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 An Introduction to Essays
Definitions
An essay is a loose sally of the mind, an indigestive piece,

n
not a regular and ordinary composition. Dr. JohnsonEssay is

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a literary composition, usually in prose and short. Oxford
DictionaryLiterary essays are evaluation of a piece of work,

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an era of literature, a literary movement or any special
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aspect of it. The definition of Dr. Johnson fits perfectly to the
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essays presented by Sir Francis Bacon. All other kind of

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"regular" essays follow the Oxfordian definition but without

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writing abort. A literary essay must be composed of 3,000

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words at least.
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Foundation of an Essay
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An ideal essay has an introductory phase, body and

conclusive phase. The introductory phase focuses on
providing an introduction to a specific topic. The body is the
main lengthy part of an essay in which a topic is discussed
thoroughly. The conclusive phase gives an essay a conclusion
of the particular topic. The introductory phase and the
conclusive phase must be allocated 20 % of the entire essay
while the other 80 % must be dedicated for its body.

Important Aspects behind Writing an Essay

1. Reading: Firstly, one must read books to accumulate the
baseline for one's essay.
2. Observation: One must observe one's surroundings and
ponder over one's findings in the context of one's essay.

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3. Thinking: It is the most important factor behind writing

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an essay. One must think about how one will tabulate

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and divide one's essays in solitude.

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4. Writing: When everything is thought up appropriately
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about an essay, one should start writing it.
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Qualities of a Good Essay

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Unity: A good essay presents its content by keeping its

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unity. Unity in an essay means that the essay is only

about a specific topic and does not include any other
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irrelevant details.
Coherence: A well-written essay is presented in a logical
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manner. Its development of points is governed by the

sequence.
Balance: A good essay is a good blend of balanced
introduction, body and conclusion.

Types of Essays
Narrative Essays: These kinds of essays deal with the
narration of an incident or a personality in a chronological
level. Examples: A Trip to Lahore, My First Day in School or
Quaid-e-Azam. Descriptive Essays: These type of essays
present an incident, place or country in a descriptive
manner. Example: Geography of Pakistan or The
HimalayasReflective Essays: These kind of essays are written
after being thought, observed and analyzed by our brain. It is
rather difficult to compose such essays because of the
mental labour they require. Examples: Corruption,

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TerrorismArgumentative Essays: This is the most difficult

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kind of essay to write as one has to present one's arguments

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and the arguments on the behalf of another person through
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one's brain. Thankfully, most of the literary essays belong to
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the narrative side of the essay. 😇
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 A Critical Essay on the
Aristotelian Concept of Greek
Tragedy (4355 Words)

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Introductory

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Greek Tragedy, though an old genre it is, but it is still a genre

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of great significance, important and inspirational for
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modern plays in general and modern tragedies In particular.
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But what is a Greek Tragedy and how did it originate and

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what set it apart from the rest of tragedies like

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Shakespearean or Marlowian ones? Let's begin: The word

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"Tragedy" is derived from a Greek word tragōidia which

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means "a goat's song". But it is a play that is serious in

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nature so what is its relation to goats? During the festival of

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Dionysus, 4 plays were presented in which three of these

plays were serious tragedies but one of them was a comic
play dedicated for tragic relief. The writer of the best play
was awarded with a goat. The difference between modern
tragedy and a typical Greek tragedy lies in its ending. A
modern tragedy ends on a serious note while it was not
essential for a Greek Tragedy to end in a serious note. It
would house some tragic scenes in either its beginning or
middle but it would end happily. In order to understand a
Greek tragedy, we have to resort to Aristotle. Although he
presented 4 plots, one of them transcended from misery to
happiness but Aristotle favoured the modern-day plot for a
tragedy that would start happily and would end in tragic
misery. An Essay on Greek Tragedy

Aristotle's Concept of Greek Tragedy

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Aristotle defines the concept of an ideal (Greek) tragedy as
follows,

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Tragedy, then, is a representation of an action that is
worth serious attention, complete in itself, and of some
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magnitude in language enriched by a variety of artistic

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devices appropriate to the several parts of the play;

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presented in the form of action, not narration; by means

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of pity and fear bringing about the purgation [catharsis]

of such emotions.
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This is, by far, one of the most comprehensive definitions of

tragedy. It can be divided into the two parts for a better
comprehension of the classic genre. The first half deals with
the imitative enterprise while the second half makes clear
the functions of a tragedy.

Imitative Enterprise of the Classical Tragedy

Before discussing at length about the imitative qualities of
an ancient tragedy, first, we have to make ourselves
acquainted with the term imitation itself. The literal
meaning of Imitation is to copy or to mimic a person or a
thing into a different thing. For example, the sea is an actual
earthly body, painting it to a canvas can be called a visual
imitation of the sea. Plato used the term imitative arts in his
book, discussing about an ideal state, to define "useless"

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arts in contrast to the "useful" arts he divided. He

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condemned the "useless" arts especially poetry by calling it

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an "imitation of an imitation, twice removed from reality. "
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Plato deemed the whole world an imitation of god's idea of
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creating a world. He suggested that he would banish poets
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from his ideal republic for spreading 'lies'.However Aristotle

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came in defence of poetry as an imitation of the "poet's

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idea" that he derives from the actual world itself. Aristotle

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further divided the concept of imitation into three sub-

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categories,
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Object or Subject Matter of Imitation

Medium of Imitation
Manner of Imitation

Let's discuss this in connection with Aristotle's definition of

tragedy since Aristotle deems it one among the imitative
[not useless] arts.

Object of Tragedy
Object or subject-matter of an imitation means the source or
the topic of an imitation. Tragedy, in this regard, differs
itself from its sister genre comedy. As the name suggests,
the subject matter of a typical Greek Tragedy is serious.
While comedy follows a light or satiristic object in it. It is the
subject matter that determines the function of an imitation.
That is why, the function of tragedy of bringing about the
catharsis of the emotions of fear and pity, as compared to

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the comedy which is only purposed for spreading waves of

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laughter and smiles.

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Manner of Tragedy sa
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Manner of an imitation means how it is presented before its

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audience. Classical tragedy differs from an epic in this field.

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The two prestigious genres may present a serious story but

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in a different manner. An epic presents an incident through

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narration. But a tragedy presents a story with action on the

stage. When a story is presented through actors performing
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on stage, it makes the story more immersive and

understandable.

Medium of Tragedy
Medium of Imitation means what medium is used to
illustrate it. We may set a distinction of tragedy with a lyric.
Although both of the genres use verse to convey their idea to
the public. Tragedy uses dialogues to unfold the hidden
action to its audience.

Proper Plot
One of the core requirements of a tragedy that it should be
complete. Which means that it should not leave any patch of
the story behind. It must have a proper plot with an

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appropriate beginning, middle and the end. Beginning

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means the action that is not followed by a prior action and
establishes a base for the story. Usually, characters and

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problems are introduced in this phase. The middle follows
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the beginning and then gives rise to the ending. It is a point
in which a solution to the problem is exposed and the hero or
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characters try to alleviate the problem. While the ending

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follows the middle but it is NOT followed by anything. This is

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a crucial part of a story as it can either make or break a story.

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Almost all the Greek Tragedies unintentionally followed the

simple concept of plot structure to bring home the message
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of a story (mostly the role of gods) to the people.

Magnitude
Some critics argue that magnitude, in Aristotle's definition
of tragedy, means a grand story or subject matter. But
Aristotle meant it for the length. He suggests that tragedy
should not be too long that people find it difficult to recall
and not too short that people cannot even understand the
story. Its length should be maintained appropriately so that
it may be performed within a day and actors may remember
dialogues easier.

Law of Probability and Necessity

This law means that the actions of a character must be up to

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the mark of people's expectations. His actions must be

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justifiable and should align properly with the story.
Similarly, his actions must be necessary in accordance with

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the story. For instance, Oedipus was expected to send a
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person to Delphi to bring an Oracle that may help his people
get out of the plague. But he had already sent one. Oedipus'
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action was necessary and appropriate to the demanding

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situation and problem. So, he emerged as a responsible

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figure in Thebes.
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Functions of Classical Greek Tragedy

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Aristotle makes it obscurely easy for us to trace the functions

of the Greek tragedy since he has mentioned it in his
definition. Its main function is to bring about the catharsis
of the emotions of pity and fear. But his interpretation of
functions of tragedy is lost that he supposedly may have
discussed it in the second half of his Poetics. Therefore,
different interpretations of catharsis have been exposed by
different critics.

Purgation Theory

Purgation Theory deals with the medical side of Catharsis. In

ancient times, Greeks believed that a human body was made
of four humours (liquids), which were blood, black bile,

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yellow bile and plagum. A proper balance was essential to

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maintain a healthy life but excess of one of the humours

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could put the life of a human being at stake. Therefore,

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partial removal of excess was known as "Purgation".
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Like Curing the Like

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Behind this rhetoric was the concept of homoeopathic

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treatment. It was explained that "a little solution of

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something can cure the excess of the same thing. " But this
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homoeopathic interpretation does not make any direct sense

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in the realm of tragedy. This segment of the theory says that

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the scenes of fear may cure the fear in the audience the same
way as a crying child is silenced by the sound of something
or music, calming a mental melancholy.

Unlike Curing the Unlike

This neo-classic and allopathic segment says that an excess

of something can be cured by its opposite counterpart.
Critics of the eighteenth century believed that one of the
major problems of their society was pride and anger. That
pride and anger could be cured by their opposite emotions of
pity and fear respectively.

