AP Chemistry Exam Review: Section Key Points

SEMESTER 1
Atomic Structure
1. Important People: Dalton(Atomic Theory), Millikan(Oil Drop experiment; determined
electron’s charge), Rutherford(Gold Foil experiment; found nucleus),
Chadwick(Discovered neutrons)
2. Fundamental Chemical Laws:
i. Law of Conservation of Mass - mass is neither created nor destroyed
(Lavosier)
ii. Law of Definite Proportions - a given compound always contains exactly
the same proportion of elements (Proust)
iii. Law of Multiple Proportions - when two elements from a series of
compounds, the ratio of the masses of the second element combined with
1g of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers
(Dalton)
3. Isotopes - atoms of same elements with different number of neutrons
4. Mass Spectrometry: separates mixture of atoms/molecules based on relative mass
a. Greater Speed = less deflation
b. Greater Mass = more deflation
5. Electromagnetic Spectrum: microwave, infrared, visible, x-ray, ultraviolet, gamma rays
a. Speed of Light (3.00 x 10^8) = wavelength x frequency
b. Planck’s Constant (6.626x10^-34): Energy = nhv (n is an integer, h is Planck’s
constant, v is the frequency) ; The greater the frequency, the more energy that is
emitted
c. 𝐸𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑐/λ = ℎν
d. λ = ℎ/𝑚ν ; λ is wavelength, m is mass in kg, νis velocity in m/s, and h is Planck’s
Constant
6. Emission Spectrum (Calculation energy absorbed/emitted):
−18 2 2
∆𝐸 =− 2. 178𝑥10 𝐽(1/𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 1/𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ) (n=energy levels)
7. Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES) Graphs: graph with peaks, be careful og x-axis,
determine which side is highest energy.
8. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: it is impossible to determine accurately = both the
momentum and location of an electron simultaneously
9. Quantum Mechanics: energy lost/gained by electrons as it drops in energy states is
equal to the energy of the photon emitted.
10. Coulomb’s Law: the greater the charge, the close the electron to the nucleus, the greater
the force of attraction (also consider the bond length)
11. Periodic Trends
a. Ionization Energy: increases up and right
i. Energy required to remove an electron
b. Electron Affinity: increases up and right
i. Energy change associated with addition of an electron
c. Atomic Radius: increases down and left
 i. Charge affects more than valence level
d. Metallic Character: increases down and left
Chemical Bonding
1. Intramolecular Forces are within a molecule (ionic, covalent), Intermolecular forces are
between molecules (ionic, dispersion, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding).
2. Ionic forces are between molecules with ionic bonds, it results from electrostatic charges
(+/-) within the compound.
3. Dipole-Dipole and Hydrogen bonding is between polar molecules.
a. Hydrogen bonding forms with molecules with bonds between H and N, O, or F
interact.
4. Capillary Action is the spontaneous rising of a liquid in a narrow tube. It is caused by
cohesive and adhesive forces.
i. Cohesive Forces - IMFs
ii. Adhesive Forces - force between liquid and container(container is polar)
5. Viscosity is a resistance to flow, strong IMFs result in high viscosity, large molecules
have higher viscosity due to stronger LD forces, as temperature increases, viscosity
decreases.
6. Vapor Pressure is the pressure of vapor above the surface of a liquid.
i. High IMF = Low VP
ii. High VP = Highly Volatile
iii. Low IMF = Highly Volatile
7. Geometry and Hybridization

