Chapter Seven

Alternating Current
 Chapter Seven

Alternating Current
7.1 INTRODUCTION
We have so far considered direct current (dc) sources and circuits with dc
sources. These currents do not change direction with time. But voltages and
currents that vary with time are very common. The electric mains supply in
our homes and offices is a voltage that varies like a sine function with time.
Such a voltage is called alternating voltage (ac voltage) and the current
driven by it in a circuit is called the alternating current (ac current)*. Today,
most of the electrical devices we use require ac voltage. This is mainly
because most of the electrical energy sold by power companies is
transmitted and distributed as alternating current. The main reason for
preferring use of ac voltage over dc voltage is that ac voltages can be easily
and efficiently converted from one voltage to the other by means of
transformers. Further, electrical energy can also be transmitted
economically over long distances. AC circuits exhibit characteristics which
are exploited in many devices of daily use. For example, whenever we tune
our radio to a favourite station, we are taking advantage of a special
property of ac circuits – one of many that you will study in this chapter.

* The phrases ac voltage and ac current are contradictory and redundant,

respectively, since they mean, literally, alternating current
voltage and alternating current current. Still, the abbreviation ac to
designate an electrical quantity displaying simple harmonic time
dependance has become so universally accepted that we follow others in its
use. Further, voltage – another phrase commonly used means potential
difference between two points.

Nicola Tesla (1856 – 1943)

Nicola Tesla (1856 – 1943) Serbian-American scientist, inventor and genius. He conceived the

idea of the rotating magnetic field, which is the basis of practically all alternating current
machinery, and which helped usher in the age of electric power. He also invented among other

things the induction motor, the polyphase system of ac power, and the high frequency induction
coil (the Tesla coil) used in radio and television sets and other electronic equipment. The SI unit

of magnetic field is named in his honour.

7.2 AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A RESISTOR

Figure 7.1 shows a resistor connected to a source ε of ac voltage. The
symbol for an ac source in a circuit diagram is . We consider a source
which produces sinusoidally varying potential difference across its
terminals. Let this potential difference, also called ac voltage, be given by
(7.1)
where vm is the amplitude of the oscillating potential difference and ω is its
angular frequency.

Figure 7.1 AC voltage applied to a resistor.

To find the value of current through the resistor, we apply Kirchhoff’s loop
rule (refer to Section 3.13), to the circuit shown in Fig. 7.1 to
get

or

Since R is a constant, we can write this equation as

(7.2)
where the current amplitude im is given by

(7.3)

Equation (7.3) is Ohm’s law, which for resistors, works equally well for
both ac and dc voltages. The voltage across a pure resistor and the current
through it, given by Eqs. (7.1) and (7.2) are plotted as a function of time in
Fig. 7.2. Note, in particular that both v and i reach zero, minimum and
maximum values at the same time. Clearly, the voltage and current are in
phase with each other.
 Figure 7.2 In a pure resistor, the voltage and current are in phase. The
minima, zero and maxima occur at the same respective times.

We see that, like the applied voltage, the current varies sinusoidally and has
corresponding positive and negative values during each cycle. Thus, the
sum of the instantaneous current values over one complete cycle is zero,
and the average current is zero. The fact that the average current is zero,
however, does not mean that the average power consumed is zero and that
there is no dissipation of electrical energy. As you know, Joule heating is
given by i2R and depends on i2 (which is always positive whether i is
positive or negative) and not on i. Thus, there is Joule heating and
dissipation of electrical energy when an ac current passes through a resistor.
 George Westinghouse (1846 – 1914) A leading proponent of the use of alternating current over

direct current. Thus, he came into conflict with Thomas Alva Edison, an advocate of direct

current. Westinghouse was convinced that the technology of alternating current was the key to
the electrical future. He founded the famous Company named after him and enlisted the

services of Nicola Tesla and other inventors in the development of alternating current motors

and apparatus for the transmission of hig tension current, pioneering in large scale lighting.

The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor is

(7.4)
The average value of p over a cycle is*
[7.5(a)]
where the bar over a letter (here, p) denotes its average value and <......>
denotes taking average of the quantity inside the bracket. Since, i2m and R
are constants,
[7.5(b)]
Using the trigonometric identity, sin2 ωt =
1/2 (1– cos 2ωt), we have < sin2 ωt > = (1/2) (1– < cos 2ωt >) and since <
cos2ωt > = 0**, we have,
Thus,

[7.5(c)]

To express ac power in the same form as dc power (P = I2R), a special

value of current is defined and used. It is called, root mean square (rms) or
effective current (Fig. 7.3) and is denoted by Irms or I.
It is defined by

= 0.707 im (7.6)
In terms of I, the average power, denoted by P is

(7.7)

Similarly, we define the rms voltage or effective voltage by

V= = 0.707 vm (7.8)

From Eq. (7.3), we have

vm = imR

or,

or, V = IR (7.9)
Equation (7.9) gives the relation between ac current and ac voltage and is
similar to that in the dc case. This shows the advantage of introducing the
concept of rms values. In terms of rms values, the equation for power [Eq.
(7.7)] and relation between current and voltage in ac circuits are essentially
the same as those for the dc case.
It is customary to measure and specify rms values for ac quantities. For
example, the household line voltage of 220 V is an rms value with a peak
voltage of
vm = V = (1.414)(220 V) = 311 V
In fact, the I or rms current is the equivalent dc current that would produce
the same average power loss as the alternating current. Equation (7.7) can
also be written as
P = V2 / R = I V (since V = I R)

* The average value of a function F (t) over a period T is given by

Figure 7.3 The rms current I is related to the peak current im by I =
= 0.707 im.

Example 7.1 A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find (a) the resistance of the
bulb; (b) the peak voltage of the source; and (c) the rms current through the bulb.

Solution

(a) We are given P = 100 W and V = 220 V. The resistance of the

bulb is

(b) The peak voltage of the source is

(c) Since, P = I V

7.3 REPRESENTATION OF AC CURRENT AND VOLTAGE

BY ROTATING VECTORS — PHASORS
In the previous section, we learnt that the current through a resistor is in
phase with the ac voltage. But this is not so in the case of an inductor, a
capacitor or a combination of these circuit elements. In order to show phase
relationship between voltage and current in an ac circuit, we use the notion
of phasors. The analysis of an ac circuit is facilitated by the use of a phasor
diagram. A phasor* is a vector which rotates about the origin with angular
speed ω, as shown in Fig. 7.4. The vertical components of phasors V and I
represent the sinusoidally varying quantities v and i. The magnitudes of
phasors V and I represent the amplitudes or the peak values vm and im of
these oscillating quantities. Figure 7.4(a) shows the voltage and current
phasors and their relationship at time t1 for the case of an ac source
connected to a resistor i.e., corresponding to the circuit shown in Fig. 7.1.
The projection of voltage and current phasors on vertical axis, i.e., vm sinω t
and im sinω t, respectively represent the value of voltage and current at that
instant. As they rotate with frequency ω, curves in Fig. 7.4(b) are generated.
From Fig. 7.4(a) we see that phasors V and I for the case of a resistor are in
the same direction. This is so for all times. This means that the phase angle
between the voltage and the current is zero.