Purification Theory

Purification theory also deals with the alleviation bad

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emotions but differently as compared to the above-

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mentioned theory of purgation. Purification deals with the

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quality of emotions that are to be purified from the excess of

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those emotions and those emotions to return or reduced to
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an intermediate state.
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Clarification Theory
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Clarification Theory overlooks the above-mentioned

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theories of catharsis that put the audience of a tragedy at the

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centre. Rather it puts the pleasure within a tragedy on top of

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the hill. But that pleasure is to be attained by learning. That

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learning comes through the probable actions in the play.

Therefore, the centre of catharsis is the spectator who learns
from the probable actions of a hero.

Six Formative Elements of Greek Tragedy as

Discussed by Aristotle
Aristotle says that an ideal tragedy is made of six essential
elements that are plot, character, thought, diction, spectacle
and song. The first three are internal elements while the
latter three are external. Plots, characters and thoughts are
the subject matter of a tragedy. Diction and song are medium
of tragedy while spectacle is the manner of tragedy.

Plot

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Plot means an arrangement of events or incidents that

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happen in a story. These arrangements are set by the author

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himself. According to Aristotle, plot is the most important
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element of a tragedy. He even goes to extent that a tragedy
can be without a character but not without a plot. This
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statement of Aristotle has upset many critics as it is rather

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impossible to create a story without a character. But here,

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Aristotle meant something else. Characters are of two types.

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The first one that exhibits actions while the second one
demonstrates the mental or psychological approach to it.
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Aristotle wants to say that a tragedy can be created without

the mental side of characters since it directly relates to the
action (of heroes). Aristotle has divided plots into three
kinds:

1. Simple Plot: Simple Plot is a plot that does not exhibit

sudden changes. Also, the story contains only one plot.
2. Complex Plot: Complex plot may have different sub-
plots linking to the main plot in the end. This plot
 showcases sudden changes propelled by Peripeteia and
Anagnorisis.
3. Plot of Suffering: Aristotle suggests that it is the most
inferior kind of plot. This type of plot depicts a story full
of sufferings and killings. Aristotle says that scenes of
sufferings should follow the law of probability. It is also
known as the plot of revenge. Seneca, a Roman
tragedian, has written most of his tragedies in this plot.
In fact, Shakespeare's flagship tragedy, Hamlet is based
upon the very plot.

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Peripeteia: This term means a sudden reversal of

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situation. For example, when Oedipus is too eager in
capturing the murderer of King Laius, things start to

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turn upon him. -Remember Teiresias' Prophesy? ]
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Anagnorisis: It is the revelation of peripeteia. For
example, When Oedipus learns from the Corinthian
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Shepherd that he is the one who is the son of Laius who

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not only killed his father but married his own mother, he
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gauges out his own eyes.

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Criticism
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Modern critics do not seem to agree with Aristotle's point of

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view of the plot. They are more inclined towards breaking

the unity of events or presenting them in different order.
Just a Quick Sidenote: There is a fundamental difference
between Plot and Story. A story is the chronological
sequence of events while a plot is a specific arrangement of
events according to the liking of a writer.

Character
A character is the one who moves the story of a tragedy
forward through his or her actions. Characters are divided
into two kinds: Dramatic Persona: Name and identity of a
character. For example, the name Oedipus directly hints at a
Theban king who received the prophecy of committing
patricide and incest. Moral Bent of Mind: The psychological
intinctions of a person which highlight his or her inner
personality. Aristotle has described four qualities of a

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dominant character (hero) in ancient Greek Tragedy. And

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those qualities are, goodness, appropriation, true to life and

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consistency.
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Thought
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Though in a tragedy is the intellectual questioning of the

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themes of a writer. A writer can either approve his themes or

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disapprove it through the medium of thoughts. But those

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thoughts cannot be expressed without diction.

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Diction

Diction is the language in which a tragedy is unfolded and

the thoughts of a writer are expressed through it. Aristotle
says that a tragedy should have a lofty diction that should be
enriched by the apt use of figurative elements that should
beautify the language instead of obscuring it.

Spectacle
Spectacle has its association with the stage and it is the
background that is used before a stage to present a scene of,
for example, a forest. But, in Greek Tragedies, it was not
limited to the backgrounds but to the stage effects that were
produced through the costumes and masks actors wore.

Song

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Song is one of the embellishments that was used to intensify

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the scenes of a tragedy. The songs or odes were usually

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performed by the Chorus who not only explained the

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situation to the audience but also commented on it.
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Quantitative Elements of a Tragedy

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These elements of tragedy are directly connected with the

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content or writing of a tragedy itself. These elements are

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Prologue, Episodes, Exode and a choral portion that is

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further divided into Parode and Stasimon.

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Parode or Parodos

The first initial part of a tragedy begins on a choral

performance that is called Parode or Parodos.

Prologue
This portion of a tragedy is directly followed by Parodos. This
portion makes people aware of the problems of a tragedy.

Episode

Episodes are a series of an action that is either divided on the

basis of setting or incidents that are directly interlinked.

Exode or Exodos

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This portion of tragedy is presented at the end of it,

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featuring its moral lesson or its final outcome.
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Stasimon
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It is a choral song with a specific poetic meter.

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Characterization in Tragedy
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As discussed earlier a character in a tragedy must be good,

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appropriate, his caricaturing must be true to life and his

actions must be consistent or inconsistent throughout the
play.

Goodness: The concept of goodness in the present day is

different as compared to the concept that was
traditionally accepted in the Ancient Greece. Today, we
associate goodness with everything that is morally good
but the ancient Grecians believed that goodness is
 hidden in the show of valour, bravery and courage in the
battlefield. That influence of goodness is clearly visible
in the Greek Tragedies of their time.
Appropriate: Greek Tragedies, in general, demanded
appropriate characters that were given appropriate roles.
For example, a woman of that time was not expected to
be brave or a slave was not identified as a good person,
so portaging them brave and good respectively would
create inappropriate characters in a tragedy.
True to Life: A character in a tragedy is a true

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representation of the actual person of that time. If a

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tragedy is showcasing a historical figure, then the main

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historical character must be accurate to the actual

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historical personality.
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Consistent: The actions of a consistent character should
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remain consistent throughout the play while the
inconsistent character should remain inconsistent.
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Ideal Tragic Hero

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Aristotle has defined two major qualities of an ideal tragic

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hero in a Greek Tragedy. He suggests that a hero must be

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essentially good and his tragic downfall must be propelled by

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his good nature. And his downfall should affect a large

number of people under him.

Essentially Good: An ideal tragic hero is expected to be

good. But Aristotle says that his character must be a
mixture of both his good and bad qualities.
Hamartia: The tragic downfall of an ideal tragic hero is
accelerated through his hamartia. But it is to be noted
that hamartia must be executed through his goodness
 instead of his wicked intinctions or else the tragedy will
not be able to produce the effect that is expected from it.

Competitive Importance of Plot and Character

Aristotle said that there can be a tragedy without a character
but not without a plot. As stated earlier, it dismayed many
critics of past and present. Aristotle has divided characters
into two types. One is a dramatic persona that only indicates

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at the identity of a character but it is a character's inner

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moral belt of mind that really exhibits the true form of a

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character. In fact, it is the moral belt of mind that shows
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how a character will behave if he is put on the test by a
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problem and how will he come out of it. It is the plot that
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provides him ample opportunities for his inner decisions to

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shape into outward actions.

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Dramatic Unities
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Dramatic Unities in tragedy was hinted by Aristotle but the

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Neo Classics made it mandatory for the plays without

realizing the core motive behind these unities. They believed
that those unities were essential for creating dramatic
illusions. There are three dramatic unities. Unity of plot,
unity of time and unity of place. Aristotle only emphasized
on the unity of plot.

Unity of Plot
As mentioned above, Aristotle gives great importance to the
unity of plot. He suggests that in the ideal Greek Tragedy,
plot should be one and simple, that should have proper
beginning, middle and end and the events of the story must
be interlinked together. But Aristotle does not favour sub
plots within a plot. He accepted single plot with a single
action. For instance, if a play begins as a tragedy, it should
end on a tragic note while a comedy should follow the same

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rule. He believed that those two genres could not be mixed

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together in the form of tragic comedy. But modern critics

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argued Aristotle's point that a Man's life is a mixture of both
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happiness and misery. Portraying only one side of the coin
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may not hold up to the idea of realism. In fact, the
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Elizabethan dramatists did not follow Aristotle's concept of

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stern dramatic unity of plot and (tragic) action. They added

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some minor comic elements to their flagship tragedies to

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increase the entertainment value of their plays. For

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example, in Othello, we see a brief mention of clowns and

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musicians while Iago's destructive but amusing tongue helps

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retain the entertaining value of the tragedy. While in

Oedipus Rex, we cannot trace any comic elements because
the action begins in a tragic tone and ends on an extreme
tragic note. Some critics even argued Aristotle's idea to the
fact that in the festival of Dionysus, three plays were serious
while one play was comic in nature so how could Aristotle
defy the role of comic elements in tragedy?
Unity of Time

Unity of time is something that Aristotle did not present as a

rigid rule of writing tragedies. It was something that he
observed. He states that the actions of a tragedy are
attempted to be presented within "one revolution of the
sun". The phrase "one revolution of the sun" annoyed the
French critics of the seventeenth-century and English critics

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of the eighteenth century. English critics argued that the

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actions in a tragedy must be presented within the actual

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setting of time in tragedy on stage. For example, if a tragedy

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consists of an action that spans over 6 months, Neo Classics
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suggested that the tragedy must be presented for the 6
months on the stage! The idea in itself is strange and
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impractical as people will lose interest in the play if it is

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prolonged for an unreasonable amount of time. While the

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French critics went to the extent to find the actual time

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through the above-mentioned phrase. Some said that

Aristotle suggested a year while others speculated only a day
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or a month.

