Accepted Manuscript

Title: Experimental investigation of thermoelectric generator (TEG) with PCM

module

Author: Maciej Jaworski, Marta Bednarczyk, Marceli Czachor

PII: S1359-4311(15)01374-5
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.12.005
Reference: ATE 7408

To appear in: Applied Thermal Engineering

Received date: 11-8-2015

Accepted date: 6-12-2015

Please cite this article as: Maciej Jaworski, Marta Bednarczyk, Marceli Czachor, Experimental
investigation of thermoelectric generator (TEG) with PCM module, Applied Thermal
Engineering (2015), http://dx.doi.org/doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2015.12.005.

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Experimental investigation of thermoelectric generator (TEG) with PCM module

Maciej Jaworski a), Marta Bednarczyk b), Marceli Czachor a)

a)
Institute of Heat Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, Nowowiejska 21/25, 00-665
Warsaw, Poland; [email protected]
b)
Faculty of Power and Aeronautical Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology,
Nowowiejska 24, 00-665 Warsaw, Poland

Highlights:
An experimental set-up for thermoelectric generator (TEG) was made
Phase change material (PCM) was used for cooling of one side of TEG
Performance characteristics in different electrical and thermal configurations were determined
It was proved that PCMs can be effectively used as both heat sink and heat source in TEGs

Abstract
In the paper the results of experimental investigation of thermoelectric generator (TEG) are
presented. The model of TEG was designed for the use of solar radiation as a heat source. An
important feature of the design under study is the method of cooling of thermoelectric modules.
Phase change material (PCM) absorbs heat during its melting, thus stabilizing temperature of
cool side of TEG. Basic performance characteristics, i.e. voltage and current generated vs. time,
were measured during tests conducted for different electrical configurations of the unit, and for
different heat fluxes on hot side of TEG. Temperature distributions in PCM container during the
operation of TEG were also recorded. The reverse operation of TEG, i.e. when heat earlier
accumulated in PCM is utilized, were tested as well. The results confirmed the potential of the
application of phase change materials as a cooling/heating media in TEGs.

Keywords: thermoelectric generator, phase change materials, thermal energy storage

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1. Introduction
Environmental issues enforce actions to improve energy conversion efficiency of conventional
energy sources as well as the search for new sources of energy or new applications of known
power technologies. The latter, among others, refers to electrical energy sources based on the use
of thermoelectric effect, i.e. thermoelectric generators (TEG). Seebeck effects, which is one of
three thermoelectric phenomena, leads to the generation of electric power in the circuit made of
two different materials, if the junctions of them are located in different temperatures. Although
efficiency of TEGs are not very high, and so the power that could be obtained, this kind of energy
source seems to be interesting alternative to conventional methods in many applications. This is
why in recent years an increasing interest in these sources of electricity is observed [1-5]. Zheng
et al. [1] reviewed the status of the material development and thermoelectric applications in
different areas and discussed the difficulties in terms of the commercialization of advanced
materials. They also proved that the thermoelectric applications with the current conversion
efficiency are economically and technically practical for micro/small applications.
The first commercial TEG, developed in the beginning of the twentieth century, were used as
power supply for radio devices and radio stations especially in military applications [3]. Burning
gas was mainly used as a source of heat. The rapid development of TEG technology in later years
was associated with the beginning of the era of space exploration. Then radioisotope
thermoelectric generators (RTGs), based on the decay of radioisotope core which leads to the
release of heat, were developed. That type of TEGs as a long life, reliable and robustness power
source have been used in multiple space missions [2, 3, 6].
In the second half of the 20th century TEGs were also intensively developed in the context of
other, than space, applications. In automotive industry many prototypes were developed for the
use of excess heat from internal combustion engines, in order to enhance their overall efficiency
as well as to fulfil increasing demand for electricity in contemporary vehicles. The power of these
units is up to 1000 W. Automotive TEGs are being developed by many automotive companies
and they can reach efficiency up to 10% (for the temperature of exhaust gases 250C) [7-11].
High temperature excess heat occurs in many technological process, especially in oil and gas
industry, chemical industry, thermal power engineering. In not all cases the use of such waste
heat through the application of TEGs is justify economically. However, in remote plants TEGs
using waste heat, as well as fossil fuels, are interesting solutions for powering control systems,
with thousands of installations each year [3]. TEGs integrated with both conventional and
renewable sources of heat used in households can be valuable sources of electricity in remote
areas without access to the electricity grid [12-16]. Among many sources of heat used in TEGs
solar energy is particularly important [17-20]. Concentration of solar radiation on the surface of