Figure 7.4 (a) A phasor diagram for the circuit in Fig 7.1. (b) Graph of v
and i versus ωt.

* Though voltage and current in ac circuit are represented by phasors –

rotating vectors, they are not vectors themselves. They are scalar quantities.
It so happens that the amplitudes and phases of harmonically varying
scalars combine mathematically in the same way as do the projections of
rotating vectors of corresponding magnitudes and directions. The rotating
vectors that represent harmonically varying scalar quantities are introduced
only to provide us with a simple way of adding these quantities using a rule
that we already know.

7.4 AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO AN INDUCTOR

Figure 7.5 shows an ac source connected to an inductor. Usually, inductors
have appreciable resistance in their windings, but we shall assume that this
inductor has negligible resistance. Thus, the circuit is a purely inductive ac
circuit. Let the voltage across the source be v = vm sinω t. Using the

Kirchhoff’s loop rule, , and since there is no resistor in the

circuit,

(7.10)

Figure 7.5 An ac source connected to an inductor.

where the second term is the self-induced Faraday emf in the inductor; and
L is the self-inductance of the inductor. The negative sign follows from
Lenz’s law (Chapter 6). Combining Eqs. (7.1) and (7.10), we have
Equation (7.11) implies that the equation for i(t), the current as a function of
time, must be such that its slope di/dt is a sinusoidally varying quantity,
with the same phase as the source voltage and an amplitude given by vm/L.
To obtain the current, we integrate di/dt with respect to time:

The integration constant has the dimension of current and is time-

independent. Since the source has an emf which oscillates symmetrically
about zero, the current it sustains also oscillates symmetrically about zero,
so that no constant or time-independent component of the current exists.
Therefore, the integration constant is zero.
Using

where is the amplitude of the current. The quantity ω L is

analogous to the resistance and is called inductive reactance, denoted by

XL:
XL = ω L (7.13)
The amplitude of the current is, then

(7.14)

The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance and

its SI unit is ohm (Ω). The inductive reactance limits the current in a purely
inductive circuit in the same way as the resistance limits the current in a
purely resistive circuit. The inductive reactance is directly proportional to
the inductance and to the frequency of the current.
A comparison of Eqs. (7.1) and (7.12) for the source voltage and the current
in an inductor shows that the current lags the voltage by π/2 or one-quarter
(1/4) cycle. Figure 7.6 (a) shows the voltage and the current phasors in the
present case at instant t1. The current phasor I is π/2 behind the voltage
phasor V. When rotated with frequency ω counter-clockwise, they generate
the voltage and current given by Eqs. (7.1) and (7.12), respectively and as
shown in Fig. 7.6(b).

Figure 7.6 (a) A Phasor diagram for the circuit in Fig. 7.5.
(b) Graph of v and i versus ωt.

We see that the current reaches its maximum value later than the voltage by
one-fourth of a period . You have seen that an inductor has

reactance that limits current similar to resistance in a

dc circuit. Does it also consume power like a resistance? Let us try to
find out.
The instantaneous power supplied to the inductor is

So, the average power over a complete cycle is

= 0,

since the average of sin (2ωt) over a complete cycle is zero.

Thus, the average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is
zero.
Figure 7.7 explains it in detail.

Example 7.2 A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the inductive

reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz.

Solution The inductive reactance,

= 7.85Ω

The rms current in the circuit is

0-1 Current i through the coil entering at A increase from zero to a
maximum value. Flux lines are set up i.e., the core gets magnetised. With
the polarity shown voltage and current are both positive. So their
product p is positive. ENERGY IS ABSORBED FROM THE SOURCE.

1-2 Current in the coil is still positive but is decreasing. The core gets
demagnetised and the net flux becomes zero at the end of a half cycle. The
voltage v is negative (since di/dt is negative). The product of voltage and
current is negative, and ENERGY IS BEING RETURNED TO SOURCE.
One complete cycle of voltage/current. Note that the current lags the
voltage

2-3 Current i becomes negative i.e., it enters at B and comes out of A. Since
the direction of current has changed, the polarity of the magnet changes.
The current and voltage are both negative. So their product pis positive.
ENERGY IS ABSORBED.
3-4 Current i decreases and reaches its zero value at 4 when core is
demagnetised and flux is zero. The voltage is positive but the current is
negative. The power is, therefore, negative. ENERGY ABSORBED
DURING THE CYCLE 2-3 IS RETURNED TO THE SOURCE.

Figure 7.7 Magnetisation and demagnetisation of an inductor.

7.5 AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A CAPACITOR

Figure 7.8 shows an ac source ε generating ac voltage v = vm sin ωt
connected to a capacitor only, a purely capacitive ac circuit.
When a capacitor is connected to a voltage source in a dc circuit, current
will flow for the short time required to charge the capacitor. As charge
accumulates on the capacitor plates, the voltage across them increases,
opposing the current. That is, a capacitor in a dc circuit will limit or oppose
the current as it charges. When the capacitor is fully charged, the current in
the circuit falls to zero.
 Figure 7.8 An ac source connected to a capacitor.

When the capacitor is connected to an ac source, as in Fig. 7.8, it limits or

regulates the current, but does not completely prevent the flow of charge.
The capacitor is alternately charged and discharged as the current reverses
each half cycle. Let q be the charge on the capacitor at any time t. The
instantaneous voltage v across the capacitor is

(7.15)

From the Kirchhoff’s loop rule, the voltage across the source and the
capacitor are equal,

To find the current, we use the relation

Using the relation, , we have

where the amplitude of the oscillating current is im = ω Cvm. We can rewrite
it as

Comparing it to im= vm/R for a purely resistive circuit, we find that

(1/ωC) plays the role of resistance. It is called capacitive reactance and is
denoted by Xc,
Xc= 1/ωC (7.17)
so that the amplitude of the current is

(7.18)

The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of resistance and

its SI unit is ohm (Ω). The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of the
current in a purely capacitive circuit in the same way as the resistance limits
the current in a purely resistive circuit. But it is inversely proportional to the
frequency and the capacitance.

Figure 7.9 (a) A Phasor diagram for the circuit in Fig. 7.8. (b) Graph
of v and i versus ωt.
A comparison of Eq. (7.16) with the equation of source voltage, Eq. (7.1)
shows that the current is π/2 ahead of voltage.
Figure 7.9(a) shows the phasor diagram at an instant t1. Here the current
phasor I is π/2 ahead of the voltage phasor V as they rotate
counterclockwise. Figure 7.9(b) shows the variation of voltage and current
with time. We see that the current reaches its maximum value earlier than
the voltage by one-fourth of a period.
The instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor is
pc = i v = im cos(ωt)vm sin(ωt)
= imvm cos(ωt) sin(ωt)

(7.19)

So, as in the case of an inductor, the average power

since <sin (2ωt)> = 0 over a complete cycle. Figure 7.10 explains it in

detail.
Thus, we see that in the case of an inductor, the current lags the voltage by
π/2 and in the case of a capacitor, the current leads the voltage by π/2.