Unity of Place

Aristotle did not present the rule of unity of place. It was

attributed to him by the misinterpretation of Neo Classics of
his comparison of Epic and Tragedy. Epic, he said, had a
variety of places to narrate. While a tragedy had to be
presented in a smaller setting because it was small in
magnitude as compared to Epic. Also the limitation of stage
attributed to the lack of places. Because even today, it is
difficult to transition from the scene of a forest to the scene
of an ocean in theatres and we are talking about an era that
was two thousand and five hundred years before us. So the
limitation of spaces had to be chosen by the writers so that
their plays would not be bottlenecked by the limitation of

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the stage.

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Limitations of Aristotelian Concept of Tragedy
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Aristotle, no doubt, gave a comprehensive definition of
tragedy but as time changes, the requirements of tragedy has
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been changed significantly. Let's discover some of the

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limitations that are traced in Aristotle's concept of tragedy.

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Lack of Religious Elements

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Aristotle does not allude to the importance of religion in

tragedies despite its presence in plays as these plays were
intended for the purpose of celebrating the god of fertility,
Dionysus. For instance, we see some clear references to gods
(Apollo) and the role of oracles in characters' lives as a
strong religious influence but Aristotle did not mention
about the role of religious elements in the tragedies he was
scrutinizing.
Lack of Conflicts

Another core point that is missing from his comprehensive

definition is the role of internal and external conflicts in
driving a person's tragedy. He merely focuses on the outer
actions but the inner turmoil that takes place is equally as
important as the outward conflicts. In fact, it is the "inner
weather" that creates a sense of superiority of humans

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among other living beings. And internal conflict also adds its

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significant share to the arousal of catharsis. Modern writers

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tend to depict both internal and external conflicts.

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His Unsatisfying Explanation of 'Action'
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Aristotle defined action as something that is serious and of

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some magnitude in his famous definition of tragedy. But he

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was unable to explain the true magnitude of a tragedy as he

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only limitized it to its size in pages. He could have added

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more to it to explain it a bit further like the loftiness of an

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action or the nature of an action whether it can be external

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or internal.

His Idealization of Oedipus Rex

Aristotle presented Oedipus Rex as an ideal tragedy that

checked all the required boxes to create the most noticeable
tragic effect in the mind of a reader. Oedipus Rex was a
success of its time due to the quality of intense
concentration. Intense concentration is something that is
achieved through starting a story from its catastrophic point
of the plot. For instance, Oedipus Rex opens when Oedipus
has unknowingly killed his father and married his mother.
But the story of the play begins when Oedipus' parents
receive an oracle that their son will kill his father and will
marry his mother. If Shakespeare had written this play, he
would have started it with Laius and Jocasta, receiving the

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prophecy. Intense concentration was used to create a tragic

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effect that was stronger than the Elizabethan tradition. But

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it did not provide a strong foundation of character
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development. Also, it imposed a limitation of its own upon
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writers to present a story in its limited glory. But some
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modern writers are also taking a fancy to intense

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concentration in the form of the stream of consciousness

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technique.
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Lack of Subjectivity in Greek Tragedy

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One point that modern critics raise is the classical Greek

Tragedy lacks subjectivity as these tragedies are mainly
objective. Which means it only displays the outer conflict of
a hero. But his inner psyche and intinctions are of a
significant value that is to be shown to the audience.
Shakespeare, although he is an Elizabethan playwright, but,
he masterfully strikes a balance between subjectivity and
objectivity in his plays.
Qualities of a Tragic Hero

This is the point of which Aristotle is critiqued the most.

Firstly, he says that a tragic hero must belong to a higher
class. But modern writers are more democratic in their
approach. They believe that the tragic downfall of a miner is
as significant as that of a dictator. Another point critics
argue is Aristotle's concept of essential goodness. He

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suggests that a hero can be neither too good, nor too bad but

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a simple blend of the both. The critics say that tragic heroes

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can be extremely good or extremely bad. We can see the

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example of Macbeth or the Jew of Malta by Marlowe as the
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heroes exhibiting extreme bad characters. While TS Eliot's
Murder in the Cathedral and Shaw's St. Johns portray
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extremely good characters or (tragic) heroes.

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Rigid Plot
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Aristotle favours plots that have a definite beginning, middle

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and end. But modern writers, lulled in the stream of

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consciousness technique, do not use the unity of plot in their

novels. In fact, for them, the concept of a rigid plot is dead.

Conclusion
Despite some serious limitations and shortcomings of the
Greek Tragedies and Aristotle's Concept of it as discussed by
the critics of every time, it is worth noting that, in fact, it
was the Grecian Tragedy that pioneered tragic stage
performances with their own set of embellishments while
influencing the big names like Shakespeare and Marlowe to
further clear the grounds for modern writers. Tragedy, now,
is not limited to the plays only but it is magnificently
present in novels in its own form and colour. But all those
colours are indebted to the Classical Greek Tragedy for its
stouter foundation.

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This essay was written by assembling the pieces of lecture given by

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Sir Fazal Ur Rehman on the Greek Tragedy and its Aristotelian

d
Concept. So, a big shout out to him for making this possible.
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 An Essay on Art for Art's Sake
Introduction
There is a heated debate on the subject of arts for art's sake

n
and arts for morality or life's sake. This debate has formed

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two different groups with different opinions. One group is
called Moralists. Moralists believe that a writer can and

d
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should influence his readers through his writing. They also
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say that art can be either a food or a poison. Thus prioritizing
rs

moral lessons and morality in arts. While the other group is

to

called Aesthetes. They emphasize that a writer's work

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should only give pleasure and entertainment to the readers.

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If a writer has the ability to influence his readers, he should

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not even try to. Essay on Art for Art's Sake

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What is Art
The word 'Art' is derived from a Latin word 'ars' which
means a skill. While a skill is the productive practice of
something that is either useful or beautiful. Productive skills
are, then, divided into two major groups, Arts and Science.
Arts is a practical form of a productive skill while science
theorizes something and then provides a knowledge base.
For instance, if a carpenter makes a chair, he is performing
an art. If he writes on the subject of making a chair from
scratch, he is contributing to science.

Fine Arts
Fine Arts is also a sub-branch of Arts but it mainly
emphasizes on the esthetic beauty of an object or an

n
emotion. It may have some utilitarian purpose hidden in it

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but it should mostly serve its joyful purpose of providing
esthetic beauty. For instance, architecture is one of the Fine

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Arts that is both esthetically beautiful because of its pleasing
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looks and marvellous structure and symmetry but it also
provides shelter, thus exhibiting its utilitarian purpose. Fine
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Arts are further divided into its seven forms. Those forms
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are further divided into 3 main categories:

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1. Shaping Arts: Architecture, Sculpture and Painting

2. These three arts are called Shaping Arts because we can
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see, feel and touch the existence of such Arts.

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3. Speaking Arts: Poetry and Music are called Speaking Arts

because they are either spoken or heard.

Performing Arts: Dance and Drama are known as Performing

Arts because both of them are performed on the stage and in
theatre.

Aestheticism
Aestheticism was a French Movement that strived to give
importance to aesthetic pleasure and beauty. This
nineteenth-century movement was based upon the word
esthetic which is derived from a Greek word aisthetikos
which means beauty perceivable by sensation (five senses).
The followers of this movement were called Esthetes. It was
them who introduced the phrase "L'art pour l'art" which
means "Art for Art's Sake". Although the pioneer of the

n
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slogan was Victor Cousin but it was Gautier who put meaning

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in the movement. Gautier emphasizes on the importance of

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esthetic pleasure as thus,
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A town merely interests me for its buildings. Let the
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inhabitants be utterly vile and the town a haunt of

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crime. What does this not signify to me so long as I am

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not assassinated by the town's people during looking at

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the buildings.
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Here Gautier has used building as the symbol of Arts. A

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French tragedian and novelist Flaubert suggests that no

great poet has ever drawn conclusions.

Aestheticism in England
Aestheticism in England arrived in the late nineteenth
century also known as the Naughty Nineties. It was a revolt
against the conventional and moral standards set by
Victorian Writers in the past. The writers of the Naughty
Nineties removed morality from their writings and they only
focused on the aesthetic values of the art in general. Their
efforts were greatly liked by the University scholars and
students equally. It was introduced in English Literature by
an Oxford professor, Walter Peter and Oscar Wilde carried
his lineage further through the might of his pen. It is worth
noticing that the Moralists were interested in the Subject

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Matter, thought and imagination in a literary work. While

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Aesthetes were drawn towards technique, form and diction

d
(aesthetic elements) in a writing. Walter Pater was a
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renowned English Critic who published a book, Studies in
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the History of the Renaissance in 1873. In this book, he
rs

looked through the Renaissance movement from the lens of

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aestheticism. But it was his sheer misunderstanding as

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Renaissance movement had achieved more prominent traits

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other than its aesthetic nature. Walter even goes to the

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extent that a critic should scrutinize a piece of literature how

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good its form is instead of its subject matter. Also, his

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criticism on Wordsworth's poetry is limited because he only

sees the aesthetic value of Wordsworth's poems but these
poems have some morals in it. Oscar Wilde further continues
the services of Walter Pater through the practical
implications in literature. He says,

There is no such thing as moral or immoral book. Books

are well written, or badly written. That is all.
That is purely the voice of an aesthete. He adds further,

No artist has ethical sympathies. An ethical sympathy in

an artist is an unpardonable mannerism of style.

