A REPORT ON RESEARCH PAPER BASED

on
SOLAR AIRCRAFT
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Award of the Degree
of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2021-22

Submitted By:
SHASHANK
1900520400052

submitted to the
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEEERING

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

 CANDIDATE DECLARATION

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LUCKNOW

CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION I “ SHASHANK ” hereby declare that I have done

my work on Research Paper at “Institute of Engineering and Technology ” in partial

fulfillment of requirements for the award of degree of B.Tech (Mechanical Engineering)

at INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LUCKNOW . The work

which is being presented in the training report submitted to Department of Mechanical

Engineering at INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, LUCKNOW

is an authentic record of my work.

SHASHANK

Signature of the Student Signature of Internal Examiner

 ABSTRACT

Generally domain Aircraft uses conventional fuel. These fuel having limited life,
high cost and pollutant. Also nowadays price of petrol and other fuels are going to
be higher, because of scarcity of those fuels. So there is great demand of use of
non-exhaustible unlimited source of energy like solar energy. Solar aircraft is one
of the ways to utilize solar energy. Solar aircraft uses solar panel to collect the
solar radiation for immediate use but it also store the remaining part for the night
flight. This paper intended to stimulate research on renewable energy sources for
aviation. In future solar powered airplanes could be used for different types of
aerial monitoring and unmanned flights.
This review paper briefly shows history, application and use of solar aircraft. We
are focusing on design and fabrication of solar aircraft which is unmanned
prototype.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am highly grateful to Director DR. Vineet Kansal of Institute of Engineering and

Technology, Lucknow for providing this opportunity to carry out work on Research

Paper based on STUDY OF SOLAR AIRCRAFT. The constant guidance and

encouragement received from DR. ARUN KUMAR TIWARI HOD of Mechanical

Engineering, Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow and has been of great

help in carrying out the work and is acknowledged with reverential thanks. I would

like to express a deep sense of gratitude and thanks profusely to ER. VIPUL

PATHAK, Instructor, without the wise counsel and able guidance, it would have been

impossible to complete the report in this manner. I would like to express gratitude to

other faculty members of Mechanical department for their intellectual support

throughout whole Study on Research Paper. Finally, I am indebted to all whosoever