Example 7.3 A lamp is connected in series with a capacitor. Predict your observations for dc and

ac connections. What happens in each case if the capacitance of the capacitor is reduced?

Solution When a dc source is connected to a capacitor, the capacitor gets charged and after

charging no current flows in the circuit and the lamp will not glow. There will be no change even

if C is reduced. With ac source, the capacitor offers capacitative reactance (1/ωC) and the current

flows in the circuit. Consequently, the lamp will shine. Reducing C will increase reactance and

the lamp will shine less brightly than before.

 Example 7.4 A 15.0 µF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the capacitive
reactance and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the frequency is doubled, what happens

to the capacitive reactance and the current?

Solution The capacitive reactance is

The rms current is

The peak current is

This current oscillates between +1.47A and –1.47 A, and is ahead of the voltage by π/2.

If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is halved and consequently, the current is

doubled.

0-1 The current i flows as shown and from the maximum at 0, reaches a
zero value at 1. The plate A is charged to positive polarity while negative
charge q builds up in B reaching a maximum at 1 until the current becomes
zero. The voltage vc = q/C is in phase with q and reaches maximum value
at 1. Current and voltage are both positive. So p = vci is positive. Energy is
absorbed from THE SOURCE during this quarter cycle AS THE
CAPACITOR IS CHARGED.

1-2 The current i reverses its direction. The accumulated charge is depleted
i.e., the capacitor is discharged during this quarter cycle.The voltage gets
reduced but is still positive. The current is negative. Their product, the
power is negative.
the Energy absorbed during THE 1/4 CYCLE 0-1 IS RETURNED
DURING this QUARTER.
 One complete cycle of voltage/current. Note that the current leads the
voltage.

2-3 As i continues to flow from A to B, the capacitor is charged to reversed

polarity i.e., the plate B acquires positive and A acquires negative charge.
Both the current and the voltage are negative. Their product p is positive.
The capacitor ABSORBS ENERGY during this 1/4 cycle.

3-4 The current i reverses its direction at 3 and flows from B to A. The
accumulated charge is depleted and the magnitude of the voltage vc is
reduced. vc becomes zero at 4 when the capacitor is fully discharged. The
power is negative.ENERGY ABSORBED DURING 2-3 IS RETURNED
TO THE SOURCE. NET ENERGY ABSORBED IS ZERO.
 Figure 7.10 Charging and discharging of a capacitor.

Example 7.5 A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected to an ac source through a key

as shown in Fig. 7.11.

Figure 7.11

The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is inserted into the interior of the inductor.

The glow of the light bulb (a) increases; (b) decreases; (c) is unchanged, as the iron rod is

inserted. Give your answer with reasons.

Solution As the iron rod is inserted, the magnetic field inside the coil magnetizes the iron

increasing the magnetic field inside it. Hence, the inductance of the coil increases. Consequently,

the inductive reactance of the coil increases. As a result, a larger fraction of the applied ac

voltage appears across the inductor, leaving less voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of

the light bulb decreases.

7.6 AC VOLTAGE APPLIED TO A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT

Figure 7.12 shows a series LCR circuit connected to an ac source ε. As
usual, we take the voltage of the source to be v = vm sin ωt.
 Figure 7.12 A series LCR circuit connected to an ac source.

If q is the charge on the capacitor and i the current, at time t, we have, from
Kirchhoff’s loop rule:

(7.20)

We want to determine the instantaneous current i and its phase relationship

to the applied alternating voltage v. We shall solve this problem by two
methods. First, we use the technique of phasors and in the second method,
we solve
Eq. (7.20) analytically to obtain the time–dependence of i.

7.6.1 Phasor-diagram solution

From the circuit shown in Fig. 7.12, we see that the resistor, inductor and
capacitor are in series. Therefore, the ac current in each element is the same
at any time, having the same amplitude and phase. Let it be
i = im sin(ωt+φ) (7.21)
where φ is the phase difference between the voltage across the source and
the current in the circuit. On the basis of what we have learnt in the
previous sections, we shall construct a phasor diagram for the present case.
Let I be the phasor representing the current in the circuit as given by Eq.
(7.21). Further, let VL, VR, VC, and V represent the voltage across the
inductor, resistor, capacitor and the source, respectively. From previous
section, we know that VR is parallel to I, VC is π/2 behind I and VL is π/2
ahead of I. VL, VR, VC and I are shown in Fig. 7.13(a) with apppropriate
phase-relations.
The length of these phasors or the amplitude of VR, VC and VL are:
vRm = im R, vCm = im XC, vLm = im XL (7.22)
The voltage Equation (7.20) for the circuit can be written as
vL + vR + vC = v (7.23)

Figure 7.13 (a) Relation between the phasors VL, VR, VC, and I, (b)
Relation between the phasors VL, VR, and (VL + VC) for the circuit in
Fig. 7.12.

The phasor relation whose vertical component gives the above equation is
VL + VR + VC = V (7.24)
This relation is represented in Fig. 7.13(b). Since VC and VL are always
along the same line and in opposite directions, they can be combined into a
single phasor (VC + VL) which has a magnitude vCm – vLm . Since V is
represented as the hypotenuse of a right-triangle whose sides are VR and
(VC + VL), the pythagorean theorem gives:

Substituting the values of vRm, vCm, and vLm from Eq. (7.22) into the above
equation, we have

By analogy to the resistance in a circuit, we introduce the impedance Z in

an ac circuit:

[7.25(b)]

where (7.26)
Since phasor I is always parallel to phasor VR, the phase angle φ is the
angle between VR and V and can be determined from
Fig. 7.14:

Using Eq. (7.22), we have

 (7.27)

Figure 7.14 Impedance diagram.

Equations (7.26) and (7.27) are graphically shown in Fig. (7.14). This is
called Impedance diagram which is a right-triangle with Z as its
hypotenuse.
Equation 7.25(a) gives the amplitude of the current and Eq. (7.27) gives the
phase angle. With these, Eq. (7.21) is completely specified.
If XC > XL, φ is positive and the circuit is predominantly capacitive.
Consequently, the current in the circuit leads the source voltage. If
XC < XL, φ is negative and the circuit is predominantly inductive.
Consequently, the current in the circuit lags the source voltage.
Figure 7.15 shows the phasor diagram and variation of v and i with ω t for
the case XC > XL.
 Figure 7.15 (a) Phasor diagram of V and I.
(b) Graphs of v and i versus ω t for a series LCR circuit where XC > XL.