Number of Electron Number of Lone Hybridization Molecular Angle

Electron Geometry Pairs Geometry
Domains

2 Linear 0 sp Linear 180

3 Trigonal Planar 0 sp2 Trigonal Planar 120

3 1 Bent <120

4 Tetrahedral 0 sp3 Tetrahedral 109.5

4 1 Trigonal <109.5
Pyramidal

5 2 Bent <109.5

5 Trigonal 0 sp3d Trigonal 90, 120

Bipyramidal Bipyramidal

5 1 See saw 90, 120, 180

5 2 T-shaped 90, 180

5 3 Linear 180
 6 Octahedral 0 sp3d2 Octahedra; 90

6 1 Square 90
Pyramidal

6 2 Square Planar 90
8. In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between the nuclei of atoms.
9. The difference between polar and nonpolar covalent bonds is that, in polar bonds the
dipoles do not cancel.
10. Polyatomic ions are groups of covalently bonded atoms that together form ionic bonds
with other atoms.
i. Naming
11. Bond energy is the energy required to break a bond. Lattice energy is the change in
energy when separated ions form an ionic solid.
a. Born-Haber Cycle
b. Takes energy to create bonds
12. The lewis-structure with formal charges as close to zero as possible is the best structure.
a. Formal Charges = Assigned - Valence
b. Resonance Occurs when there is one double bond and some single bonds.
Multiple structures can occur. (double bond can be in multiple places)
Gas Laws/States of Matter
1. Barometer(closed end), Manometer(open end): measures pressure.
2. Gas Laws:
a. Boyle’s Law: pressure and volume are inversely related at constant temperature
(v vs. p is a hyperbola).
b. Charles’ Law: volumes of gas varies directly with absolute temperature at
constant temperature
c. Avogadro’s Law: at constant temperature and pressure, the volume of gas is
directly related to the number of moles
i. At STP, 1 mole gas = 22.4 L.
d. Gay-Lussac Law: at constant volume, pressure and absolute temperature are
directly related
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
e. Combined Gas Law: 𝑛1𝑇1
= 𝑛2𝑇2

f. Ideal Gas Law: PV=nRT

g. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure: the total pressure in a container is the sum of
the pressure each gas would exert if alone in that container
i. Ex. PV = PV(total) of each small container, then add those values for
pressure when the valve is open.
h. Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
i. Particles’s volumes are negligible(Point-Mass)
ii. Particles are in constant motion and collisions cause pressure
iii. Particles do not affect each other
iv. Average kinetic energy is proportional to the kelvin temperature
 i. Effusion: evacuation of gas through a small hole, into a vacuum. Graham’s Law=
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑎𝑠 1 𝑀2
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑎𝑠 2
= .
𝑀1
3. Solids:

Crystalline Ionic - High MP

- Dissolves in H2O
- Conducts electricity in aqueous/molten form

Molecular - Lower MP
(covalent) - NEVER conducts electricity
- May/may not be soluble in H2O

Atomic Metallic
- Conducts Electricity
- Delocalized, non directional bonds
- Sea of electrons
Network Covalent
- Nonmetallic
- High MP
- No electric conductivity