In the preface to the same book (The Picture of Dorian Gray),

he declares

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All art is quite useless.

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So, it is quite obvious that Oscar Wilde does appear as an
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ardent supporter of aestheticism on the surface level. But it
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is clear that Wilde's writings had hidden morals in it. For
rs

example, The Importance of Being Earnest may apparently

to

look like a light hearted comedy but if we peep under layers,

ila

it will appear as a satire on the follies and absurdities of the

im

aristocratic class. But the short story of the Happy Prince

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does not provide any aesthetic pleasure rather it is a direct

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attack on the people sitting on the thrones. There were also

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two well-known periodicals that would publish the work of

Aesthetes. They were Yellow Book and Sevoile. The Yellow
Book began its publishing from 1894 to 1897. Different short
stories poems, essays and even illustrations by the Aesthetes
were published in it. Some other renowned English
Aesthetes were Charles Conder, Ernest Dowson, WB Yeats,
Arthur Symons who sparked through the very movement.
Criticism
The French slogan has been criticized by many writers as
well as influencers for its limited approach to Arts in general
and literature in particular. The first to scrutinize this
movement is Friedrich Nietzsche who suggests that there is
no 'Art for Art's Sake', he argues:

n
When the purpose of moral preaching and of improving

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man has been excluded from art, it still does not follow

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by any means that art is altogether purposeless, aimless,

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senseless.
sa
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He wants to stress the fact that it is impossible to separate

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morality from literature as it has to be exhibited in some way

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or the other, depending on the context of his writing.

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Socialists and Marxists proclaimed that Art for Art's Sake

s
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was an empty phrase and art should be used to spread

socialist ideas. Diego Rivera, who had been a member of the
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Th

Mexican Communist Party stated that the slogan could

further extend the social divide between poor and the rich.
He argued that it would hammer the final nail in the coffin
of Art (literature) as a social tool for the "cause of
revolution". It would serve as a currency, that would only be
enjoyed through a few (rich) people.

Sources and Suggested Readings

1. Lectures of Sir Fazal Ur Rehman
2. A Critical History of English Literature by B. R. Mullick -
Chapter 5
3. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Aestheticism
4. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Art_for_art%27s_sake
5. http://neoenglishsystem.blogspot.com/2010/12/naughty
-nineties-in-english-literature.html
6. https://www.google.com/amp/s/theculturetrip.com/euro
pe/ireland/articles/8-things-oscar-wilde-taught-us-
about-art/%3famp=1

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7. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yellow_Book

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 An Essay on Art for Morality
Introductory
The function of arts and literature have been argued upon

n
their aesthetic as well as moralistic approach to life. As

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discussed in the previous essay, Moralists are of the view
that art and literature serve its purpose for either a food or a

d
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poison. If an art is useful for the members of a society, it is a
-A
relishing and delicious food. Or on the flip side, if an art is
rs

harmful to the standard set of rules of a society and its

to

members, it will be constituted as a poison, as described by

ila

the Moralists. They also suggest that a writer should

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influence his readers if he has the power to do so. Aesthetes,

s
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on the other hand, argue that art should only provide

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pleasure and if a writer has the ability to influence his

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readers, he should refrain himself from doing so. But the

slogan of Art for Art's Sake was limited in its approach to life
and was mocked by many critics who were successful to trace
down the hidden moral lessons of the so called Aesthetes
and their work. Moralists are large in number as compared to
their aesthetic counterparts. In fact, they even date back in
the era of the Ancient Greece. Essay on Art for Morality
Grecian Moralists
As stated above, Moralists existed even during the era of
Ancient Greece. They were Plato, Aristotle, Aeschylus and
Euripides. Chief among the ancient Moralists were Plato and
Aristotle. Plato was of the view that the real purpose of the
art was to inculcate moral values. He condemned poetry in
his famous book, Republic in which he said that Poetry is the

n
imitation of an invitation, twice removed from reality. Plato

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was a practical-minded politician so he detested the element

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of beauty and sensation because it may result in violence.

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Although Plato's idea is unacceptable in our time but he
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stood for the moral cause of art and literature. Later, Plato's
student, Aristotle came in the scene and corrected his
rs
to

teacher's biased view of poetry and literature. He stated that

ila

the main function of a tragedy was to catharsize the aroused

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feelings of pity and fear. Aristotle even went to explain that

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poetry was an imitation of the ideal world in the mind of a

poet and the inspiration for his ideal world would come
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straight from the actual world he was living into. Thus

Aristotle was also a moral advocate of art and literature who
corrected the stinging approach of Plato to Arts.

Sir Philip Sydney

Sir Philip Sydney, also an Elizabethan, published a book
called An Apology for Poetry in which he focused on the
moral aspect of poetry. He discussed about philosophy,
history and ethics and how they helped in establishing
morality in a society. But he led a strong emphasis on poetry.
According to Sydney, it was poetry that was a perfect
medium to impress morality in human beings.

Epic Poets of Renaissance

n
Edmund Spenser and John Milton were both inclined

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towards proclaiming moral ideas through their epics.
Spenser through his Faerie Queene tried to versify in detail

d
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about twelve moral virtues but he could only accomplish
-A
writing about six. For example, the first book of The Faerie
Queene symbolizes the virtue of Holiness through the
rs
to

character of Red Cross Knight while Una represents truth.

ila

On other hand, Milton, through his Paradise Lost, attempted

im

to justify the ways of God to men through presenting the

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Biblical account of the Fall of Adam and Eve and how Satan
duped the "Confident" Eve and they were expelled from
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Th

Paradise as a result. Through the tragic fall of Both Adam

and Eve, Milton tried to convey stern and Puritan view on
morality. Dr. Johnson suggested that poetry must be didactic
(it should teach something). He criticized Shakespeare for
not including the moral purpose in his poetry.

Shakespeare seems to write without any moral purpose.

Shakespeare only wrote Sonnets so it was unsuitable for him
to include moral values directly.

Matthew Arnold
Arnold is also one of the strong advocates of Art for Morality.
He famously states,

n
A poetry of revolt against moral ideas is a poetry of

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Im
revolt against life; a poetry of indifference towards moral
ideas is a poetry of indifference towards life.

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sa
-A
Arnold constitutes morality mandatory for life and to
function it properly. His approach to morality is rather stern
rs
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which is obvious from his saying.

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Wordsworth and Shelley

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Among Romantics, Wordsworth and Shelley are considered

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Th

as great Moralists. Although Wordsworth's poetry was

wrongly attributed to aestheticism. But the moral and
spiritual purpose are vividly available in his poems. In fact,
his poetry is didactic as he himself states,

I am nothing but a teacher.

Shelley also emphasizes on the importance of morality in
poetry. He is of the view that poetry has a specific kind of
moral belt of mind. He denied Johnson's remarks regarding
Shakespeare and said,

Shakespeare, Dante and Milton are the philosophers of

the loftiest power.

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Keats' poetry outwardly may look aesthetically pleasing but

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it has hidden moral secrets into it. In his poem Sleep and

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Poetry, he notes,
sa
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That it should be a friend
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To soothe the cares and lift the thoughts of men.

to
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Keats indirectly wants to say that poetry should provide

im

enough material to take a person away from the worries of

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the world which helps to retain moral values in him.

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Ruskin and Plato

John Ruskin had acquired a great name in the nineteenth
century when he unveiled his book, Art and Morality. He is
remembered for his empathetic behaviour towards Arts and
Literature. He is often compared with Plato. For instance,
Plato proclaimed that Arts and Morality conflicted from each
other. While Ruskin is of the view that Arts and Morality
coincided with each other. Plato would banish poets from his
Republic while Ruskin states that their work is superbly
moral. Plato announced that poetry was a pack of lies while
Ruskin explains that poetry comes as a result of the divine
intelligence. Plato asserted that poetry was a major cause of
immorality while Ruskin demonstrates that it is the good
deed of a person, (not poetry) that makes him moral.
Resultantly, Ruskin was also an ardent supporter of morality

n
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in Arts just like Plato but he was less biased than Plato.

Im
d
G B Shaw
sa
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George Bernard Shaw is the second one to come after
Shakespeare in writing plays. Shaw also glorifies morality
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to

and he believes that writers make us, the readers, aware of

ila

the spitefulness of life instead of being enamoured of its

im

beautiful charm. Shaw was a socialist at heart so he gave a

s
As

reasonable importance to the moral and didactic function of

literature. His pleasant and unpleasant plays explicitly
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exhibit both the moral and anti-moral side of life. Shaw

alludes to the relationship of Art with Morality as thus,

I cannot write a play for the mere glorification of Art.