Thus, we have obtained the amplitude and phase of current for an LCR
series circuit using the technique of phasors. But this method of analysing
ac circuits suffers from certain disadvantages. First, the phasor diagram say
nothing about the initial condition. One can take any arbitrary value of t
(say, t1, as done throughout this chapter) and draw different phasors which
show the relative angle between different phasors.
The solution so obtained is called the steady-state solution. This is not a
general solution. Additionally, we do have a transient solution which exists
even for v = 0. The general solution is the sum of the transient solution and
the steady-state solution. After a sufficiently long time, the effects of the
transient solution die out and the behaviour of the circuit is described by the
steady-state solution.

7.6.2 Analytical solution

The voltage equation for the circuit is
= vm sin ωt
We know that i = dq/dt. Therefore, di/dt = d2q/dt2. Thus, in terms of q, the
voltage equation becomes

(7.28)

This is like the equation for a forced, damped oscillator, [see Eq. {14.37(b)}
in Class XI Physics Textbook]. Let us assume a solution
q = qm sin (ω t + θ) [7.29(a)]

so that [7.29(b)]

and [7.29(c)]

Substituting these values in Eq. (7.28), we get

= (7.30)
where we have used the relation Xc= 1/ωC, XL = ω L. Multiplying and

dividing Eq. (7.30) by , we have

Now, let

and

so that (7.32)

Substituting this in Eq. (7.31) and simplifying, we get:

 (7.33)
Comparing the two sides of this equation, we see that

where
[7.33(a)]

and or [7.33(b)]

Therefore, the current in the circuit is

= im cos(ωt + θ)
or i = imsin(ωt + φ)

(7.34)

where [7.34(a)]

and

Thus, the analytical solution for the amplitude and phase of the current in
the circuit agrees with that obtained by the technique of phasors.

7.6.3 Resonance
An interesting characteristic of the series RLC circuit is the phenomenon of
resonance. The phenomenon of resonance is common among systems that
have a tendency to oscillate at a particular frequency. This frequency is
called the system’s natural frequency. If such a system is driven by an
energy source at a frequency that is near the natural frequency, the
amplitude of oscillation is found to be large. A familiar example of this
phenomenon is a child on a swing. The swing has a natural frequency for
swinging back and forth like a pendulum. If the child pulls on the rope at
regular intervals and the frequency of the pulls is almost the same as the
frequency of swinging, the amplitude of the swinging will be large (Chapter
14, Class XI).
For an RLC circuit driven with voltage of amplitude vm and frequency ω,
we found that the current amplitude is given by

with Xc = 1/ωC and XL = ω L. So if ω is varied, then at a particular

frequency ω0, Xc = XL, and the impedance is minimum

. This frequency is called the resonant frequency:

or (7.35)

At resonant frequency, the current amplitude is maximum; im = vm/R.

Figure 7.16 shows the variation of im with ω in a RLC series circuit with L
= 1.00 mH, C =
1.00 nF for two values of R: (i) R = 100 Ω
and (ii) R = 200 Ω. For the source applied vm = 100 V. ω0 for this case is

= 1.00×106

rad/s.
We see that the current amplitude is maximum at the resonant frequency.
Since im = vm / R at resonance, the current amplitude for case (i) is twice to
that for case (ii).

Figure 7.16 Variation of im with ω for two cases: (i) R = 100 Ω, (ii) R
= 200 Ω, L = 1.00 mH. C = 1.00 nF and vm = 100 V for both cases.

Resonant circuits have a variety of applications, for example, in the tuning

mechanism of a radio or a TV set. The antenna of a radio accepts signals
from many broadcasting stations. The signals picked up in the antenna acts
as a source in the tuning circuit of the radio, so the circuit can be driven at
many frequencies. But to hear one particular radio station, we tune the
radio. In tuning, we vary the capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning circuit
such that the resonant frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the
frequency of the radio signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of
the current with the frequency of the signal of the particular radio station in
the circuit is maximum.
It is important to note that resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit
only if both L and C are present in the circuit. Only then do the voltages
across L and C cancel each other (both being out of phase) and the current
amplitude is vm/R, the total source voltage appearing across R. This means
that we cannot have resonance in a RL or
RC circuit.
Sharpness of resonance
The amplitude of the current in the series LCR circuit is given by

and is maximum when The maximum value is

.
For values of ω other than ω0, the amplitude of the current is less than the
maximum value. Suppose we choose a value of ω for which the current
amplitude is times its maximum value. At this value, the power
dissipated by the circuit becomes half. From the curve in
Fig. (7.16), we see that there are two such values of ω, say, ω1 and ω2,
one greater and the other smaller than ω0 and symmetrical about ω0. We
may write
ω1 = ω0 + ∆ω
ω2 = ω0 – ∆ω
The difference ω1 – ω2 = 2∆ω is often called the bandwidth of the
circuit. The quantity (ω0 / 2∆ω) is regarded as a measure of the sharpness of
resonance. The smaller the ∆ω , the sharper or narrower is the resonance.
To get an expression for ∆ω , we note that the current amplitude im is

for ω1 = ω0 + ∆ω. Therefore,

or

[7.36(a)]

The sharpness of resonance is given by,

 [7.36(b)]

The ratio is also called the quality factor, Q of the circuit.

[7.36(c)]

From Eqs. [7.36 (b)] and [7.36 (c)], we see that . So, larger the

value of Q, the smaller is the value of 2∆ω or the bandwidth and sharper is
the resonance. Using , Eq. [7.36(c)] can be equivalently
expressed as Q = 1/ω0CR.
We see from Fig. 7.15, that if the resonance is less sharp, not only is the
maximum current less, the circuit is close to resonance for a larger range
∆ω of frequencies and the tuning of the circuit will not be good. So, less
sharp the resonance, less is the selectivity of the circuit or vice versa. From
Eq. (7.36), we see that if quality factor is large, i.e., R is low or L is large,
the circuit is more selective.

Example 7.6 A resistor of 200 Ω and a capacitor of 15.0 µF are connected in series to a 220 V,

50 Hz ac source. (a) Calculate the current in the circuit; (b) Calculate the voltage (rms) across the

resistor and the capacitor. Is the algebraic sum of these voltages more than the source voltage? If

yes, resolve the paradox.

Solution

Given

(a) In order to calculate the current, we need the impedance of the

circuit. It is
 Therefore, the current in the circuit is

(b) Since the current is the same throughout the circuit, we have

The algebraic sum of the two voltages, VR and VC is 311.3 V which is more than the source

voltage of 220 V. How to resolve this paradox? As you have learnt in the text, the two voltages

are not in the same phase. Therefore, they cannot be added like ordinary numbers. The two

voltages are out of phase by ninety degrees. Therefore, the total of these voltages must be

obtained using the Pythagorean theorem:

= 220 V

Thus, if the phase difference between two voltages is properly taken into account, the total

voltage across the resistor and the capacitor is equal to the voltage of the source.