have contributed in this report work

Student Name :SHASHANK

 INTRODUCTION

Energy comes in different forms. Light is a form of energy. Sun is source of

energy called “sunlight”.Sunshine is free and never gets used up. Also, there is a
lot of it. The sunlight that heats the Earth in an hour has more energy than the
people of the world use in a year. A little device called a solar cell can make
electricity right from sunlight. The dream of flight powered only by the sun’s
energy or sunlight has long motivated scientists and hobbyists. A solar
aircraft is one which collects energy from the sun by means of photovoltaic solar
cells. The energy may be used to drive electric motor to power the aircraft.
Such airplanes store excess solar energy in batteries for night use.
Also there are rapidly increasing traffic problems in world and in our country
also, so it is required to go for such small solar aircrafts which can be used for
transporting goods or materials between places at short distance. Using solar
panels there is more space due to escape of engines and turbines. Quite a few
manned and unmanned solar aircraft have been developed and
flown.
FUTURE exploration of Mars, laid out by the Vision for Space Exploration ,
requires long-endurance unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that use resources
that are plentiful on Mars. One possible way of achieving this is to use solar-
powered UAVs that fly perpetually, which motivates the problems solved in this
paper. The UAVs considered in this paper are distinguished from the majority
of UAVs by their power source: they are equipped with solar cells on the upper
surface of the wings as well as onboard energy storage.
These solar cells collect energy that is used to drive a propeller. This paper
considers the problem of energy-optimal path planning for solar-powered
UAVs in level flight and quantifies the requirement for perpetual endurance in
solar-powered flight. Perpetual endurance is the ability of aUAVto collect more
energy from the sun than it loses in flying during a solar day. These problems
feature the interaction between three subsystems: aircraft kinematics, energy
collection, and energy loss. Although the current literature discusses methods
to optimize UAV aerodynamic design for energy usage, there is no approach
that examines the coupling of energy collection and energy loss with the
aircraft kinematics, and there is no specific quantification of the requirement
for perpetual endurance of solar powered
flight in terms of aircraft and environmental parameters. Consequently, the
purpose of this paper is twofold: 1) to investigate the coupling between energy
collection, energy loss, and kinematic and to account for it in optimal path
planning and 2) to identify the requirement for perpetual endurance and show
its applicability to solar-powered aircraft design.
Although the current literature on solar-powered UAVs does not consider
energy-optimal path planning or perpetual flight, a substantial body of work is
available on the analysis and design of solar-powered aircraft. A brief review of
this literature is as follows.
The feasibility of solar-powered flight is reviewed in , and the history of solar-
powered flight is discussed in . Methods for analysis and design of solar-
powered aircraft are discussed in Specifically, the design of solar-powered
aircraft has focused on geometric configuration 12. Design of full aircraft
systems can be found, in particular, in the use of optimal control to generate
aircraft trajectories has been extensively covered in the literature by [30–33] as
well as many others. Generally, the concern has been to fly in a fuel- and
energyoptimal manner or in a time-optimal manner Multiplecost optimization
(in this case, for fuel and time) is discussed in. Various methods have been
employed to optimize aircraft trajectories, including necessary conditions [40]
and parameter reduction.
Optimization for solar-powered aircraft is discussed in the literature. Most path
planning has only considered minimum power consumption during level flight .
References use an optimization procedure to design the aircraft based upon
expected maneuvers and sunlight availability. Mission design is found in , with
particular emphasis on where and when to fly. In most references, efficiency
through preliminary design is emphasized. Alternative methods to increase
efficiency for solarpowered aircraft are discussed in [45–47]. Reference [47]
achieves a 30% increase in efficiency by improving the cooling of solar cells.
Energy-efficient flight is discussed in the literature on dynamic soaring [48–50]
and manned gliders . However, nowhere in the literature is there a study
optimizing the flight path itself based upon the interaction of kinematics and
solar energetics or a design requirement for perpetual endurance for solar-
powered flight.
The present paper presents an integrated model of the aircraft kinematics and
energetics that has the following original features. First, the energy collected
and lost depend upon the bank angle of the aircraft and the position of the sun.
The turn rate of the aircraft is also dependent upon the bank angle. Thus, the
aircraft kinematics and energetics are coupled through the bank angle. Second,
the sun is not assumed to always be present in the sky or to be stationary.
Maneuvers in all light conditions are considered and several regimes of flight
are discussed. Based on the integrated model, the problem of solar-powered
UAV level-flight path planning is formulated as an optimal control problem,
with the bank angle and speed serving as inputs. The present paper studies this
optimization problem and provides the following original contributions:
1) The necessary conditions for optimality are formulated.
2) From these necessary conditions, the properties of energyoptimal paths are
derived.
3) Two regimes of optimal flight are identified. The so-called power ratio, a
dimensionless parameter that can be computed before flight, is shown to
correctly predict the regime of optimal flight.
4) An analytic condition for perpetual endurance accounting for location, time
of year, environment, and aircraft parameters is presented. The condition
requires the power ratio to exceed a threshold: the perpetuity threshold.
5) This paper proves that the requirements for perpetual solarpowered flight on
Mars are always significantly more stringent than on Earth. Hence, solar-
powered UAVs for Mars exploration must satisfy tighter design specifications
than their Earthbound counterparts. The remainder of the paper is as follows.
In Sec. II, the model Is presented. In Sec. III, the problem of maximization of the
total final energy of the UAV is formulated. In Sec. IV, the necessary conditions
of optimality are used to characterize the optimal paths. Section V introduces
the power ratio, and in Sec. VI, properties of the optimal paths are presented. In
Sec. VII, the perpetuity threshold is derived and compared between Earth and
Mars. Section VIII provides conclusions and discusses future work.
Derivation of the solar position model, proofs of the propositions,
and derivation of the first- and second-order necessary conditions
are given in.

Faster-moving air above exerts less pressure on the wing than the slower-
moving air below. The result is an upward push on the wing. This is called lift.

