and slight differences can
of betheascribed
aramid onlypaperto fiber
systematic and random
polarization measurement
towards errors. Thisregardless
higher frequencies observationofleads to the belief
the impregnation
that these changes are caused by a significant decrease in the viscosity
type used. Another especially important observation is the fact that the differences between theof esters due to temperature
increases andof
characteristics thus
lossthefactor
polarization
tan δ of processes take place
the samples studiedwith blurred
a lower energy loss, especially
with increasing in the
temperature.
range◦ of higher frequencies.
At 100 C, practically all characteristics overlap (Figure 7d) and slight differences can be ascribed
With the conclusion that the maximum loss of the processes of aramid paper fiber polarization
only to systematic and random measurement errors. This observation leads to the belief that these
is best observed at the lowest measurement temperature of 20 °C, the decision was made to analyze
changes are caused by a significant decrease in the viscosity of esters due to temperature increases
the influence of the degree of thermal degradation of fibers on the registered value of this maximum.
and thus the polarization processes take place with a lower energy loss, especially in the range of
For this purpose, the process of thermal aramid paper aging described in point 2 of the paper was
higher frequencies.
carried out. Its results are shown in Figure 8.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 7. The influence of the impregnating liquid type on the characteristics of loss factor tan δ of
the non-aged aramid insulation sample: (a) T = 40 ◦ C, (b) T = 60 ◦ C, (c) T = 80 ◦ C, (d) T = 100 ◦ C,
1—mineral oil, 2—synthetic ester, 3—natural ester.
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 7 of 10

With the conclusion that the maximum loss of the processes of aramid paper fiber polarization is
Energies
best 2019, 12, at
observed the lowest measurement temperature of 20 ◦ C, the decision was made to analyze
1063 7 ofthe
10

influence of the degree of thermal degradation of fibers on the registered value of this maximum. For
Figure 7. The influence of the impregnating liquid type on the characteristics of loss factor tan δ of
this purpose, the process of thermal aramid paper aging described in point 2 of the paper was carried
the non-aged aramid insulation sample: (a) T = 40 °C, (b) T = 60 °C, (c) T = 80 °C, (d) T = 100 °C,
out. Its results are shown in Figure 8.
1—mineral oil, 2—synthetic ester, 3—natural ester.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 8.
Figure 8. The influence of the thermal degradation degree of the aramid aramid paper
paper samples
samples on on the
the
characteristicsofofloss
characteristics loss factor
factor tantan δ the
δ for for insulation
the insulation samples
samples at 20 ◦ C:
tested tested at (a)
20 mineral
°C: (a) oil,
mineral oil, (b)
(b) synthetic
synthetic
ester, ester, (c)
(c) natural natural
ester, 1–0 ester, 1–0 h 2–100
h of aging, of aging,
h of2–100 h of
aging, aging,
3–200 h of3–200 h of
aging, aging,
4–300 4–300
h of aging,h of aging,
5–400 h
5–400
of h of aging.
aging.

To
To analyze
analyze polarization maximummaximum of of the
thearamid
aramidpaper
paperfibers
fibersmore
moreprecisely
preciselyit it
was was decided
decided to
to narrow
narrow down
down thethe areaofofthe
area thefrequencies
frequenciesobserved
observedtotorange
rangefrom
from 11 kHz
kHz to to 100 kHz. Practically,
regardless
regardless ofof the
the type
type of
of the
the impregnating
impregnating liquidliquid used,
used, the
the maximum
maximum of loss loss factor
factor tan
tan δδ increases
increases
with ◦C
with the
thedegree
degreeofofthermal
thermaldegradation
degradationofofaramid
aramid fibers, defined
fibers, definedbybythethe
time of their
time heating
of their at 250
heating at 250
(Figure 8). 8).
°C (Figure TheThechanges
changesdescribed
described cancanbebe
bestbestobserved
observedininthethecase
caseofofaramid
aramidpaperpaper impregnation
impregnation
with
with mineral insulating oil (Figure 8a). The cause of this phenomenon can be considerably
mineral insulating oil (Figure 8a). The cause of this phenomenon can be sought in a sought in a
higher viscosity
considerably of esters
higher at 20of◦ Cesters
viscosity than atthat20of°Cmineral oil of
than that and their higher
mineral oil andpolarity whichpolarity
their higher results
directly from their
which results chemical
directly composition.
from their chemical composition.
According to the author, finally two mechanisms are responsible for the increase of the loss
factor tan δ maximum values. The first one consists of aramid fibers breaking due to long term
influence of high temperature and their sticking to one another. In this way irregular structures are
created which disturb a repeatable material structure. Additionally, internal stresses occur which
deform the aramid paper surface. A sample becomes creased and shrunk. The mechanism described
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 8 of 10

According to the author, finally two mechanisms are responsible for the increase of the loss factor
tan δ maximum values. The first one consists of aramid fibers breaking due to long term influence of
high temperature and their sticking to one another. In this way irregular structures are created which
disturb a repeatable
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 material structure. Additionally, internal stresses occur which deform the aramid 8 of 10
paper surface. A sample becomes creased and shrunk. The mechanism described must generate bigger
energy losses inbigger
must generate the process
energy oflosses
polarization
in the in macroscopic
process terms. The
of polarization in other mechanism
macroscopic is connected
terms. The other
to releasing additional
mechanism is connected free
toelectric charge
releasing carriers,
additional theelectric
free result of whichcarriers,
charge is a reduced volume
the result resistance
of which is a
of the samples
reduced volume dueresistance
to aging (Figure
of the9). To reduce
samples duethetoinfluence of polarization
aging (Figure current the
9). To reduce on the resistance
influence of
value measured,
polarization theon
current test results
the werevalue
resistance registered, like in
measured, Figure
the 5, after
test results 300 registered,
were s from the like
beginning of
in Figure
measurement
5, after 300 s fromtaking.
the beginning of measurement taking.