7.7 POWER IN AC CIRCUIT: THE POWER FACTOR

We have seen that a voltage v = vm sinωt applied to a series RLC circuit
drives a current in the circuit given by i = im sin(ωt + φ) where
Therefore, the instantaneous power p supplied by the source is

The average power over a cycle is given by the average of the two terms in
R.H.S. of Eq. (7.37). It is only the second term which is time-dependent. Its
average is zero (the positive half of the cosine cancels the negative half).
Therefore,

[7.38(a)]
This can also be written as,
[7.38(b)]
So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and
current but also on the cosine of the phase angle φ between them. The
quantity cosφ is called the power factor. Let us discuss the following cases:
Case (i) Resistive circuit: If the circuit contains only pure R, it is called
resistive. In that case φ = 0, cos φ = 1. There is maximum power
dissipation.
Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit: If the circuit contains only
an inductor or capacitor, we know that the phase difference between voltage
and current is π/2. Therefore, cos φ = 0, and no power is dissipated even
though a current is flowing in the circuit. This current is sometimes referred
to as wattless current.
Case (iii) LCR series circuit: In an LCR series circuit, power dissipated is
given by Eq. (7.38) where φ = tan–1 (Xc – XL )/ R. So, φ may be non-zero
in a RL or RC or RCL circuit. Even in such cases, power is dissipated only
in the resistor.
Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit: At resonance
Xc – XL= 0, and φ = 0. Therefore, cosφ = 1 and P = I2Z = I2 R. That is,
maximum power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at resonance.

Example 7.7 (a) For circuits used for transporting electric power, a low power factor implies

large power loss in transmission. Explain.

(b) Power factor can often be improved by the use of a capacitor of appropriate capacitance in

the circuit. Explain.

Solution (a) We know that P = I V cosφ where cosφ is the power factor. To supply a given power

at a given voltage, if cosφ is small, we have to increase current accordingly. But this will lead to
large power loss (I2R) in transmission.

(b)Suppose in a circuit, current I lags the voltage by an angle φ. Then power factor cosφ =R/Z.

We can improve the power factor (tending to 1) by making Z tend to R. Let us understand, with

the help of a phasor diagram (Fig. 7.17) how this can be achieved. Let us resolve I into two

components. Ip along the applied voltage V and Iq perpendicular to the applied voltage. Iq as

you have learnt in Section 7.7, is called the wattless component since corresponding to this

component of current, there is no power loss. IP is known as the power component because it is

in phase with the voltage and corresponds to power loss in the circuit.
 FIGURE 7.17

It’s clear from this analysis that if we want to improve power factor, we must completely

neutralize the lagging wattless current Iq by an equal leading wattless current I′q. This can be

done by connecting a capacitor of appropriate value in parallel so that Iq and I′q cancel each

other and P is effectively Ip V.

Example 7.8 A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a

series LCR circuit in which

R = 3 Ω, L = 25.48 mH, and C = 796 µF. Find (a) the impedance of the circuit; (b) the phase

difference between the voltage across the source and the current; (c) the power dissipated in the

circuit; and (d) the power factor.

Solution
(a) To find the impedance of the circuit, we first calculate XL and XC.

XL = 2 πνL

= 2 × 3.14 × 50 × 25.48 × 10–3 Ω = 8 Ω

Therefore,

=5Ω

(b) Phase difference, φ = tan–1

Since φ is negative, the current in the circuit lags the voltage across the source.

(c) The power dissipated in the circuit is

Therefore,

(d) Power factor =

Example 7.9 Suppose the frequency of the source in the previous example can be varied. (a)

What is the frequency of the source at which resonance occurs? (b) Calculate the impedance, the

current, and the power dissipated at the resonant condition.

Solution

(a) The frequency at which the resonance occurs is

 (b) The impedance Z at resonant condition is equal to the resistance:

The rms current at resonance is

The power dissipated at resonance is

You can see that in the present case, power dissipated

at resonance is more than the power dissipated in Example 7.8.

Example 7.10 At an airport, a person is made to walk through the doorway of a metal detector,

for security reasons. If she/he is carrying anything made of metal, the metal detector emits a

sound. On what principle does this detector work?

Solution The metal detector works on the principle of resonance in ac circuits. When you walk

through a metal detector, you are,

in fact, walking through a coil of many turns. The coil is connected to a capacitor tuned so that

the circuit is in resonance. When

you walk through with metal in your pocket, the impedance of the circuit changes – resulting in

significant change in current in the circuit. This change in current is detected and the electronic

circuitry causes a sound to be emitted as an alarm.

7.8 LC OSCILLATIONS
We know that a capacitor and an inductor can store electrical and magnetic
energy, respectively. When a capacitor (initially charged) is connected to an
inductor, the charge on the capacitor and the current in the circuit exhibit
the phenomenon of electrical oscillations similar to oscillations in
mechanical systems (Chapter 14, Class XI).

Figure 7.18 At the instant shown, the current is increasing; so the polarity of
induced emf in the inductor is as shown.

Let a capacitor be charged qm (at t = 0) and connected to an inductor as

shown in Fig. 7.18.
The moment the circuit is completed, the charge on the capacitor starts
decreasing, giving rise to current in the circuit. Let q and i be the charge and
current in the circuit at time t. Since di/dt is positive, the induced emf in L
will have polarity as shown, i.e., vb < va. According to Kirchhoff’s loop
rule,

(7.39)
i = – (dq/dt) in the present case (as q decreases, i increases). Therefore, Eq.
(7.39) becomes:

(7.40)

This equation has the form for a simple harmonic

oscillator. The charge on the capacitor, therefore, oscillates with a natural

frequency

(7.41)

and varies sinusoidally with time as

(7.42)
where qm is the maximum value of q and φ is a phase constant. Since
q = qm at t = 0, we have cos φ =1 or φ = 0. Therefore, in the present case,
(7.43)
The current is given by
(7.44)
where
Let us now try to visualise how this oscillation takes place in the circuit.
Figure 7.19(a) shows a capacitor with initial charge qm connected to an
ideal inductor. The electrical energy stored in the charged capacitor is

. Since, there is no current in the circuit, energy in the

inductor is zero. Thus, the total energy of LC circuit is,

Figure 7.19 The oscillations in an LC circuit are analogous to the oscillation
of a block at the end of a spring. The figure depicts one-half of a cycle.

At t = 0, the switch is closed and the capacitor starts to discharge [Fig.