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hot side pf TEG allows to obtain both higher power and higher efficiency of energy conversion
[19, 20].
It is also worth to mention about human body which temperature is elevated above environment
and therefore it can also be used as heat source for thermoelectric generator. Efficiency of such
devices, as well as electrical parameters, are very low, however, they are high enough to power
small electronic devices and, what is the most important, medical devices such as pacemakers [3,
21].
Solar energy based TEGs are very often developed as building integrated energy sources.
However, there are also very special applications of such devices, e.g. as power sources for
different sensors used in space and aerospace technologies [22-26]. In space applications, due to
the limitations of the mass of the equipment, cooling technique of cool side of TEG is a serious
problem. In these cases the use of phase change materials (PCM) seems to be an interesting
solution. These materials may absorb large amount of heat in nearly constant temperature (latent
heat of melting) [27]. They are used as accumulating media in thermal energy storage systems, as
well as for temperature stabilization and cooling of electronics devices [28]. During phase change
process temperature of the material, and also in the surrounding of its container, remains almost
constant, and thus temperature difference at TEG is maintained at required level. The use of
PCMs for cooling purposes has an additional advantage associated with the fact that heat is stored
in this material. In case of space applications when an accessibility of solar radiation is periodic
in nature, heat accumulated in PCM can be used for heating of TEG during the “dark” period –
then heat is reradiated to space from the other side of TEG. In [22, 23] a TEG which is designed
to be mounted in a fuselage was investigated. It uses variation of environmental temperature
during the flight, in this case PCM is used as heat source, while the cool side of TEG is mounted
to the internal side of an aircraft hull, temperature of which varies during the flight. The potential
of the use of PCM in TEGs powered by solar radiation was experimentally investigated in [24,
25]. PCMs could also improve thermoelectric cooling devices, which was recently proven in the
research performed by Tan and Zhao [26].
The aim of the research was to evaluate performance characteristics of thermoelectrics generator
with phase change materials as a heat sink for stabilization of the cool side temperature. The
study was performed experimentally, on a specially designed and made set-up. It was assumed
that heat will be delivered to the hot side of TEG through radiation, thus an infrared lamp was
used as a heat source. On the other side of TEG a container with PCM was mounted for the
absorption of heat from cool side and to stabilize its temperature. Electric parameters, i.e. voltage
and current generated in the unit, were the main characteristics to be determined during the tests.
Also, the thermal behavior of the system, especially transient temperature distribution in PCM
container and total time of phase change, were of great interest. Some tests were done for the

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reverse operation of TEG, i.e. when thermal energy accumulated in PCM was used to heat one
side of the unit.

2. An experimental set-up

An experimental thermoelectric generator was made of nine thermoelectric modules with

dimensions of 40  40 mm (model TM-127-1.4-6.0, manufacturer: SCTB Nord, Ferrotec Corp.).
The modules were placed between two copper plates of 2 mm thickness. One plate, painted in
black, operates as an absorber for solar radiation (during heating phase) or as a radiator releasing
heat to the environment due to radiation. The other copper plate was simultaneously an upper
cover of PCM container. PCM container has a cuboid shape with dimensions 130  130  50
mm. It is internally finned – copper plates of 1 mm thickness are soldered to the upper cover, the
distance between fins equal to 10 mm. The scheme of the model of TEG is shown in Fig. 1, while
the photo of an experimental set-up (before completely mounted) is shown in Fig. 2.
An infrared lamp was used as a heat source. In all tests the power of the lamp was the same,
equal to 150 W. Intensity of radiation was controlled through the change of the distance between
the lamp and the surface of TEG unit. Additional tests were performed, aimed at estimation of
radiative heat flux at the surface of TEG as well as uniformity of radiation for different distances
between the lamp and TEG. Both heat flux and its space distribution were determined based on
the measurement of temperature at the surface of thin black layer insulated on the back side.
Measurements were made with the use of infrared camera and calculations were performed for
values obtained after steady state was achieved. It was assumed that the whole radiative energy
absorbed by the layer is reradiated to the environment (heat flow through the insulation was
neglected). Surface temperature was determined from the radiative heat flux with emissivity of
the surface assumed to be 0.95. Results of these tests are collected in Table 1. The non-uniformity
of temperature field on the surface equivalent to the surface of TEG does not exceed 10% of the
maximum temperature (for the shortest distance between the lamp and TEG).

Table 1.

The model of TEG was equipped with several thermocouples. Temperature at the following
locations were measured: internal surfaces of copper plates (i.e. contact temperatures between
copper plates and thermoelectric modules), PCM temperature at different distances from the
upper surface of PCM container – total 5 TCs were mounted inside this container, every 10 mm.