Ex. Diamond, NaCl, Ice

Amorphous N/A Ex. glass

4. Semiconductors: network covalent solids “doped” with other elements (impure)
a. P-Doping: lacks one electron, creates positive charge in lattice and attracts other
electrons to it, increasing conductivity
b. N-Doping: one more electron, create negative charge
5. Metallic Alloys:
a. Substitutional: when two atoms of similar radii forms an alloy
b. Interstitial: when two atoms of different radii form an alloy
6. Hydrates: solid compound containing water in a definite ratio
*after water is removed it is anhydrous
Solutions
1. Intermolecular forces between solute and solvent must be strong enough to complete
with those between the solute and those between the solvent.
2. Energy Changes in Solution:
a. Separation of Solute: overcoming lattice energy
b. Separation of Solvent: usually H-bonding for H2O
c. New interaction between solute and solvent (ion-dipole)
3. Dissolving/Dissolution: physical change
4. Strong electrolytes: strong acids/bases and soluble salts
5. Saturated/Unsaturated/Supersaturated solutions are states in which the solutions are in:
if they can hold more solute, if they are at their limit, or if they are over the limit.
 6. Specific Heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by 1degree celsius.
7. Heat of Solution is the amount of heat energy absorbed or released when a specific
amount of solute dissolves in water.
8. Dilution Questions: use MV=MV
9. The more similar the intermolecular forces are, the more likely they are soluble in each
other
10. Henry’s Law: c=kPg; c is the concentration, k is the constant for that gas in the solvent,
Pg is the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid
11. Colligative Properties: depends only on the number of solute preset;(ex. Vapor pressure
boiling point, freezing oxc
Chemical Reactions
1. Spectator ions are the ions which remain unchanged during a reaction and do not
participate in the reaction.
2. Soluble species are aqueous and acids are also aqueous.
3. When writing net-ionic equations, charges and atoms must balance.
4. Molecular compounds always stay together. Ex. H2O
5. Only split the strong electrolytes into ions (complete dissociation).
6. Solubility Rules
a. All NO3- are soluble
b. Group 1A (Alkali Metal) salts are all soluble
c. NH4+ is all soluble
d. Chlorides, bromides, and iodides are soluble except salts containing ions Ag+,
Pb2+, and Hg2+.
e. SO4 2- is soluble except with Lead, Calcium, Barium, and Mercury
7. Types of Reactions
a. Synthesis: two substances form one
b. Decomposition: one compound breaks down to 2+ simpler substances
c. Single Displacement: uncombined element replaces another element in a
compound.
d. Double Displacement: positive and negative ions “change partners”
e. Formation of a precipitate/Formation of Weak(non) electrolytes(neutralization
reaction)
f. Combustion: hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O
g. Redox Reactions: oxidation state changes
i. When balancing, balance oxygens then the hydrogens
ii. Finish off by balancing out the charges
Electrochemistry
1. All oxidation-reduction reactions.
2. Oxidation is loss of electrons, reduction is gain of electrons.
3. Galvanic/Voltaic Cells: spontaneous reaction that produces an electric current
a. Salt Bridge must exist
b. Voltage Positive
 4. Electrolytic Cells: electrical energy from outside source causes a nonspontaneous
reaction to occur
5. Nernst Equation
a. Used to calculate electrode potential and cell potential for concentrations and
partial pressures
◦
𝐸 = 𝐸 − (2. 303 𝑅𝑇/𝑛𝐹) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑄
E=potential under standard conditions
R=8.314
T=kelvin temperature
n=number of moles of electrons transferred
F=96,485 C/mole of e-
SEMESTER 2
Kinetics
1. Spontaneity does not determine the speed of a reaction.
2. Collision Theory: For a reaction to occur… 1) Particles must collide 2) Increasing the
surface area(concentration) of reactants result in a greater number of collision and a
faster rate of reaction 3) Not all collisions are effective
3. Effective Collisions: 1) Must possess enough energy(Ea) 2) Particles must have proper
orientation
4. Average rates are over long intervals, instantaneous rate is the slope of the line tangent
to the curve at any given point.
5. The order for rate laws must be determined experimentally.
6. Differential rate laws are how the rate depends on concentration and the integrated rate
law is the reaction concentration as a function of time.
7. Half-life is independent of concentration (memorize half life equations for 0, 1st, 2nd
order reactions).
8. Rate law depends on the slow step. When there is a fast equilibrium, you must substitute
the slow step with fast equilibrium since intermediates are not allowed in a rate law. You
must show this by writing the equilibrium constant expression of the fast equilibrium and
repositioning the equation to represent the intermediate = keq (--). Then, substitute the
intermediate for this expression and write the rate law using this equation.
9. In a Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Curve, the temperature affects the position of the
curve. At higher temperatures, the peak moves to the right and the curve flattens out.
The activation energy, however, is not affected by the temperature change. Thus, at
higher temperatures, we can see that more particles possess enough energy to
overcome the threshold and react.
Equilibrium
1. The equilibrium expression uses coefficients as exponents.
2. The K is products multiplied with coefficients as exponents over reactants multiplied with
coefficients as exponents. Solids and liquids are not included in the equilibrium
expression.
3. If the reaction is reversed, the K(equilibrium constant) is the reciprocal.
4. The equilibrium constant shows the tendency of a reaction to occur and the equilibrium
position that will be achieved from a given value.
 5. Adding an inert gas has no effect on the equilibrium position (does not affect