This is the reason why wings are shaped in such a way that air above the upper
surface moves fast. And this can be done by moving air above the wing through
longer distances than the air below the wing in same time. That’s why upper
surface of wing is more curved than its lower surface. Till now many airfoils
have been developed for different purposes, like low or high speeds, or
stability.

We have used symmetrical aerofoil because the wings will be hand fabricated
and developing a cambered airfoil will be difficult. That means there will be no
camber. We have selected NACA aerofoil of 4 digit i.e., NACA 0015. The ‘NACA’
aerofoils are shapes for aircraft wing developed by the National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics (NACA).
How solar cells make electricity

The cells are made of a type of material known as a semiconductor. Often, they
are made of silicon. The process of making electricity begins when the silicon
atoms absorb some light. The light’s energy knocks some electrons out of the
atoms. The electrons flow between the two layers. The flow makes an electric
current. The current can leave the cell through the metal contacts and be used.
When light hits a solar cell, much of its energy is wasted. Some light bounces
off or passes through the cell. Some is turned into heat. Only light with the right
wavelengths or colours, is absorbed and then turned into electricity. Single
simple solar cell makes only a little electricity. For most purposes more is
needed. For this reason, cells are often linked together in groups known as solar
modules. A solar module has a frame that holds the cells. Some modules are
several feet long and wide. They usually can produce up to a few hundred watts
of electricity. If more power is needed, modules can be joined together to form
a large solar array. Modules are sometimes called solar panels. Arrays are also
sometimes called solar panels. Whatever you call a group of solar cells, the fact
remains: the more cells you link together, the more electricity you make. With
enough modules, huge amounts of power are possible. A good example is a
new power plant being built at Moura in Portugal. The first phase of the project
has 262,080 solar modules, each with 48 cells. They will produce up to 46
megawatts of electricity.
Solar cells we are going to use

Solar cells:

Crystalline silicon cells: By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is
crystalline silicon (abbreviated as a group as c-Si), also known as "solar grade
silicon". Bulk silicon is separated into multiple categories according to
crystallinity and crystal size in the resulting ingot, ribbon, or wafer. E.g.,
monocrystalline silicon (c-Si) polycrystalline silicon, or multicrystalline (poly-Si
or mc-Si). Crystalline solar cells are wired in series to produce solar panels. As
each cell produces a voltage of between 0.5 and 0.6 Volts, 36 cells are needed
to produce an open-circuit voltage of about 20 Volts. This is sufficient to charge
a 12 Volt battery under most conditions.

Monocrystalline – made from a single large crystal, cut from ingots. Most
efficient, but also the most expensive. Somewhat better in low light conditions
Polycrystalline – basically cast blocks of silicon which may contain many small
crystals. This is probably the most common type right now. Slightly less
efficient than single crystal, but once set into a frame with 36 or so other cells,
the actual difference in watts per square foot is not much. Other types of solar
cells are:

Thin films cells, Copper indium gallium selenide cells, Gallium arsenide
multijunction, Light-absorbing dyes (DSSC), Quantum Dot Solar Cells (QDSCs),
Organic/polymer solar cells, Silicon thin films.

However we are going to use solar monocrystalline silicon cells, each 150
microns thick and chosen for their lightness, flexibility and efficiency .
Applications