Conclusion
After looking at a close distance, it is obvious that both the
Moralists and the Aesthetes have been exaggerating the role
of Arts and Literature. Aesthetic beauty and entertaining
value in Literature is as important as its moral purpose. The
main function of literature is to entertain and educate its
readers or audience. A writer can give a moral lesson but he
should not impose it upon the readers. His main duty is to
convey his message. The readers are capable enough to

n
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derive moral purposes from their desired readings.

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Therefore, Art should neither be written solely for the sake

d
of Art nor for morality but Art should be produced and valued
for Life. sa
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rs

Sources and Suggested Readings

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1. Lectures of Sir Fazal Ur Rehman

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2. A Critical History of English Literature by B. R. Mullick -

s

Chapter 5
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3. https://www.ipl.org/essay/Ethics-And-Moralism-In-
e

George-Bernard-Shaws-FCSSNE22SG
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 A Critical Essay on the Novel in
the Victorian Era
Introduction

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Victorian Novel is marked with a shift from the novel of

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adventures to the novel for life. As the name suggests,

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Victorian Novel denotes to the novels and novel writers that
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appeared in the Victorian Era, an era that is known for the
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dynamic rule of Queen Victoria. The Victorian Era in history
rs

began from 1837 to 1901 but in literature, it began in 1832 as a

to
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shift from romantic poetry because the mature poets of the

im

romantic era (1800 - 1828) met an uncertain death and no

s

quotable literary genius was produced between 1820 to 1830.

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It was the political and industrial revolution that sparked a

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whole new level of creativity in Novelists. Let's explore the

political and social background of the Victorian Era to get
ourselves acquainted with changes taking place in that
epoch. Essay on Victorian Novel

Political Background
As mentioned above, the Victorian Era directed towards a
new direction for politics. There took many political reforms
that increased the power of the Merchant Class while the
collapse of the Feudal Class was gradually on the horizon.
The political revolution began when in 1832, a bill was
approved that allowed the merchant class to grant the right
to vote. In 1846, Corn Law appeared that reduced the
artificially high price of grains, thus making bread, much

n
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affordable. More noticeable political achievements were

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attained through the National Education Act of 1852 and

d
reform bills of 1867 and 1888. All these political reforms
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affected the lives of the common people.
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rs

Social Background
to
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Victorian Era, like Elizabethan Era, witnessed scientific and

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social development but on a massive scale. It was an age of

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industrialization in which more opportunities to earn a

livelihood was opened in the urban areas while rural areas
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Th

had to change themselves significantly. Darwin's theory of

Evolution recked religion significantly. Meanwhile, the
discovery of the Solar System and Universe made people
realized that they were not the only one who were superior
beings as there were (and still are) chances for the other
intelligent life on other planets in a different solar system.
People questioned when two plus two makes four, why one
god? It filled people with pessimism and a sudden change in
morals was observed. But people like John Ruskin marched
ahead for spiritualism. While the Oxford Movement tried to
test Old Testament on scientific rules. Manifestly, a host of
writers took to the art of writing novels and they can be
divided into three major categories:

1. Pre Victorians
2. Early Victorians
3. Later Victorians

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Before discussing at length about the writers of this era, let's
discover the basic features of Victorian Novel

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sa
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Basic Features
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The basic features of Victorian Novel are explained below:

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Expansion of Novel
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As education became reachable to more people, their outlook

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on life was diversified. Similarly, the political and social

growth expanded the subject matter of novels from being a
genre of adventure to the inclusion of more democratic
characters, themes; more realistic picture of the society and
voyages and discoveries of new islands etc. was introduced in
the novel. The new outlook of the people added new
possibilities for more new genres in Novel.
Increasing Number of Novelists

Novel-Reading grew exponentially during the Victorian Era

because of the more educated public as well as an easy and
cost-effective access to libraries. Sometimes, libraries
moved on a cart to deliver a book on a person's doorstep at
the cost of a few pennies. Such growth proved a beneficial
opportunity for the people who could not attain their

n
livelihood after education could just become a writer. So, a

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large number of people became authors. Their construction

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eclipsed poetry in a way poetry eclipsed novel in the

d
Romantic age.
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Popularity of Social Novel or Novel of Manners

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to

Social Novel is a novel that highlights the social issues of a

ila

particular age or ages. This genre of novel grew popular

sim

among Victorians. Benjamin Disraeli was the first person

As

who wrote on the very subject. He published Vivian Gray in

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1826, critiqued politics of his time and favoured church and

Th

Jews.

Pre-Victorian Novels

Pre Victorian Novelists levelled the plainfield for the early

Victorian Novelists through their work. Some honourable
mentions may include Verbal Little for his historical novels
and novel of crime; Miss George for her Silver Fork which is a
novel showcasing the life of aristocratic people; Peasse
Hagen portrayed the lives of the people belonging to the
lower class; Benjamin was seen critiquing political problems
of that era; William H. J. was famous for his historical and
romantic novels while a navy captain wrote about the naval
life. In short, the Pre-Victorian Novelists had offered a
variety of subjects for the Early Victorians to work on.

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Early Victorian Period

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The Early Victorian era proved very fruitful for the growth of

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novel as more and more people were tempted to adopt novel
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reading as their habit. It seemed as if a novel could be
written on almost every subject. Charles Dickens and
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Thackeray were two shining stars among the early Victorian

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Novelists but there were some minor novelists as well who

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wrote on more subjects. They were Benjamin Disraeli, Bronte

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Sisters, Mrs. Gaskell, Charles Kingsley, Charles Reade,

William Collins and Trollope. They were fairly large in
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number but they had much more in common. They were the
spokesmen of their society and they did not criticize their
society as severely as the novelists from the later Victorian
Era like Thomas Hardy and George Meredith. In short, their
criticism of society was light-hearted. They believed that due
to the rapid income they had been claiming through the
industrial revolution and colonization, their financial
suffering would come to an end. So, they were optimistic in
their approach. They gave a considerable importance to
morality in their society. They avoided any sexual reference
in literature. For instance, Thomas Bowdler presented a book
called The Family Shakespeare in which he removed sexual
and blasphemous material from Shakespeare's famous plays
to be read aloud in the family without any embarrassment.
Novelists also followed a stern approach to morality as
compared to Fielding or Richardson of the previous era

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whose novels had an obvious sexual tone.

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Charles Dickens
sa
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Charles Dickens is the signature name to highlight the
concerning epoch and novel in Britain. He was and is still
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famous in both England and around the world due to his

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distinctive but not-so-pessimistic approach to life. Born in

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1812 and died in 1870, Dickens created some fictional

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characters that are remembered till this very day. His first
published novel was The Pickwick Papers. His novels mostly
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centre around showcasing the plight of the working class

and the oppressed. Let's explore some of the features of his
novelistic genius.

Weaker Plots

Dickens followed the picaresquian adventurous style of

Smollett and Henry Fielding. Due to the adventurous tales in
their picaresque novels, their genius lacked connection in
between incidents or they were devoid of any strong plot.
Dickens' novels also suffer from the same problem. The
incidents described in his most novels lack a proper
beginning, middle and end. For instance, The Tale of Two
Cities mixes many stories under one plot that take place in
two cities. However, in his later novels, he seems to have
matured his plot construction but despite his attempt,

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weaker plots remain one of the core weakness of his novels.

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Idealism

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sa
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Dickens idealizes his novels. He acquired idealism through
sensational feelings which were derived from the romantic
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adventures of the previous novelists. Dickens is seen

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idealizing honour, courage, sacrifice, magnemity and

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fidelity. For instance, in A Tale of Two Cities, Dickens

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idealizes love and sacrifice through the character of Sydney

Cartoon who sacrifices himself for Lucie and Darney.
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Dickens stealthily gives a Biblical reference for Cartoon:

Greater love hath no man than this.

Optimism

Dickens believes that the humans are overall good and our
world is a place worth living. Thus, he is mostly optimistic
regarding his approach to life despite belonging to a poor
family and struggling hard. His novels mostly go through
hard times but they end optimistically.

Humour

Dickens is blessed with a strange quality to mix pleasure

with pain. He uses humour as a tool to create an optimistic

n
atmosphere. Two of his novels are known for their

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homouristic identity. They are Martin Chuzzlewit and The

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Old Curiosity Shop. While David Copperfield is regarded as a

d
pure comedy.
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Realism and Reformation

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Dickens, despite being an idealist, is a realist in the sense

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that he removed Romantic Medievalism from his society

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through his work. While he tried to reform his society from

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social problems like Child Labour or revolutions.

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William Makepeace Thackeray

Thackeray is the second name that scored name and fame in
the Early Victorian Era. He was born in 1811 in Kolkata, India
and he breathed his last in 1863 in England. He was
contemporary to Dickens and a direct rival too. Although he
came off of a wealthy family, yet pessimism could be traced
easily from his novels. Being from a well-off family, he
scanned his class and presented their problems as well as
their crooked behaviour.

As a Realist

Thackrey is utterly a realist because he writes what he

observes as compared to Dickens who idealizes certain
things. Thackrey himself says,

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I have no brains besides my eyes. I describe what I see.