Figure 9. The influence of the thermal degradation degree of the aramid paper fibers on resistance of
Figure 9. The influence of the thermal degradation degree of the aramid paper fibers on resistance of
the insulation sample at 20 ◦ C measured after 300 s: 1—mineral oil, 2—synthetic ester, 3—natural ester.
the insulation sample at 20 °C measured after 300 s: 1—mineral oil, 2—synthetic ester, 3—natural
ester.biggest changes were noted for the samples impregnated with mineral insulating oil and the
The
smallest changes for impregnation with synthetic ester. However, not only the thermal aging of paper,
The biggest changes were noted for the samples impregnated with mineral insulating oil and
but the low resistance of the ester liquids determines the resistance of the ester impregnated samples.
the smallest changes for impregnation with synthetic ester. However, not only the thermal aging of
The values of the slopes of linear approximation function and the coefficients of determination R2 are
paper, but the low resistance of the ester liquids determines the resistance of the ester impregnated
provided in Table 1.
samples. The values of the slopes of linear approximation function and the coefficients of
determination R2 are
Table 1. Slopes of provided in Table 1.functions from Figure 9 and coefficient of determination R2 .
linear approximation

TypeTable
of Impregnation
1. Slopes of linearDirection Factorfunctions
approximation Statistical Error9 *and coefficient
from Figure Coefficient R2. R2
of Determination
of determination
(1) Mineral oilImpregnation − 4.437 × 10 9 × 109* Coefficient of Determination
±2.705Error 0.901
Type of Direction Factor Statistical R2
(2) Synthetic ester −1.05 × 107 9 ±7.227 × 9107 0.877
(1) Mineral oil −4.437 × 10 ±2.705 × 10 8 0.901
(3) Natural oil −7.79 × 108 7 ±6.421 × 10 0.832
(2) Synthetic ester −1.05 × 10 ±7.227 × 107 0.877
(3) Natural oil * The significance level
−7.79 × 10 8 of 0.05 was assumed
±6.421 × 108 in the calculations. 0.832
* The significance level of 0.05 was assumed in the calculations.
Slight discrepancies between the measurement points and the imposed approximation function
Slight
resulted discrepancies
mainly between of
from inaccuracy thesample
measurement points and
manufacturing the imposed
(inaccurate approximation
aramid function
paper adherence to
resulted mainly from inaccuracy of sample manufacturing (inaccurate aramid paper adherence to
electrodes, slight insulation layer separation and possible gas bubbles in impregnation oil). In addition,
electrodes, slight insulation layer separation and possible gas bubbles in impregnation oil).
there is a high degree of probability in this type of insulation, as there are many different electricalIn
addition, there
conductivity is a high degree
mechanisms of probability
at the same time. in this type of insulation, as there are many different
electrical conductivity mechanisms at the same time.

4. Conclusions
The results of the aramid-oil insulation samples tests prove that the performance of the analysis
of loss factor tan δ in the range of high frequencies can be a useful diagnostic tool for this type of
insulation. For this purpose, we should focus on the analysis of the polarization maximum of the
aramid paper fibers which is strictly correlated with the temperature of the insulation under study.
It was determined that it is most advantageous to take measurements in possibly low temperatures.
Energies 2019, 12, 1063 9 of 10

4. Conclusions
The results of the aramid-oil insulation samples tests prove that the performance of the analysis
of loss factor tan δ in the range of high frequencies can be a useful diagnostic tool for this type of
insulation. For this purpose, we should focus on the analysis of the polarization maximum of the
aramid paper fibers which is strictly correlated with the temperature of the insulation under study.
It was determined that it is most advantageous to take measurements in possibly low temperatures.
It was estimated during the research that the maximum loss factor tan δ of the aramid paper fibers at
20 ◦ C occurs at the measurement frequency ca. 10 kHz.
Coil insulation of modern high-power transformers can be made of aramid paper impregnated
with various types of insulating liquids, including mineral oil, synthetic ester or natural ester.
During the test it was determined that the type of impregnating liquid used significantly influences
the shape of characteristics of loss factor tan δ in the range of high frequencies. The biggest differences
were observed in at the lowest measurement temperature of 20 ◦ C. Lack of significant differences
in the characteristic runs was observed at 100 ◦ C, the curves practically overlap. The occurrence of
polarization maximum of the aramid paper fibers was confirmed, which practically does not depend
on the impregnating liquid used.
The process of thermal degradation of aramid fibers is a significant threat to failure-free
exploitation of aramid-oil insulation in high-power transformers. Using the method of accelerated
thermal degradation of aramid paper it was determined that the value of the polarization maximum
registered seems to be correlated with this process. A measurable increase of the maximum values
with an increase in aging degree of aramid paper was observed, regardless of the impregnating liquid
used. In this case, carrying out tests in possibly low temperatures is recommended. The analysis of the
influence of other aramid paper and insulating liquids brands coming from other manufacturers is an
open issue. In addition, the analysis of loss factor tan δ in frequency ranges exceeding the value of
1 kHz can be carried out. The aforementioned challenges will be the subject of further studies by the
author of this paper.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

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