1. As a transport vehicle to reduce cost and to increase overall profit to

reduce fuel cost.
2. Use of free energy means nothing to invest in transportation of materials
and get free transportation after investing in small aircraft.
3. One main reason of traffic is due to the big and bulky transporting
vehicles so by using small lighter aircraft traffic problem can be reduce.
4. Fast transportation of materials so some expensive material can also
transport in less time.
5. One kind of solar aircraft is in astrology industries as a transporting
vehicle used to go in space or on neighbour planets.
6. Use of solar aircraft worldwide can make fast development of countries.
7. Use of Solar Energy as source of energy will increase as conventional fuels
are reducing drastically.
8. Future of aviation field.
9. Future utility to solve traffic problems.
10. Device used for Astronomical field.
11. Utility of solar aircraft in transporting which can be helpful to reduce cost
of transportation.
12. Lower cost of transportation than conventional vehicles.
13. Lighter in weight and not bulky
LITERATURE REVIEW RELATED TO SOLAR
AIRCRAFT
There is a cruciform wing structure for solar powered aircraft on which 28 cells
are mounted on horizontal wing surfaces. For maintaining normal to the sun
rays wing surfaces with span wise axis perpendicular to horizontal surfaces. The
solar airplane may of conventional design with respect to fuselage, propeller
and tail or may construct around core with propeller mechanism near the tips of
airfoils. Solar powered aircraft is capable of continuous flight nowadays. The
research activities carried out till now have been mainly focused on flying wings
or conventional aircraft configurations, with a great emphasis on the
technological aspects. The paper deals with the current state of art of empower
the aviation industry with solar power and the shortcoming and the future
aspect. The Autonomous Systems Lab of EPFL3 has developed, with ESA
program, an ultra-lightweight solar autonomous model airplane called Sky-
Sailor. The main goal of this project is to research on navigation, control of the
plane. The airplane will be capable of continuous flight over days and nights,
which makes it suitable for a wide range of applications. Energy-optimal path
planning and perpetual endurance for unmanned aerial vehicles equipped with
solar cells on the wings, which collect energy used to drive a propeller.
Perpetual endurance is the ability to collect more energy than is lost during a
day. This paper shows two unmanned aerial vehicle missions: (1) to travel
between given positions within an allowed duration while maximizing the final
value of energy and (2) to loiter perpetually from a given position, which
requires perpetual endurance. For the first one, the problem is of energy-
optimal path planning features the coupling of the aircraft kinematics and
energetic models through the bank angle. The problem is then formulated as
an optimal control problem, with the bank angle and speed as inputs. The
power ratio is used to predict the qualitative features of the optimal paths. If
the power ratio exceeds a certain threshold, perpetual endurance is possible.
There are the solar airplanes which have a facility to sustain energy for flight
during day-night cycles. Close to the Earth surface they are useful for
transportation and at high altitudes, they are useful for monitoring and
measurement applications, therefore they are targeted by several research
groups and institutions. Also it indicates that how to choose the essential
design parameters of the airplane for a specific mission, minding the current
state-of-the-art technologies involved. Solar airplanes using both batteries as
energy storage devices as well as their capability of flying performance-
optimizing altitude profiles can be sized and evaluated in terms of various
performance measures. There is the concept of the exploration of neighbour
planets around the earth. The ground robots are used but they have limitations.
So, an aircraft which uses sun energy for flying continuously is approach of
interests in this way. The step in this direction was a

project of sky-sailor started in 2004. The aim was to study the possibility of
solar powered aircrafts in the atmosphere of those planets. There is the result
of two years of work on this project. Mr. Hannes Ross has shown an overview
of the historic solar powered aircraft is provided and the basic challenges which
have to be solved for a solar powered aircraft. The goal of this is to “Fly with
Solar Energy” to civil or military surveillance and reconnaissance missions.
However, none of those aircraft was able to demonstrate a continuous day and
night operation until 2005. There is an analysis and development of the
prototype with the aim of sending an aircraft to Mars (which imposes size
limitations) has been done by Andr´eNoth, Stefan Leutenegger, Walter Engel,
and Roland Siegwart. They showed the actual concepts for designing solar
airplanes for different scales and mission. Because of this consideration the
design of Sky-Sailor, a small prototype unmanned aircraft that used for
continuous flight at low altitude. The conceptual design tool, in particular the
airframe weight model will allow optimizing and downscaling solar airplanes
towards a 1m wingspan nearer in future. These planes could be used as
completely autonomous remote sensors, for example, spending lots of time
constantly airborne in disasters. There is also a solar powered air craft which
uses solar energy to electrolyze on board water to produce hydrogen. All this
hydrogen is stored in various on board tanks making the aircraft lighter than
air. The hydrogen also used to operate fuel cells which supply power for
electrical parts including motor of a propeller. Further water comes as waste
from fuel cells is used to produce hydrogen. This type of aircraft do not emit
any harmful substance and also flies for indefinitely time. There is a only
problem of leakage of hydrogen and water.The design features of fuel-less air
vehicles and their sensitivity to several key performance metrics for this class of
aircraft are discussed by Adam M. Wickenheiser and EphrahimGarcia in their
paper. They studied aircraft with wingspans in the range of 3 to 5 m and
Reynolds no in range of 5*105 to 5*106 is considered. New metrics are showed
that are unique to a microwave-powered aircraft and are also useful in the
development of its missions. These metrics are related to the design of the
aircraft, the energy transmitter to the duration and range of the vehicle’s
missions. In addition an examination of the strong coupling among the
aircraft’s flight performance, power harvesting abilities, and its mission
capabilities is also analyzed. Different wing shapes are showed for coupling.
Also tradeoffs between flight performance and power harvesting performance
are shown.