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K-type thermocouples were used (made by Omega, USA). Special TCs for surface temperature
measurements were mounted on the surface of copper plates. Inconel sheath TCs, 1 mm diameter,
were used to measure PCM temperature. All TCs were calibrated (in the thermal bath with the
reference thermometer) before mounted in the set-up, and their indications were corrected based
on the results of calibration. After calibration an uncertainty of temperature measurements was
estimated to be 0.2C. National Instrument analog-digital converter (NI PCI-6281) and
LabView software were used for data acquisition.
Thermoelectric modules were connected in series. Two kinds of tests were being done during the
study. The first one in an open circuit, in this case only voltage, as an electrical parameter, was
measured. The second one was in a closed circuit and then both voltage and current were
recorded. In the latter TEG was externally loaded with the resistor of 10 ohms resistance.
Electrical parameters were measured by standard meters: Meterman 33XR and Digital PC7000.

Capric acid, CH3(CH2)8COOH (made by Roth GmbH) was used as PCM. It melts at 30.5C, with
latent heat equal to 159 kJ/kg. Specific heats of solid and liquid phases equal to respectively 2.47
and 2.03 kJ/(kgK). All the above thermal properties were determined using differential scanning
calorimeter – DSC (Perkin Elmer, USA). About 700 ml of capric acid were poured into PCM
container. The lower side of the container is made of thin, flexible plate, so that it is possible to
compensate the volume change during melting of PCM. In addition the container was equipped
with an overflow made of a pipe connected to its upper part (which is visible in the picture).
Selecting phase change materials we took into account its melting temperature as one of the most
important factor. Moderate melting point provides low level of heat losses from the hot surface.
On the other side, this temperature was high enough, so that the reverse operation of TEG was
also possible, i.e. the use of melted PCM as a heat source with ice cooling of the upper side.
Choosing organic material was dictated by the fact, that these materials are stable and do not
exhibit supercooling, in contrast to the inorganic ones [27]. During experiments bottom and
lateral walls were insulated by 2 cm thick foam, only upper side was exposed to the environment
– radiation from the lamp during heating phase and convective cooling during cooling phase. In
some cases an ice in the pouch, placed on the upper plate, was used in order to intensify cooling
of TEG module.

3. Experimental procedure
The main goal of the study was to investigate the possibility of applying the passive cooling of
TEGs by phase change materials (PCMs). Heat was delivered to the hot side of TEG by infrared
radiation. From the cool side heat was transferred to PCM enclosed in the attached container.
During the process phase change material was melting in nearly constant temperature, thus the

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cool side was kept in limited range of temperature. This phenomena provided temperature
difference between hot and cool sides of TEG and, as a result, electricity generation.
Determination of temporal characteristics of voltage and current during the operation of the
model was a specific aim of the experimental tests. The tests were conducted for constant heat
flux and for the time limited by the phase transition of PCM.

4. Experimental results
4.1. TEG performance characteristics in an open circuit
Figure 3 shows the results of the test carried out in case for an open electrical circuit and for the
highest radiative heat flux density on the upper surface, equal to about 2230 W/m2 (the lamp was
15 cm above TEG). Red line shows the temperature of the upper plate (subjected to the radiation
heating), blue line corresponds to lower plate’s temperature. Thin lines (depicted as PCM-1 to
PCM-5) show variations of PCM temperature. Green line shows variations of the voltage
generated in the TEG.
Turning on the lamp (the source of heat) is followed by relatively rapid increase of both upper
plate temperature and temperature difference between hot and cool sides of thermoelectric
modules. The effect of the latter is an increase of the voltage generated by TEG. It takes about 5
minutes to reach the level which is close to the steady state of the operation of TEG. Then a small
but clear increase of voltage is observed when melting of PCM starts. This means that
stabilization of cool side temperature by PCM undergoing isothermal phase change improves
TEG performance characteristics. During the period of melting of PCM temperature in all points
increase very slowly. Voltage keeps at a maximum, nearly constant level. When melting of PCM
finishes the rate of temperature increase substantially raises but temperature difference between
sides of TEG decreases. As a consequence the voltage starts to decrease.
Similar results are shown in Fig. 4, these are for the smallest intensity of radiation at the upper
surface – it equals to about 935 W/m2 (the lamp was 30 cm above TEG). Since the heat flux
reaching the surface is smaller, as compared to the previous case, the period of phase change is
much longer and so the time during which TEG generates maximum voltage. However the
voltage is much lower, which is obvious from the point of view of energy conservation. Results
obtained for all four radiative heat fluxes, i.e. voltage generated in TEG vs. time, are collected in
Figure 5.
Results shown in Figures 3 and 4 (as well as results shown later in the paper) indicate a uniform
temperature distribution in the phase change material (PCM). PCM used in the study (as all
organic PCMs) have low thermal conductivity, of the order of 0.15 W/(mK) [27], the distance
between successive thermocouples is relatively large so that the differences in the temperature

