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Structure
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Unit 1: The Simple Present Tense
The simple present tense is one of several forms of present tense in English. It is
used to describe habits, unchanging situations, general truths, and fixed
arrangements. The simple present tense is simple to form. Just use the base form
of the verb: (I take, you take, we take, they take) The 3rd person singular takes an -
s at the end. (He takes, she takes)

The simple present tense is used:

 To express habits, general truths, repeated actions or unchanging

situations, emotions and wishes:
I smoke (habit); I work in London (unchanging situation); London is a large
city (general truth)
 To give instructions or directions:
You walk for two hundred meters, then you turn left.
 To express fixed arrangements, present or future:
Your exam starts at 09.00
 To express future time, after some conjunctions: after, when, before, as
soon as, until:
He'll give it to you when you come next Saturday.

Be careful! The simple present is not used to express actions happening now.

Examples

 For habits
He drinks tea at breakfast.
She only eats fish.
They watch television regularly.
 For repeated actions or events
we catch the bus every morning.
 It rains every afternoon in the hot season.
They drive to Monaco every summer.
 For general truths
Water freezes at zero degrees.
The Earth revolves around the Sun.
Her mother is Peruvian.

 For instructions or directions

open the packet and pour the contents into hot water.
You take the No.6 bus to Watney and then the No.10 to Bedford.
 For fixed arrangements
His mother arrives tomorrow.
Our holiday starts on the 26th March
 With future constructions
she’ll see you before she leaves.
We'll give it to her when she arrives.

Forming the simple present tense: to think

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I think Do I think? I do not think

You think Do you think? You do not think

He thinks Does he think? He does not think

She thinks Does she think? She does not think

It thinks Does it think? It does not think

We think Do we think? We do not think.

They think Do they think? They do not think.

Notes on the simple present, third person singular

 In the third person singular the verb always ends in -s:

he wants, she needs, he gives, she thinks.
  Negative and question forms use DOES (= the third person of the auxiliary
'DO') + the infinitive of the verb.
He wants ice cream. Does he want strawberry? He does not want vanilla.
 Verbs ending in -y : the third person changes the -y to -ies:
fly --> flies, cry --> cries
Exception: if there is a vowel before the -y:
play --> plays, pray --> prays
 Add -es to verbs ending in:-ss, -x, -sh, -ch:
he passes, she catches, he fixes, it pushes

Examples

 He goes to school every morning.

 She understands English.
 It mixes the sand and the water.
 He tries very hard.
 She enjoys playing the piano.

Unit 2: The Present Perfect Tense

Definition of the present perfect tense

The present perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. The
time of the action is before now but not specified, and we are often more
interested in the result than in the action itself.

BE CAREFUL! There may be a verb tense in your language with a similar form, but
the meaning is probably NOT the same.

The Present Perfect is used to describe

 An action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present.
I have lived in Bristol since 1984 (= and I still do.)
 An action performed during a period that has not yet finished. She has been
to the cinema twice this week (= and the week isn't over yet.)
 A repeated action in an unspecified period between the past and now. We
have visited Portugal several times.
  An action that was completed in the very recent past, expressed by 'just'. I
have just finished my work.
 An action when the time is not important. He has read 'War and Peace'. (=
the result of his reading is important)

Actions started in the past and continuing in the present

 They haven't lived here for years.

 She has worked in the bank for five years.
 We have had the same car for ten years.
 Have you played the piano since you were a child?

When the time period referred to has not finished

 I have worked hard this week.

 It has rained a lot this year.
 We haven't seen her today.

Actions repeated in an unspecified period between the past and now.

 They have seen that film six times

 It has happened several times already.
 She has visited them frequently.
 We have eaten at that restaurant many times.

Actions completed in the very recent past (+just)

 Have you just finished work?

 I have just eaten.
 We have just seen her.
 Has he just left?

When the precise time of the action is not important or not known

 Someone has eaten my soup!

 Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'?
 She's studied Japanese, Russian, and English.

Forming the Present Perfect

The present perfect of any verb is composed of two elements : the appropriate form
of the auxiliary verb to have (present tense), plus the past participle of the main
verb. The past participle of a regular verb is base+ed, e.g. played, arrived, looked.
For irregular verbs, see the Table of irregular verbs in the section called 'Verbs'.

Affirmative
Subject to have past participle
She Has visited.
Negative
Subject to have + not past participle
She has not (hasn't) visited.
Interrogative
to have Subject past participle
Has She visited?
Negative interrogative
to have + not Subject past participle

Hasn't She visited?

To Walk, present perfect

Affirmative Negative Interrogative
I have walked I haven't walked Have I walked?
You have walked You haven't walked. Have you walked?
He, she, it has walked He, she, hasn't walked Has he, she, it walked?
We have walked We haven't walked Have we walked?
You have walked You haven't walked Have you walked?
They have walked They haven't walked Have they walked?
Unit 3: The Simple Past Tense
Definition of the simple past tense

The simple past tense, sometimes called the preterit, is used to talk about a
completed action in a time before now. The simple past is the basic form of past
tense in English. The time of the action can be in the recent past or the distant past
and action duration is not important.

Examples

 John Cabot sailed to America in 1498.

 My father died last year.
 He lived in Fiji in 1976.
 We crossed the Channel yesterday.

You always use the simple past when you say when something happened, so it is
associated with certain past time expressions

 Frequency: often, sometimes, always

I sometimes walked home at lunchtime.
I often brought my lunch to school.
 A definite point in time: last week, when I was a child, yesterday, six weeks
ago
we saw a good film last week.
Yesterday, I arrived in Geneva.
She finished her work at seven o'clock
I went to the theatre last night
 An indefinite point in time: the other day, ages ago, a long time ago
People lived in caves a long time ago.
She played the piano when she was a child.