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As a Satirist and a Moralist
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Thackrey was a cynical writer. He was sensitive and he was
rs

offended by the wrongs of society. Just like Dickens, he was

to

good at heart and he tried to morally reform his society. But

ila

that was not an artistic move since a writer's duty is to

s im

present the two sides of a picture and led the reader to decide
As

for themselves. But his prose style was pure, simple and
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charming that attracted many readers. His most known work

Th

is Vanity Fair that appeared in 1846. While the second novel

he wrote was Pendennis that was an autobiography just like
Dickens David Copperfield. This novel debuted in 1849. The
third most renowned novel of Mr. Thackrey was a historical
one that was titled as The History of Henry Esmond featuring
Queen Anne. This novel appeared in 1852. It showcased his
deep knowledge regarding the history and converting it into
a story. The Newcomes that hit the shelves in 1858 was
regarded as the best novel by critics. While The Virginians
was a sequel to The History of Henry Esmond that ended on
1859.

Minor Novelists
Benjamin Disraeli

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Benjamin Disraeli was an accomplished writer who was not

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only good at writing but also good at maintaining his

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political position as the prime minister of England during
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the reign of Queen Victoria. His novels dealt with the
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political issues of his time. He believed that the working
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class should be uplifted by the aristocratic class. His notable

to
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works are listed as under:

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s

1. Vivian Grey - 1826 - 27

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2. Comingsby - 1844
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3. Sybil - 1845
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4. Tancred - 1847

Brontë Sisters

Brontë Sisters was a group of three sisters who acquired a

great deal of fame through writing novels in the Early
Victorian Era. Those sisters were Charlotte, Emily and Anne
Brontë. Charlotte Brontë was the eldest of the trio. She
depicted strong romantic passions in her novels. Jane Eyre
was the defining work of Charlotte that appeared in 1847.
While two of her other novels are Villette and The Professor.
Emily Brontë was the second sister in Brontë Sister Trio who
only lived for thirty years (1818 - 1848). Her famous work is
Wuthering Heights that appeared just 1 year before her
death. In this novel, Emily illustrated the problems of
romantic relationships. It is still recalled as a tragedy of love.
Anne Brontë was the youngest of the bunch. She also died

n
ra
earlier. Her famous work is The Tenant of Wildfell Hall.

Im
Mrs. Gaskell

d
sa
-A
Elizabeth Gaskell was also a known English novelist who
wrote about the social evils and the problems caused by
rs
to

industrialization. Her famous works are given below:

ila
im

1. Mary Borton - 1848

s

2. Cranford - 1851 to 1853

As

3. Ruth - 1853
e

4. North and South - 1855

Th

She even featured Charlotte Brontë in her biography that

appeared in 1857.

Charles Kingsley

Charles Kingsley was a Christian Socialist. So Yeast and

Alton Locke are considered to be his socialist novels. While
some notable works are listed below:
 Hypatia - 1853 - Deals with the early form of Christianity
Westward Ho! - 1855 - As the name suggests, this novel
portrays the adventurous spirit of Elizabethan
navigators.
Hear World The Wakes - 1865 - Narrates the story of the
attacks of the descendants of Vikings

Wikie Collins (1824 - 89)

Wikie Collins is yet another name who acquired his fame

n
through writing about crime with suspense. He tried to

ra
Im
reveal the (psychological) mystery behind crimes. His
famous novels are:

d
sa
-A
1. The Woman in White
2. The Moonstone
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to
ila

Later Victorian Novelists

s im

Later Victorian novelists began a new trend for novels. They

As

are, sometimes, loosely referred as "modern" novelists

e

because they changed the way a novel was presented. The

Th

novel of this age discussed the problems of the very age with
a clear view of character's inner minds. The chiefs amongst
the Later Victorian Novelists were George Eliot, Thomas
Hardy and Meredith. When Eliot published her first novel,
Adam Bade in 1858, Dickens and Thackrey published A Tale
of Two Cities and Virginians which signified a major change
on how those three writers saw different things through
their lens of distinction. Before discussing about the
novelists of this age, let's make clear the features that were
traced in the novels of the very age.

Improvement of the Plot

Later Victorian Novelists improved the deficiency of

somewhat unconnected events those were found in the

n
novels of the Early Victorians. They added well-knit events

ra
those were the result of a precious event. For example, in

Im
The Mill on the Floss, the suffering of Maggie is

d
sa
interconnected with different incidents that come in
-A
sequence, from her childhood to her adulthood.
rs

More Philosophical
to
ila

The novels produced by Later Victorians are more

s im

philosophical as compared to the ones written by Early

As

Victorians. Early Victorian writers followed Dafoe,

e

Richardson and Fielding. Those writers were more

Th

adventurous by nature. But the Later Victorians discussed

problems of humanity in a coherent way. For example, in
Meredith's novel, The Ordeal of Richard, Meredith asserts
that a stern watch over one's children can turn a child into a
villain for his father.

Poetic Seriousness
As mentioned before, The Early Victorians wrote about
adventures. So they lacked poetic seriousness in their work.
What is poetic seriousness? A French novelist, Flaubert, puts
it as thus: To want to give to prose the rhythm of verse (but
keeping it very much prose), and to want to write about
ordinary life as one writes history or the epic (without
denaturing the subject) is perhaps an absurdity. That's what
I wonder sometimes. But perhaps it's also a grand

n
ra
undertaking and very original!Here, Flaubert is referring to

Im
the Poetic Seriousness as an experiment. Which is

d
undertaken by Meredith because he got educated in Germany
sa
where there he read about French Literature. He looked at
-A
English Literature through his critical eyes. Both Eliot and
rs

Meredith used Poetic Seriousness to discuss serious

to

thoughts.
ila
im

Psychological Realism
s
As

The most significant achievement of Later Victorian Writers

e
Th

is their introduction to Psychological Realism. Psychological

Realism is a technique in which a writer fully indulges
himself to comment on a character's motives behind his
actions in a story. This type of novel is based upon a
technique called Direct Method. While Indirect or Dramatic
Method revolves around creating a character, letting it do its
job on its own and making readers decide about the story.
George Eliot is the first novelist who introduced the world
with psychological realism. Later, psychological Realism
transitioned into the Stream of Consciousness technique to
illustrate the inner workings of the human brain.

Mary Ann Evans

The actual name of George Eliot is Mary Ann Evans. She is
also known as Mary Anne or Marian. George Eliot is one of

n
the most renowned novelists of the Victorian Era in general

ra
Im
and among Later Victorian Novelists in particular. She
opened her eyes in 1819 while she breathed her last in 1880.

d
sa
Eliot as a novelist witnessed a major shift from adventurous
-A
novels to the ones centring around the innermost instinct of
mankind. The famous works of George Eliot are listed as
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to

under:
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im

1. Adam Bede (1859)

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2. The Mill on the Floss (1860)

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3. Silas Marner (1861)

e

4. Romola (1862)
Th

5. Middlemarch (1872)

The features of Eliot's novels are explained below:

Rural Background

Eliot used to live with her father in Warwickshire. Her stay in

a rustic locality like this one made it easy for her to observe
the habits and psyche of the people of rural areas. Unlike
Dickens and Thackrey, who depicted the life in the city and
the problems faced by the Aristocratic class respectively,
Eliot tends to show the simply complex life of the people of
the countryside. For example, in The Mill on the Floss, Eliot
showcases the narrow-mindedness of the people at St. Oggs
towards Maggie when the news of forced elopement is
revealed.

n
Unified Plot

ra
Im
As mentioned before, Eliot wrote novels at a time when

d
sa
there was no unity of action(s) in a story. Like many other
-A
Later Victorian Novelists, Eliot wrote stories with a well-
structured plot. The events of her novels are interlinked.
rs
to
ila

Serious Thoughts
sim

Her novels are written to promote the Poetic Seriousness of

As

Flaubert. When Eliot was writing novels of her age, people

e

were greatly baffled by the new but worrying theories

Th

prevailing in their society like Theory of Evolution, the

significance of God and religion began to be questioned
openly. Industrialization had disrupted the natural flow of
humanity. Such seriousness is clearly visible in her Mill on
the Floss in which a serious impact of industrialization is
depicted as how losing a lawsuit can bankrupt the owner of a
mill.
Gradual Development of Characters

The characters in Eliot's stories do not undergo from a

sudden change. The development of characters is gradual but
persistent in some cases. For instance, Maggie's persistent
devotion to her brother, Tom Tulliver does not permit her to
get into a permanent company of philosophical discourse of
Philip Wakem. But in Romola, we see the gradual

n
development of characters. For instance, the first initial

ra
impression of Titu is somewhat good in the eyes of Romola.

Im
But Titu's true manipulative personality is revealed when he

d
sa
mistreats his adopting father who is a prisoner and when he
-A
betrays his brother-in-law to leave the city of Florence.
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to

George Meredith
ila
im

George Meredith is one of the most greatest novelists and

s

poets of the Victorian Era. He was born in 1828 while he

As

kicked the bucket in 1909. Besides being a successful

e
Th

novelist, Meredith was initially a poet who was mainly

impressed and influenced by John Keats. Due to his poetic
nature, his novels were also enriched in complex but
beautiful poetic rhythm. Oscar Wilde puts it as thus,

chaos illumined by brilliant flashes of lightning

Due to his poetic novels he is, sometimes, regarded as
Flaubert of English Novels. His novels mostly deal with the
social problems of his characters through their psychological
bent of mind. Meredith was nominated for the Nobel Prize in
Literature seven times. His famous works can be included as:

1. The Ordeal of Richard Feverel (1859)

2. The Egoist (1879)
3. Diana of the Crossways (1885)

n
ra
Im
The prominent features of his novels are:

d
Subjective View of the Novel sa
-A

Meredith did not follow the specific traditions of the novel.

rs
to

Nor did he form a specific school of thought. He added

ila

subjectivity to his novels so that the idea of a character

im

should be made prominent through his own judgement.

s
As

Poetic Element
e
Th

Novel before Meredith was written in prose with prosaic

nature. But Meredith wrote prose with poetic seriousness. As
mentioned before, in this regard, he carried forward the
experiment of Flaubert and added his own version of success
to it.