7.19(b)]. As the current increases, it sets up a magnetic field in the inductor
and thereby, some energy gets stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic
energy: UB = (1/2) Li2. As the current reaches its maximum value im, (at t =
T/4) as in Fig. 7.19(c), all the energy is stored in the magnetic field: UB =
(1/2) Li2m. You can easily check that the maximum electrical energy equals
the maximum magnetic energy. The capacitor now has no charge and hence
no energy. The current now starts charging the capacitor, as in Fig. 7.19(d).
This process continues till the capacitor is fully charged (at t = T/2) [Fig.
7.19(e)]. But it is charged with a polarity opposite to its initial state in Fig.
7.19(a). The whole process just described will now repeat itself till the
system reverts to its original state. Thus, the energy in the system oscillates
between the capacitor and the inductor.
The LC oscillation is similar to the mechanical oscillation of a block
attached to a spring. The lower part of each figure in Fig. 7.19 depicts the
corresponding stage of a mechanical system (a block attached to a spring).
As noted earlier, for a block of a mass m oscillating with frequency ω0, the
equation is

Here, , and k is the spring constant. So, x corresponds to q.

In case of a mechanical system F = ma = m (dv/dt) = m (d2x/dt2). For an
electrical system, ε = –L (di/dt) = –L (d2q/dt2). Comparing these two
equations, we see that L is analogous to mass m: L is a measure of
resistance to change in current. In case of LC circuit, and
for mass on a spring, . So, 1/C is analogous to k. The
constant k (=F/x) tells us the (external) force required to produce a unit
displacement whereas 1/C (=V/q) tells us the potential difference required
to store a unit charge. Table 7.1 gives the analogy between mechanical and
electrical quantities.
Note that the above discussion of LC oscillations is not realistic for two
reasons:
(i) Every inductor has some resistance. The effect of this resistance is to
introduce a damping effect on the charge and current in the circuit and the
oscillations finally die away.
(ii) Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would
not remain constant. It is radiated away from the system in the form of
electromagnetic waves (discussed in the next chapter). In fact, radio and TV
transmitters depend on this radiation.

Two different phenomena, same mathematical treatment

You may like to compare the treatment of a forced damped oscillator discussed in Section 14.10

of Class XI physics textbook, with that of an LCR circuit when an ac voltage is applied in it. We

have already remarked that Eq. [14.37(b)] of Class XI Textbook is exactly similar to Eq. (7.28)
here, although they use different symbols and parameters. Let us therefore list the equivalence

between different quantities in the two situations:

You must note that since x corresponds to q, the amplitude A (maximum displacement) will
correspond to the maximum charge stored, qm. Equation [14.39 (a)] of Class XI gives the

amplitude of oscillations in terms of other parameters, which we reproduce here for convenience:

Replace each parameter in the above equation by the corresponding electrical quantity, and see

what happens. Eliminate L, C, ω , and ω0, using XL= ωL, XC = 1/ωC, and ω02 = 1/LC. When

you use Eqs. (7.33) and (7.34), you will see that there is a

perfect match.

You will come across numerous such situations in physics where diverse physical phenomena are

represented by the same mathematical equation. If you have dealt with one of them, and you

come across another situation, you may simply replace the corresponding quantities and interpret

the result in the new context. We suggest that you may try to find more such parallel situations

from different areas of physics. One must, of course, be aware of the differences too.
Example 7.11 Show that in the free oscillations of an LC circuit, the sum of energies stored in

the capacitor and the inductor is constant in time.

Solution Let q0 be the initial charge on a capacitor. Let the charged capacitor be connected to an

inductor of inductance L. As you have studied in Section 7.8, this LC circuit will sustain an

oscillation with frquency

At an instant t, charge q on the capacitor and the current i are given by:

q (t) = q0 cos ω t

i (t) = – q0 ω sin ω t

Energy stored in the capacitor at time t is

Energy stored in the inductor at time t is

Sum of energies

This sum is constant in time as qo and C, both are time-independent.

Note that it is equal to the initial energy of the capacitor. Why it is so? Think!
7.9 TRANSFORMERS
For many purposes, it is necessary to change (or transform) an alternating
voltage from one to another of greater or smaller value. This is done with a
device called transformer using the principle of mutual induction.
A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. They
are wound on a soft-iron core, either one on top of the other as in Fig.
7.20(a) or on separate limbs of the core as in Fig. 7.20(b). One of the coils
called the primary coil has Np turns. The other coil is called the secondary
coil; it has Ns turns. Often the primary coil is the input coil and the
secondary coil is the output coil of the transformer.

Figure 7.20 Two arrangements for winding of primary and secondary coil in
a transformer:
(a) two coils on top of each other, (b) two coils on separate limbs of the
core.

When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current

produces an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and
induces an emf in it. The value of this emf depends on the number of turns
in the secondary. We consider an ideal transformer in which the primary has
negligible resistance and all the flux in the core links both primary and
secondary windings. Let φ be the flux in each turn in the core at time t due
to current in the primary when a voltage vp is applied to it.
Then the induced emf or voltage εs, in the secondary with Ns turns is

(7.45)

The alternating flux φ also induces an emf, called back emf in the primary.
This is

(7.46)

But εp = vp. If this were not so, the primary current would be infinite since
the primary has zero resistance (as assumed). If the secondary is an open
circuit or the current taken from it is small, then to a good approximation
εs = vs
where vs is the voltage across the secondary. Therefore, Eqs. (7.45) and
(7.46) can be written as

[7.45(a)]

[7.46(a)]

From Eqs. [7.45 (a)] and [7.46 (a)], we have

(7.47)

Note that the above relation has been obtained using three assumptions: (i)
the primary resistance and current are small; (ii) the same flux links both
the primary and the secondary as very little flux escapes from the core, and
(iii) the secondary current is small.
If the transformer is assumed to be 100% efficient (no energy losses), the
power input is equal to the power output, and since p = i v,
ipvp = isvs (7.48)
Although some energy is always lost, this is a good approximation, since a
well designed transformer may have an efficiency of more than 95%.
Combining Eqs. (7.47) and (7.48), we have

(7.49)

Since i and v both oscillate with the same frequency as the ac source, Eq.
(7.49) also gives the ratio of the amplitudes or rms values of corresponding
quantities.
Now, we can see how a transformer affects the voltage and current. We
have:

That is, if the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the primary
(Ns > Np), the voltage is stepped up (Vs > Vp). This type of arrangement is
called a step-up transformer. However, in this arrangement, there is less
current in the secondary than in the primary (Np/Ns < 1 and Is < Ip). For
example, if the primary coil of a transformer has 100 turns and the
secondary has 200 turns, Ns/Np = 2 and Np/Ns=1/2. Thus, a 220V input at
10A will step-up to 440 V output at 5.0 A.
If the secondary coil has less turns than the primary (Ns < Np), we have a
step-down transformer. In this case, Vs < Vp and Is > Ip. That is, the voltage
is stepped down, or reduced, and the current is increased.
The equations obtained above apply to ideal transformers (without any
energy losses). But in actual transformers, small energy losses do occur due
to the following reasons:
(i) Flux Leakage: There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the
flux due to primary passes through the secondary due to poor design of the
core or the air gaps in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary
and secondary coils one over the other.
(ii) Resistance of the windings: The wire used for the windings has some
resistance and so, energy is lost due to heat produced in the wire
(I 2R). In high current, low voltage windings, these are minimised by using
thick wire.
(iii) Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in
the iron core and causes heating. The effect is reduced by using a laminated
core.
(iv) Hysteresis: The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the
alternating magnetic field. The resulting expenditure of energy in the core
appears as heat and is kept to a minimum by using a magnetic material
which has a low hysteresis loss.
The large scale transmission and distribution of electrical energy over long
distances is done with the use of transformers. The voltage output of the
generator is stepped-up (so that current is reduced and consequently, the
I2R loss is cut down). It is then transmitted over long distances to an area
sub-station near the consumers. There the voltage is stepped down. It is
further stepped down at distributing sub-stations and utility poles before a
power supply of 240 V reaches our homes.