concentration of reactants/products).
6. Increasing the volume of a container, when the solution is gaseous, decreases the
pressure due to the number of collisions of the particles decreasing with the change in
size of container.
7. Changing the temperature changes the value of K. This is the only change that will alter
the K value.
Acids and Bases
1. The arrhenius definition of an acid is that it produces hydrogen ions, base is that it
produces hydroxide ions.
2. The bronsted-lowry definition for an acid is that it is a proton(H+) donor and bases are a
proton acceptor.
3. The conjugate acid/base of a weak acid/base is strong because the weak acid/base has
a strong affinity for H2O and undergoes hydrolysis to produce H3o+/OH-. (vice versa)
4. Polyprotic acids are acids that can supply more than one proton. The Ka decreases as
the acid loses one proton at a time.
5. Cations which have neutral properties have no affinity for H+ ions and have no effect on
the pH.
6. A salt that contains a highly charged metal ion (ex. Al(H2O)6 3+) produces an acidic
solution. The higher the charge, the stronger the acidity of the hydrated ion.
7. When determining the acidity/basicity of a salt, write the dissolution equation and find the
Ka/Kb of the ions to compare the values and find if the salt is acidic/basic/neutral and the
degree of acidity/basicity.
8. The common ion effect can be used when it is a reaction of a weak acid/base and a salt.
9. Solutions containing a common salt of a weak acid/base are always less acidic/basic
than solutions with the weak acid/base alone.
10. In oxyacids, as the number of oxygen atoms in an acid increases, the strength of the
acid increases.
11. A buffered solution resists a change in the pH when H3O+ or OH- ions are added. It
contains a weak acid/base and its salt.
12. Endpoint is when the indicator changes color and equivalence point is when chemically
equivalent amounts of acids/bases have reacted.
13. At the ½ to equivalence point, pH=pKa, [HA]=[A-].
Thermochemistry
1. Thermochemistry focuses on how energy changes are measured and predicted.
2. Energy is the ability to do work/transfer heat. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion
(KE=½ mv^2). Potential energy is the energy stored due to the composition/position of
an atom.
3. Endothermic reactions are those in which energy is absorbed from the surroundings. In
the graph, the potential energy starts low and ends at a higher point.
4. Exothermic reactions are those in which energy is released. In the graph, the potential
energy starts high and ends at a lower point.
5. Laws of Thermodynamics:
 a. Law of Conservation of Energy: the total amount of energy in the universe is
constant; energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change form
b. In any spontaneous process, there is an increase in the entropy of the universe.
Energy is increasing and is not conserved in these reactions.
∆𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣 = ∆𝑆𝑠𝑦𝑠 + ∆𝑆𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟.
c. The entropy of a perfect crystal(highly organized) at 0K(no movement) is zero.
The more complex the molecule, the greater the standard entropy value is. Entro
◦ ◦ ◦
is a state function: ∆𝑆 𝑟𝑥𝑛 = Σ𝑛𝑝𝑆 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 − Σ𝑛𝑟𝑆 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.
6. State functions are properties whose value depends only on the state of the system, not
the pathway it took to get there (interested in change, not quantity). Ex. since the
activation energy changes when a catalyst is added (change pathway of rxn), it is not a
state function. Pressure, volume, and temperature are all state functions.
7. If ∆𝐻 = (−) > exothermic. ∆𝐻 = (+)> endothermic.
8. Calorimetry measures energy changes and calorimeters are used to measure heat. Heat
released = heat gained by calorimeter +heat gained by solution.
9. Internal energy is a state function. It is the energy contained within a substance:
i. KE of molecules
ii. Energy of attraction/repulsion between subatomic particles, molecules,
ions, etc.
iii. Other forms of energy
10. q=heat
w=work
q (+) = heat is absorbed by the system from the surroundings (endothermic)
q (-) = heat is released by the system to the surroundings (exothermic)
w (+) = work is done on the system by the surroundings
w (-) = work is done by the system on the surroundings
11. Think of a Piston:
a. Volume decreases, work is done on the system so w is positive.
b. Volume increases, work is done by the system so w is negative.
12. Heat of Reaction = change in enthalpy
13. Latent heat is the heat involved in the changing state of matter.
Heat of Fusion is the heat required to melt 1g or 1mole of a substance.
Heat of Vaporization is the heat required to vaporize 1g or 1mole of a substance.
*Phase Diagrams
14. When using Hess’s Law to calculate the enthalpy of a reaction, if you multiply the
reaction by a certain value, do the same to the enthalpy.
*When the reaction is reversed, the sign of ∆𝐻is also reversed.
15. When calculating ∆𝐻from bond energies, it is
∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 = Σ𝐻(𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒𝑛) − Σ𝐻(𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑); Reactants - Products.
16. Entropy is the measure of randomness or disorder. The greater the entropy, the more
different positions the atoms can be in.
a. The greater the complexity, the greater the entropy
b. The greater the temperature, the greater the entropy
17. Gibbs Free Energy (G) is the energy that is available to do work. When the ∆𝐺 is
negative, the reaction is spontaneous/thermodynamically favorable.
◦
a. ∆𝐺 = 0, 𝐾 = 1
◦
b. ∆𝐺 < 0, 𝐾 > 1
◦
c. ∆𝐺 > 0, 𝐾 < 1
18. The equilibrium position represents the lowest free energy value available for a particular
reaction system.
19. For ideal gases, enthalpy is not pressure dependent but entropy is.
◦ ◦ ◦
20. ∆𝐺 =− 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛(𝐾) = ∆𝐻 − 𝑇∆𝑆