Philosophical Thoughts
As discussed earlier, Meredith and Eliot transitioned from
adventurous novels to the ones those provided indirect
solutions to complex problems of life through the means of
philosophical proceedings.

Psychological Realism

Another feature of Meredith's novels is the inner mechanics

n
of characters' mind and their true motives behind a certain

ra
action. Dickens used to present the action in his novels

Im
through external narration while Meredith and Eliot

d
sa
showcase the prevailing action through internal narration.
-A

Optimism
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to

While Hardy was pessimistic about mankind, Meredith was

ila

optimistic in his own scientific ways. Meredith believed in

s im

the theory of Evolution and he had a belief that men are still
As

evolving. Their problems would come to an end when their

e

evolution is completed.
Th

Thomas Hardy
Thomas Hardy is yet another big name among the novelists
(and the poets) of Later Victorian Era. He was born in 1840 in
Dorchester, while he breathed his last on January 19th, 1928.
Hardy was influenced by the novelists of his time and the
romantic poetry during romantic era, especially that of
William Wordsworth. He sharply criticized the declining
morals of the people living in Rural England. His novels
carry a stream of tragic pessimism. His famous novels are:

1. From the Maddening Crowd (1874)

2. The Return of the Native (1878)
3. The Woodlanders (1887)
4. The Mayer of Casterbridge (1886)
5. Tess of the D'Urbervilles (1891)

n
6. Jude the Obscure (1895)

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Here are the prominent features of his novels:

d
Pessimism sa
-A
rs

Thomas Hardy's novels are primarily geared towards a

to

pessimistic outlook of life. Therefore, the stories presented

ila

in his novels are mainly tragic in contrast to the comic

im

scenery in Meredith's novels. In some novels, the intensity

s
As

of pessimism is low but Tess of the D'Urbervilles is among

e

those novels which are manifested in pessimism.

Th

Role of Chance

We know that Hardy's vision of life is pessimistic. But how

does he achieve his level of pessimism? The simple answer
to this question is the use of role of chance. Although in real
life, chance, at times, plays an important role in moulding a
person's way to his success. But in Hardy's novels, it is
chance that brings about the tragic destruction of a
character. For example, Tess has been trying to tell Angel
Clare about her rough "history" before her marriage and she
writes a letter to let him know indirectly about the situation.
But the letter is eaten up by the carpet and it isn't discovered
by Angel. If the letter was not confiscated by the carpet,
Angel would have known about her past and he would have
taken the necessary actions.

n
ra
Im
Wessex Element

d
sa
Most of Hardy's novels (and short stories) are based in an
-A
imaginary town known as Wessex. This town symbolically
denotes to the South-west area of England where there grew
rs
to

up and observed life.

ila
im

Poetic Seriousness
s
As

Hardy also used novel as a medium to broadcast serious

e

thoughts and philosophies like Meredith and George Eliot.

Th

Minor Novelists of Later Victorian Period

R L Stevenson

Robert Louis Stevenson was a Scottish story teller and

romancer. He was born in 1850 and died in 1894. He is best
known for his adventurous stories those still lure small
children. His notable works are:

1. The Treasure Island

2. New Arabian Nights
3. Kidnapped
4. The Black Arrow
5. Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde

n
He was writing a novel during his death bed and critics

ra
regarded his last uncompleted novel as the finest

Im
representation of his art.

d
sa
-A
George Gissing
rs

George Gissing was rather an unpopular novelist but the

to

themes in his novels matched those in Dickens' novels. He

ila

was of the view that poor people cannot revolt against the
s im

callus authorities because rich people cannot afford to yield

As

their influence while an intellectual person stuffers the most

e

because intellectuals are sensitive to the pangs that are

Th

inflicted upon the poor people. His famous novels are:

1. The Worker in the Down

2. The Unclassed
3. Dones
4. New Grub Street
5. Born in Exile
6. The Old Women
Conclusion
Victorian Novel has some merits and demerits of their own.
Firstly, the plot structure of Victorian novels is not strong.
Secondly, Victorian Novelists give uncontrollable importance
to moral values. That's why, the novels like Tom Jones were
kept away from the sight of children because the frank
expression of sex was tabooed. While this age of the novel

n
provided a stout foundation to strong story-telling; more

ra
realistic sketches of life and psychological realism to read

Im
through the minds of characters. Surely this age of the novel

d
sa
was not as impactful as Elizabethan Drama and Romantic
-A
Poetry but it proudly comes after the third good contender in
English Literature.
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ila

Sources and Suggested Readings

s im

1. Lectures of Sir Fazal

As

2. https://crossref-it.info/articles/263/characteristics-of-
e

victorian-britain
Th

3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_era
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Dickens
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Makepeace_Thac
keray
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Disraeli
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Bront%C3%AB
8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emily_Bront%C3%AB
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Bront%C3%AB
10. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Gaskell
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Kingsley
12. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Eliot
13. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romola
14. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Meredith
15. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hardy
16. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Louis_Stevenson
17. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gissing

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Im
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sa
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Th
 A Critical Essay on Metaphysical
Poetry
Introduction

n
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The term, Metaphysical Poetry has been derived from the

Im
word Metaphysics. Which separately means beyond the

d
physical and natural world where there we live. Metaphysics
sa
tries to answer philosophical questions like does God really
-A
exists? What is the actual reality of our world of substance?
rs

What is the origin of man? And what happens after death.

to
ila
im

On the other hand, Metaphysical Poetry does the

s

opposite to what Metaphysics promises to do.

As

Metaphysical Poetry is a kind of poetry in which a poet

e
Th

pictures his emotions through the means of far-fetched

conceits, intellectual analysis and dramatic action (in
some cases). It was Dryden who first used the term
Metaphysical Poetry to describe the metaphysical
properties in Donne's poetry. Dr. Johnson further
performed critical analysis on Donne's poetry denoting
that it is the style that makes Donne's poetry
metaphysical, not the subject matter. But he criticized
 Donne and other poets who followed the path of Donne
as their poetry was a manifestation of their learning, not
of their emotions towards their beloveds.

About the beginning of the seventeenth century appeared a

race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical poets.
The metaphysical poets were men of learning, and to show
their learning was their whole endeavour: but, unluckily

n
ra
resolving to show it in rhyme, instead of writing poetry, they

Im
only wrote verses and very often such verses as stood the

d
trial of the finger better than of the ear; for the modulation
sa
was so imperfect that they were only found to be verses by
-A
counting the syllables.But in reality, the statement of Dr.
rs

Johnson is rather based on prejudice and exaggeration.

to

Essay on Metaphysical Poets

ila
im

Characteristics of Metaphysical Poetry

s
As

Metaphysical Poetry is distinguished by some traits of its

e
Th

own. Here are some notable characteristics:

Difficulty: Metaphysical poetry, usually, is very difficult

to understand for a common person because a
metaphysical poet shows a comparison between two
varying concepts or things (that makes no sense for a
layman).
Intellectual: Metaphysical poetry is intellectual in its
nature because it is a product of a poet's analysis of his
 experiences and emotions.
Fusion of Emotion and Intellect: Metaphysical poetry is
a combination of both intellectual as well as emotional
thoughts and feelings. Therefore, a metaphysical poet is
both a classic and a romantic simultaneously because
they used their head and heart.
Full of Conceits: Conceits or far-fetched comparisons
are the soul of the metaphysical poetry. It is difficult for
the metaphysical poetry to exist without conceits.
Argumentative: Metaphysical poetry is argumentative in

n
a sense because it is a bold show of the subtle evolution

ra
of thoughts. Then metaphysical poets give arguments

Im
like a lawyer to prove their unrecognizable evolution of

d
thoughts.
sa
Originality: Metaphysical poetry is original. It was not
-A
produced as a copy of an already established mode of
poetry. It was a creative and subtle work of the poets like
rs

John Donne.
to

Unusual Imagery: Metaphysical poetry is illustrated by

ila

the unique Images of its own. The images mostly

im

contradict or have no apparent resemblance in a

s

comparison but it is the style of metaphysical poets that

As

adds a connection between the corresponding Images.

e

Dramatic: Metaphysical poetry is a drama of ideas. It's

Th

dramatic in the sense of being an argumentative

confession of one's emotions. A metaphysical poet uses
the tool of argumentation to create a dramatic
atmosphere.

John Donne as a Metaphysical Poet

John Donne, who opened his eyes in 1537 and died in 1631, is
considered to be the leader of metaphysical poets. But Donne
was more than a poet. He was a Dean of St. Paul and his main
duty was to deliver religious sermons, yet Donne wrote
poetry on higher subjects. His famous works may include as
under:

1. The Progress of Soul

2. An Anatomy of the World (Elegy)
3. Epithalamium
4. Songs and Sonnets

n
ra
5. Divine Poems

Im
While the poetry composed by John Donne can be divided

d
into three parts:
sa
-A

1. Amorous (Of Love)

rs

2. Metaphysical
to

3. Satirical
ila
im

Amorous Poetry
s
As

Amorous Poetry is the type of poetry that deals with the

e

concept of love and how love influences our lives. Before

Th

Donne, love was portrayed in a colourful painting of eternal

bliss and beloveds were sketched without any flaws in them.
But Donne, through his own version of Love Poetry,
presented a realistic picture of love, lover and his beloved. In
Donne's realm of love, no lover or the beloved is flawless.
Therefore, his love poetry is his revolt against the
Elizabethan traditions of painting an idealistic picture of
love. Therefore, his version of Love is not Petrarchan, rather
Platonic.