SUMMARY
1. An alternating voltage applied to a resistor R drives a current i = im

sinωt in the resistor, . The current is in phase with the applied voltage.

2. For an alternating current i = im sin ωt passing through a resistor R, the average power loss P

(averaged over a cycle) due to joule heating is

(1/2)i2mR. To express it in the same form as the dc power (P = I2R), a special value of current is

used. It is called root mean square (rms) current and is donoted by I:

Similarly, the rms voltage is defined by

We have P = IV = I2R

3. An ac voltage v = vm sin ωt applied to a pure inductor L, drives a current in the inductor i =

im sin (ωt – π/2), where im = vm/XL. XL = ωL is called inductive reactance. The current in the

inductor lags the voltage by

π/2. The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is zero.

4. An ac voltage v = vm sinωt applied to a capacitor drives a current in the capacitor: i = im sin

(ωt + π/2). Here,

is called capacitive reactance.

The current through the capacitor is π/2 ahead of the applied voltage.

As in the case of inductor, the average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is

zero.

5. For a series RLC circuit driven by voltage v = vm sin ωt, the current is given by i = im sin (ωt

+ φ)

where
and

is called the impedance of the circuit.

The average power loss over a complete cycle is given by

P = V I cosφ

The term cosφ is called the power factor.

6. In a purely inductive or capacitive circuit, cosφ = 0 and no power is dissipated even though a

current is flowing in the circuit. In such cases, current is referred to as a wattless current.

7. The phase relationship between current and voltage in an ac circuit can be shown conveniently

by representing voltage and current by rotating vectors called phasors. A phasor is a vector which

rotates about the origin with angular speed ω. The magnitude of a phasor represents the

amplitude or peak value of the quantity (voltage or current) represented by the phasor.

The analysis of an ac circuit is facilitated by the use of a phasor diagram.

8. An interesting characteristic of a series RLC circuit is the phenomenon of resonance. The

circuit exhibits resonance, i.e., the amplitude of the current is maximum at the resonant

frequency, . The quality factor Q defined by

is an indicator of the sharpness of the resonance, the higher value of

Q indicating sharper peak in the current.

9. A circuit containing an inductor L and a capacitor C (initially charged) with no ac source and

no resistors exhibits free oscillations. The charge q of the capacitor satisfies the equation of

simple harmonic motion:

and therefore, the frequency ω of free oscillation is . The energy in the system

oscillates between the capacitor and the inductor but their sum or the total energy is constant in

time.
10. A transformer consists of an iron core on which are bound a primary coil of Np turns and a

secondary coil of Ns turns. If the primary coil is connected to an ac source, the primary and

secondary voltages are related by

and the currents are related by

If the secondary coil has a greater number of turns than the primary, the voltage is stepped-up

(Vs > Vp). This type of arrangement is called a step-up transformer. If the secondary coil has

turns less than the primary, we have a step-down transformer.

POINTS TO PONDER
1. When a value is given for ac voltage or current, it is ordinarily the rms value. The voltage

across the terminals of an outlet in your room is normally 240 V. This refers to the rms value of

the voltage. The amplitude of this voltage is

2. The power rating of an element used in ac circuits refers to its average power rating.

3. The power consumed in an ac circuit is never negative.

4. Both alternating current and direct current are measured in amperes. But how is the ampere

defined for an alternating current? It cannot be derived from the mutual attraction of two parallel

wires carrying ac currents, as the dc ampere is derived. An ac current changes direction with the
source frequency and the attractive force would average to zero. Thus, the ac ampere must be

defined in terms of some property that is independent of the direction of the current. Joule

heating is such a property, and there is one ampere of rms value of alternating current in a circuit

if the current produces the same average heating effect as one ampere of dc current would

produce under the same conditions.

5. In an ac circuit, while adding voltages across different elements, one should take care of their

phases properly. For example, if VR and VC are voltages across R and C, respectively in an RC

circuit, then the total voltage across RC combination is and not

VR + VC since VC is π/2 out of phase of VR.

6. Though in a phasor diagram, voltage and current are represented by vectors, these quantities

are not really vectors themselves. They are scalar quantities. It so happens that the amplitudes

and phases of harmonically varying scalars combine mathematically in the same way as do the

projections of rotating vectors of corresponding magnitudes and directions. The ‘rotating vectors’

that represent harmonically varying scalar quantities are introduced only to provide us with a

simple way of adding these quantities using a rule that we already know as the law of vector

addition.

7. There are no power losses associated with pure capacitances and pure inductances in an ac

circuit. The only element that dissipates energy in an ac circuit is the resistive element.

8. In a RLC circuit, resonance phenomenon occur when XL = XC or . For

resonance to occur, the presence of both L and C elements in the circuit is a must. With only one

of these (L or C) elements, there is no possibility of voltage cancellation and hence, no resonance

is possible.

9. The power factor in a RLC circuit is a measure of how close the circuit is to expending the
maximum power.

10. In generators and motors, the roles of input and output are reversed. In a motor, electric

energy is the input and mechanical energy is the output. In a generator, mechanical energy is the
 input and electric energy is the output. Both devices simply transform energy from one form to

another.

11. A transformer (step-up) changes a low-voltage into a high-voltage. This does not violate the

law of conservation of energy. The current is reduced by the same proportion.

12. The choice of whether the description of an oscillatory motion is by means of sines or cosines

or by their linear combinations is unimportant, since changing the zero-time position transforms

the one to the other.