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measured should be very clear, especially during initial heating and during melting. The small
temperature differences result from the finned structure located inside the PCM container – fins
made of copper very efficiently transport heat from the upper plate of the container into the
whole volume of PCM. Uniform temperature in the PCM zone provides better performance
characteristics of TEG since cool side temperature is more stable. During phase change cool side
temperature increases by only about 1 to 1.5 degree.
4.2. TEG performance characteristics in a closed circuit
Thermoelectric generator was also tested in a closed electrical circuit with an external load by a
resistor of 10 ohms. Except temperatures and voltage electrical current was recorded during these
experiments.
Figure 6 shows the results of the test carried out with a closed circuit and for the lamp located 25
cm above upper plate (i.e. for heat flux equal to about 1180 W/m2). Temporal characteristic of
temperatures as well as electrical properties are similar to those observed in case of tests done
with an open circuit. Due to the current flow and the associated voltage drop across an internal
resistance, the voltage measured at the TEG terminals is much lower than in the previous tests.
The voltage generated by the experimental unit in both open and closed circuits for different heat
fluxes at the hot plate is shown in Figure 7. Since the voltage measured in a closed circuit
depends on an external resistance results presented in this figure cannot be treated as a property
of the unit, only trends of changes of the voltage with heat flux are important.
4.3. TEG performance characteristics in case of cooling
Phase change material stabilizes temperature of the cool side of TEG, thus increases its
performance during heating. In this period PCM also stores substantial amount of heat, which
could be utilized by TEG during the reverse phase, i.e. when heated by PCM. Such an operation
requires cooling of the other side of the unit, in this case cooling of the upper plate. In case TEG
is designed for space applications effective cooling can be achieved by radiation to the deep
space, temperature of which is close to 0 K. It is practically impossible to reproduce similar
cooling conditions in the laboratory. Therefore in order to check the operation of the unit under
study in the reverse cycle a more simple experiment was done. After heating phase, i.e. when the
whole amount of PCM melted, a block of ice was placed on the upper plate of TEG. Then TEG
was heated from below by solidifying phase change material and cooled down by melting ice.
Results of the test are shown in Figure 8. The experimental unit was designed mainly for
radiative heating from above, not for convective cooling. This is why results presented in Fig. 8
are not so smooth as those shown earlier. Clear fluctuation of electrical properties were
associated with not perfect contact of an ice with upper plate. This lead also to relatively high
temperature of the upper plate, much higher than melting point of ice, which in turn decrease
both voltage and current obtained. Experiment showed, however, the potential of the unit to

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operate in full cycle, i.e. for generation of electricity during melting of PCM as well as during its
solidification.
5. Conclusions and future works
The paper presents results of experimental investigation of thermoelectric generator designed for
radiative heating and passive cooling by phase change materials. Tests were performed in both
open and closed electrical circuits. Results obtained confirmed the possibility of the use of PCMs
for heat release from cool side of TEG. During melting of PCM electrical properties of the unit
were stable and clearly greater than in the phase of solid/liquid heating.
Results highlighted also important issues that should be considered in a future research in this
topic. Thermal expansion of PCM requires special containers with flexible walls. A container
used in the study, made of thin copper sheet, was not enough flexible and small leakage in some
tests was observed. Greater susceptibility to volume changes will also improve contact of PCM
with the plate which is a cool side of TEG. This would further decrease temperature of this plate
and consequently increase voltage generated. It is planned to make PCM container of rubber,
which in addition simplify its manufacture.
Another important issue is connected with PCM. It seems that materials of much higher phase
change temperatures, as well as with much higher latent heat, should be investigated. It would
allow investigation of both radiative heating and radiative cooling in a revers phase of the cycle.

Acknowledgment
Research was partially funded by the Warsaw University of Technology.

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Fig. 1. A scheme of the experimental set-up; 1 – upper copper plate, 2 – thermoelectric modules, 3 – lower
copper plate, 4 – PCM container, 5 – internal fins, A – ampere meter, V – voltmeter, R – external load

Fig. 2. A model of thermoelectric generator with PCM container (without an upper plate)

Fig. 3. Temperature variations in time and voltage generated in TEG in an open circuit; a lamp is
15 cm over TEG

Fig. 4. Temperature variations in time and voltage generated in TEG in an open circuit; a lamp is
30 cm over TEG

Fig. 5. Voltage generated in an open circuit for different radiative heat fluxes on the upper
surface (different distance between a lamp and the TEG surface)

Fig. 6. Variations of measured parameters vs. time during heating of TEG in closed circuit
configuration

Fig. 7. Voltage generated as a function of heat flux on the hot surface

Fig. 8. Temperature and electrical properties variations during cooling; in this test “hot side” was
in contact with an ice block

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Table 1. An average heat flux at the surface of TEG for the cases under study
Case No Distance between lamp and TEG, cm Average heat flux, W/m2
1 15 2230
2 20 1580
3 25 1180
4 30 935

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