Mr. Derek L. Lisoski and Mr. Mark B. Tischler has shown an overview of
Pathfinder- solar aircraft and its flight test program, with some of the analysis
techniques used, and their results. On the day of 7th July, 1997, the NASA
Pathfinder solar-powered aircraft flew to altitude of 71,500 feet which is the
new world altitude record for aircraft powered by electric energy and driven by
propeller. The Pathfinder platform which is developed by AeroVironment for
NASA’s Environmental Research Aircraft and Sensor Technology (ERAST)
program is an unmanned solar-powered airplane which was the first of a series
of technology demonstrators which are slated to include the 100,000 ft altitude
Centurion and Helios solar aircraft. The Pathfinder flew a total of six times at
the Pacified Missile Range Facility, Kauai, Hawaii in 1997 establishing the
application of a solar powered aircraft for scientific and commercial payload
missions. To ensure flight safty during flight test series the use of the CIFERB2
frequency response analysis code for initial simulation verification, in-flight
real-time stability determination, and post-flight system identification.

Based on the above review, we would like to make an aircraft which is operated
on solar power. In this literature we have analyzed designs of different solar
airplanes invented. Now we will design modified aircraft which will take very
short runway for takeoff.
RESULT AND ANALYSIS

We will design suitable wing using appropriate software. Then we will measure
parameters related to solar cells and thereafter we will apply those cells on
wings. We will study and again calculate different parameters i.e., lift force,
drag force, thrust, weight, gravity etc using appropriate formulas, to design
solar aircraft. We will apply different tests like lift test, drive test, flight test etc.

Effect of Altitude on the Power Ratio

The threshold of power ratio for perpetual flight depends on date and location.
In , the maximum altitude that a solar-powered aircraft could achieve without
onboard energy storage was found. Here, the effect of altitude on the power
ratio, and thus on the endurance of a solar-powered aircraft, is discussed.
As shown in Eq. (48), several parameters of the power ratio are environmental.
All of these parameters are dependent upon altitude in some way. Although
planets differ, a general statement can be made that p, g, and CD decrease with
altitude, whereas Psd increases with altitude.
By taking all the altitude-dependent environmental parameters into account,
the total power collected is shown in below figure.
We have shown in [53] that there is a maximum altitude, a so-called solar
ceiling, at which solar-powered aircraft can fly and that there is a optimal
altitude for the aircraft to fly. These locations cannot be computed analytically
but can be found numerically.
Total power for Hui at altitude; the best use of power occurs at 15 km with a gain of 126.6 W.
CONCLUSIONS

Path planning forsolar-powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) can be

improved if a model that couples the kinematics with the energetics through
the bank angle of the aircraft is used. By identifying and predicting the regime of
optimal flight through use of the power ratio, significant energy savings can be
made. In addition, the similarity in looks of solar-powered UAVs is not
accidental: analysis ofthe power ratio shows that it is required for efficient
design. During perpetual flight, a positive total energy balance must be achieved
over a solar day. By translating this requirement on the power ratio, we obtain
that perpetual solar-powered flight is achievable if and only if the power ratio,
evaluated at the average sun elevation, is greater than or equal to the reciprocal
of the daylight duty cycle. A comparative analysis of the environmental factors
in the power ratio leads to the conclusion that perpetual solar-powered flight is
significantly more difficult on Mars than on Earth.
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