EXERCISES
7.1 A 100 Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
(a) What is the rms value of current in the circuit?
(b) What is the net power consumed over a full cycle?
7.2 (a) The peak voltage of an ac supply is 300 V. What is the rms voltage?
(b) The rms value of current in an ac circuit is 10 A. What is the peak
current?
7.3 A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine
the rms value of the current in the circuit.
7.4 A 60 µF capacitor is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz ac supply. Determine
the rms value of the current in the circuit.
7.5 In Exercises 7.3 and 7.4, what is the net power absorbed by each circuit
over a complete cycle. Explain your answer.
7.6 Obtain the resonant frequency ωr of a series LCR circuit with
L = 2.0H, C = 32 µF and R = 10 Ω. What is the Q-value of this circuit?
7.7 A charged 30 µF capacitor is connected to a 27 mH inductor. What is
the angular frequency of free oscillations of the circuit?
7.8 Suppose the initial charge on the capacitor in Exercise 7.7 is 6 mC.
What is the total energy stored in the circuit initially? What is the total
energy at later time?
7.9 A series LCR circuit with R = 20 Ω, L = 1.5 H and C = 35 µF is
connected to a variable-frequency 200 V ac supply. When the frequency of
the supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is the average
power transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle?
7.10 A radio can tune over the frequency range of a portion of MW
broadcast band: (800 kHz to 1200 kHz). If its LC circuit has an effective
inductance of 200 µH, what must be the range of its variable capacitor?
[Hint: For tuning, the natural frequency i.e., the frequency of free
oscillations of the LC circuit should be equal to the frequency of the
radiowave.]
7.11 Figure 7.21 shows a series LCR circuit connected to a variable
frequency 230 V source. L = 5.0 H, C = 80µF, R = 40 Ω.

FIGURE 7.21

(a) Determine the source frequency which drives the circuit in resonance.
(b) Obtain the impedance of the circuit and the amplitude of current at the
resonating frequency.
(c) Determine the rms potential drops across the three elements of the
circuit. Show that the potential drop across the LC combination is zero at
the resonating frequency.

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES
7.12 An LC circuit contains a 20 mH inductor and a 50 µF capacitor with
an initial charge of 10 mC. The resistance of the circuit is negligible. Let the
instant the circuit is closed be t = 0.
(a) What is the total energy stored initially? Is it conserved during LC
oscillations?
(b) What is the natural frequency of the circuit?
(c) At what time is the energy stored
(i) completely electrical (i.e., stored in the capacitor)? (ii) completely
magnetic (i.e., stored in the inductor)?
(d) At what times is the total energy shared equally between the inductor
and the capacitor?
(e) If a resistor is inserted in the circuit, how much energy is eventually
dissipated as heat?
7.13 A coil of inductance 0.50 H and resistance 100 Ω is connected to a 240
V, 50 Hz ac supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the coil?
(b) What is the time lag between the voltage maximum and the current
maximum?
7.14 Obtain the answers (a) to (b) in Exercise 7.13 if the circuit is
connected to a high frequency supply (240 V, 10 kHz). Hence, explain the
statement that at very high frequency, an inductor in a circuit nearly
amounts to an open circuit. How does an inductor behave in a dc circuit
after the steady state?
7.15 A 100 µF capacitor in series with a 40 Ω resistance is connected to a
110 V, 60 Hz supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the circuit?
(b) What is the time lag between the current maximum and the voltage
maximum?
7.16 Obtain the answers to (a) and (b) in Exercise 7.15 if the circuit is
connected to a 110 V, 12 kHz supply? Hence, explain the statement that a
capacitor is a conductor at very high frequencies. Compare this behaviour
with that of a capacitor in a dc circuit after the steady state.
7.17 Keeping the source frequency equal to the resonating frequency of the
series LCR circuit, if the three elements, L, C and R are arranged in
parallel, show that the total current in the parallel LCR circuit is minimum
at this frequency. Obtain the current rms value in each branch of the circuit
for the elements and source specified in Exercise 7.11 for this frequency.
7.18 A circuit containing a 80 mH inductor and a 60 µF capacitor in series
is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The resistance of the circuit is
negligible.
(a) Obtain the current amplitude and rms values.
(b) Obtain the rms values of potential drops across each element.
(c) What is the average power transferred to the inductor?
(d) What is the average power transferred to the capacitor?
(e) What is the total average power absorbed by the circuit? [‘Average’
implies ‘averaged over one cycle’.]
7.19 Suppose the circuit in Exercise 7.18 has a resistance of 15 Ω. Obtain
the average power transferred to each element of the circuit, and the total
power absorbed.
7.20 A series LCR circuit with L = 0.12 H, C = 480 nF, R = 23 Ω is
connected to a 230 V variable frequency supply.
(a) What is the source frequency for which current amplitude is maximum.
Obtain this maximum value.
(b) What is the source frequency for which average power absorbed by the
circuit is maximum. Obtain the value of this maximum power.
(c) For which frequencies of the source is the power transferred to the
circuit half the power at resonant frequency? What is the current amplitude
at these frequencies?
(d) What is the Q-factor of the given circuit?
7.21 Obtain the resonant frequency and Q-factor of a series LCR circuit
with L = 3.0 H, C = 27 µF, and R = 7.4 Ω. It is desired to improve the
sharpness of the resonance of the circuit by reducing its ‘full width at half
maximum’ by a factor of 2. Suggest a suitable way.
7.22 Answer the following questions:
(a) In any ac circuit, is the applied instantaneous voltage equal to the
algebraic sum of the instantaneous voltages across the series elements of the
circuit? Is the same true for rms voltage?
(b) A capacitor is used in the primary circuit of an induction coil.
(c) An applied voltage signal consists of a superposition of a dc voltage and
an ac voltage of high frequency. The circuit consists of an inductor and a
capacitor in series. Show that the dc signal will appear across C and the ac
signal across L.
(d) A choke coil in series with a lamp is connected to a dc line. The lamp is
seen to shine brightly. Insertion of an iron core in the choke causes no
change in the lamp’s brightness. Predict the corresponding observations if
the connection is to an ac line.
(e) Why is choke coil needed in the use of fluorescent tubes with ac mains?
Why can we not use an ordinary resistor instead of the choke coil?
7.23 A power transmission line feeds input power at 2300 V to a step-down
transformer with its primary windings having 4000 turns. What should be
the number of turns in the secondary in order to get output power at 230 V?
7.24 At a hydroelectric power plant, the water pressure head is at a height
of 300 m and the water flow available is 100 m3s–1. If the turbine generator
efficiency is 60%, estimate the electric power available from the plant (g =
9.8 ms–2).
7.25 A small town with a demand of 800 kW of electric power at 220 V is
situated 15 km away from an electric plant generating power at 440 V. The
resistance of the two wire line carrying power is 0.5 Ω per km. The town
gets power from the line through a 4000-220 V step-down transformer at a
sub-station in the town.
(a) Estimate the line power loss in the form of heat.
(b) How much power must the plant supply, assuming there is negligible
power loss due to leakage?
(c) Characterise the step up transformer at the plant.
7.26 Do the same exercise as above with the replacement of the earlier
transformer by a 40,000-220 V step-down transformer (Neglect, as before,
leakage losses though this may not be a good assumption any longer
because of the very high voltage transmission involved). Hence, explain
why high voltage transmission is preferred?
 Table of Contents
Chapter Seven
Alternating Current
7.3 Representation of AC Current and Voltage by Rotating Vectors —
Phasors
Summary
Points to Ponder
Exercises
Additional Exercises