Metaphysical and Divine Poetry

It is Donne's metaphysical poetry that tries to connect the

human soul with its creator metaphysically. But it is also the
metaphysical element in Donne's poetry that makes his

n
verses difficult to comprehend for a common reader.

ra
Because the content and the Images Donne uses in his

Im
poems was not well-recognized by the general public at that

d
sa
time.The Progress of Soul is the first metaphysical work of
-A
Donne in which he presents the idea of the migration of the
soul from a bird to a fish. The idea was new to the public of
rs
to

that time. Therefore, Donne's metaphysical caricaturing

ila

entitled him to be as complex a poet as Robert Browning(as

im

compared to an easy poet like Lord Tennyson) of the

s
As

Victorian Era. Both the poets had a love for metaphysical

taste and enriched their poems with rhythmic music. But
e
Th

Donne was a poet of wit while Browning was a poet of

passion. Donne's poetry is devoid of the Elizabethan
sweetness of rhythm and music. He introduced a rather
harsh level of poetry. Donne had a strong influence over his
followers and Elizabethan poets were eclipsed by the witty
poetry of Donne. Like Browning, Donne does not sympathize
with the readers. He did not care if readers were able to grasp
his metaphysical references. Donne's poetry is difficult
because of its excessive terseness (brevity).

A Detailed Note on Love Poetry

Donne's love poetry is a revolt against the Elizabethan

traditions of love. Elizabethans were the Petrarchan in their
expression of love. Petrarchan Poetry of love is characterized

n
by the element of woman worship in it. Many reverend poets

ra
of Elizabethan age were tempted to praise different physical

Im
traits of the body of a woman, be it her eyes, face, the colour

d
sa
of her hair and her height. Petrarchan poets painted their
-A
beloveds as the indifferent creatures devoid of the feelings of
love towards their lovers. Petrarchan poets used the images
rs
to

of common universal (like sun and moon) and earth to praise

ila

the physical features of their beloved. For example,

im

Shakespeare uses the imagery of a pleasant summer day to

s
As

praise the gentle companionship of his beloved,

e
Th

Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?

John Donne revolted against the Petrarchan show of love

through sensual realism in his (metaphysical) poetry. Donne
was against the one-sided version of Love. He believed that
sensuous as well as spiritual compatibility is essential for a
satisfactory relationship between the lover and his beloved.
There are various modes present in the poetry of John
Donne.

Cynical Strain

At first, the love poetry of John Donne appears to broadcast

his cynical views on the unfaithfulness of women whom he
loved (passionately). For instance, in his poem, The Flea,

n
Donne is asking to his beloved for her sensual favour which

ra
is eventually rejected by his lady, he eventually grows bitter

Im
at it.

d
sa
-A
Cruel and sudden, hast thou since
Purpled thy nail, in blood of innocence?
rs
to

Wherein could this flea guilty be,

ila

Except in that drop which it sucked from thee?

im
s

Conjugal Strain
As
e

In this phase of love poetry, Donne grows affection for his

Th

wife and his cynicism is rather put on control. He seems to

find peace in love. A Valediction: Forbidden Mourning and
The Sunne Rising are the prime examples of the very strain.

Platonic Strain

Platonic love favours spiritual connection between the soul

of the lovers. This kind of love is typically shown before and
after the marriage. For example, in Canonization, Donne
perceives love as a holy passion.

Reflective Strain

Another mode of Donne's love poetry is his reflective strain.

It is reflective in the sense of a show of Donne's innermost
emotions that are governed by the experiences of the poet

n
himself. It is worth noting that John Donne had

ra
relationships with various girls during his adulthood. So, his

Im
experience of love should have been vast enough to convey it

d
through the poems he wrote.
sa
-A

Style
rs
to

Donne had masterfully played with the style of rhymes and

ila
im

stanzas in his poetry. Donne was not contented on the

s

abandoning of Petrarchan love, but, he was eager to deviate

As

from the style of the poems, exercised by the poets of the

e

Elizabethan era. It is said that Donne played with 40

Th

different forms of stanzas in his poetry.

A Detailed Note on Divine Poetry of John Donne

John Donne had been an ardent religious person in his life.

In fact, he did not consider his poetry important despite its
distinctive approach to both love and religion. When he
opened his eyes, he was a follower of the Roman Catholic
Church. But he was sceptical regarding the code of the very
religion. He, then, converted to the Protestant branch of
Christianity. He became a Dean at St. Paul and his primary
duty was to deliver sermons. But Donne also wrote many
religious poems to show his personal attachment to God. He
remained doubtful of his Faith. Most of his religious poems
focus at his repentance of the sins that he might have
committed in the past or will commit in future.

n
ra
Im
Introspection

d
sa
Introspection is a combination of two words, internal and
-A
inspection which literally means internal inspection.
Through religious poetry John Donne inspects his
rs
to

relationship and association with the God Whom he thinks is

ila

the right light. Just like the Love Poetry of Donne dealt with
im

the inspection of his relationship with his beloved, Donne

s
As

puts him own personality at the trial to know about the true
reality between himself and God.
e
Th

Themes

The religious poetry of John Donne is characterized by the

themes that Donne implies to convey his connection with
the God. The first prominent theme of his religious poems
are the frailty and decay of the universe. In the grand
scheme of the Universe, nothing is permanent. The world of
ours shall go to the ruins one day. The second prominent
theme of Donne's religious poetry is the insignificance of
Man in the hands of God. Just like the temporary world, Man
is himself temporarily staying in the crowded void of the
earth and he shall be consumed by death one day. Fear of
death is yet another notable theme that is present in the
poetry of Donne. When Donne is in his adulthood, he feels
afraid of death but as he grows up, his fear of death bids a

n
ra
farewell to him that can be traced in his poem, Death be not

Im
Proud.

d
Variety of Tones sa
-A

Just like love poetry, the religious poetry of John Donne is

rs
to

recognized by the different modes it exhibits. The two modes

ila

are debatory and profoundness. Donne also uses his

im

unmatched ability of wit to create a pleasant effect of

s
As

wordplay. Grierson comments on the religious poetry of

Donne as thus,To be didactic is never the first intention of
e
Th

Donne’s religious poems, but rather, to express himself, to

analyze and lay bare his own moods of agitation, of
aspiration and of humiliation, in the quest of God, and the
surrender of his soul to Him. The same erudite and
surprising imagery, the same passionate, and reasoning
strain, meet us in both. Sex ImagerySensual imagery is
vividly used in the poetry of love but it is strange to find
sexual images in the religious poetry of John Donne. For
instance, in Batter my Heart, Three Person'd God, Donne
pleads to God to attack the devil who has corrupted his soul.
There are images like divorce, bend and blow which are
somewhat amorous.

Batter my heart, three-person'd God, for you

As yet but knock, breathe, shine, and seek to mend;
That I may rise and stand, o'erthrow me, and bend

n
ra
...

Im
But am betroth'd unto your enemy;

d
Divorce me, untie or break that knot again,
Take me to you, imprison me, sa
-A
rs

Minor Poets of Metaphysical Poetry

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Other poets of the Metaphysical school of thought may

im

include as under:
s
As

Robert Herrik (1591 - 1674)

e
Th

Herrik wrote both amorous as well as religious poems. But

he is recalled for his poems of love. Although his poetry
mostly resembles the Elizabethan spirit, it is his thoughtful
fantasy and meditative strain that is present in his religious
poetry is that makes him a metaphysical poet.

Thomas Carew (1598 - 1639)

Carew is recalled for the strong influence of Donne. He was a
fineslyric writer of the age to which he belonged. Although
his poetry may lack the freshness of Herrik, yet his poems
are well-rhymed.

Richard Crawshaw (1613 - 1639)

Crashaw selected a different path as compared to Carew and

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Herrik. He entirely wrote religious poems. His famous work

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is The Flaming Heart.

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Henry Vaughan (1622 - 1695)
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Henry was as mystic a poet as Crashaw, but he was equally at
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home in sacred as well as secular poetry.

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George Herbert (1593 - 1633)

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George Herbert is the second most read metaphysical poet

after John Donne. He is famous due to the clarity of
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expression and transparency in the conceits he uses. His

religious poetry is simple and didactic.

Conclusion
Metaphysical poetry was kept alive by the metaphysical
poets carrying their own distinctive approach to the
emotions of love and spirituality. We see the spirit of a
Puritan in their religious poetry. While we witness an
amorous flow of love just like Elizabethans. Some
metaphysical poets sought comfort in love while others
sought a permanent refuge into the spiritual realm of their
own. While Donne exercised his passion and emotions of
both physical love and divine love in his metaphysical
poetry, giving it a different meaning to metaphysics that we
know today.

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Sources and Suggested Readings

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1. Lectures of Sir Fazal
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2. https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Donne
3. A New History of English Literature by B. R. Mullick -
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The Puritan Age - The Poets of Metaphysical School -

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