Note: the word ago is a useful way of expressing the distance into the past. It is
placed after the period of time: a week ago, three years ago, a minute ago.

Be Careful: The simple past in English may look like a tense in your own language,
but the meaning may be different.

Forming the Simple Past Tense

Patterns of simple past tense for regular verbs
Affirmative
Subject + verb + ed
I Skipped.
Negative
Subject + did not + infinitive without to
They didn't go.
Interrogative
Did + subject + infinitive without to
Did She arrive?
Interrogative negative
Did not + subject + infinitive without to
Didn't You play?

To Walk
Affirmative Negative Interrogative

I walked I didn't walk Did I walk?

You walked You didn't walk Did you walk?

He walked He didn't walk Did he walk?

We walked We didn't walk Did we walk?

They walked They didn't walk Did they walk?

Simple past tense of to be, to have, to do

Subject Verb
Be Have Do
I Was had did
You Were had did

He/ She/It Was had did

We Were had did

You Were had did

They Were had did

Notes on affirmative, negative, & interrogative forms

Affirmative

The affirmative of the simple past tense is simple.

 I was in Japan last year

 She had a headache yesterday.
 We did our homework last night.

Negative and interrogative

For the negative and interrogative simple past form of "to do" as an ordinary verb,
use the auxiliary "did", e.g. We didn't do our homework last night.
The negative of "have" in the simple past is usually formed using the auxiliary
"did", but sometimes by simply adding not or the contraction "n't".

The interrogative form of "have" in the simple past normally uses the auxiliary
"did".

Examples

 They weren't in Rio last summer.

 We didn't have any money.
 We didn't have time to visit the Eiffel Tower.
 We didn't do our exercises this morning.
 Were they in Iceland last January?
 Did you have a bicycle when you were young?
 Did you do much climbing in Switzerland?
Note: For the negative and interrogative form of all verbs in the simple past,
always use the auxiliary 'did''.

Simple past, irregular verbs

Some verbs are irregular in the simple past. Here are the most common ones.

to go

 He went to a club last night.

 Did he go to the cinema last night?
 He didn't go to bed early last night.

to give

 We gave her a doll for her birthday.

 They didn't give John their new address.
 Did Barry give you my passport?

to come

 My parents came to visit me last July.

 We didn't come because it was raining.
 Did he come to your party last week?

Unit 4: Modal Verbs

Question: Make five sentences each from the following list of modal verbs.

Can Julie can swim.

Can I come with you?
Can I help you?
He can speak English.
I cannot carry this heavy box.
Could I could have been the tennis champion if I practiced seriously.
That story could be true – who knows!
Julie could swim when she was four year old.
Could I use your phone please?
Could you tell me the way to the station please?
 May May I leave class early?
We may go to the party, we haven’t quite decided yet.
May I borrow your dictionary?
I don’t know yet. I may stay at home.
I may eat fried rice and mutton Qorma.
Might She might take biology.
He might be at home, but he usually goes jogging on Sunday
morning.
We might win a prize but I doubt it!
The President said he might come.
I’m not certain. I might go to Lahore to see my uncle.
Will I will wash dishes.
I will do my exercise latter.
The meeting will be over soon.
I will do as you say.
Would I hear a whistle. The would be the five o’clock train.
After work, he would go home.
If I were you, I would study economics.
I would like to have more free time.
I would rather go to the cinema today.
Shall Shall I order a taxi?
Shall we begin the meeting now?
I shall go tomorrow if the weather improves.
Should You should take an umbrella. It’s starting to rain.
John has revised all day. He should be ready for his exam.
You should work hard, now.
They should be at home now.
You should buy a new house.
Must I must memorize all of these rules about modal verbs.
Humans must have drinking water at least every two days.
Look at all of that snow. It must be really cold outside.
You must see the new Peter Jackson movie, it’s fantastic.
He must have won the lottery with the new house and car he has
just bought.
Ought to You ought to listen carefully.
The journey ought to take about 2 hours.
I ought to have spoken up earlier. I’m sorry.
 People ought to be a bit nicer to us.
Ought I to report it to someone in authority?

Unit 5: Active and Passive Voice

Functions of the passive voice

The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences
an action rather than the person or object that performs the action. In other words,
the most important thing or person becomes the subject of the sentence.

Examples

 The passive voice is used frequently. (= we are interested in the passive

voice, not in who uses it.)
 The house was built in 1654. (= we are interested in the house, not in who
built it.)
 The road is being repaired. (= we are interested in the road, not in the
people who are doing the repairs.)

Sometimes we use the passive voice because we don't know or do not want to
express who performed the action.

Examples

 I noticed that a window had been left open.

 Every year thousands of people are killed on our roads.
 All the cookies have been eaten.
 My car has been stolen!

The passive voice is often used in formal texts. Switching to the active voice will
make your writing clearer and easier to read.

Passive Active
A great deal of meaning is conveyed by a A few well-chosen words convey a
few well-chosen words. great deal of meaning.
Our planet is wrapped in a mass of gases. A mass of gases wrap around our
planet.
Waste materials are disposed of in a The city disposes of waste materials
variety of ways. in a variety of ways.

If we want to say who or what performs the action while using the passive voice,
we use the preposition by. When we know who performed the action and are
interested in him, it is always better to switch to the active voice instead.

Passive Active
"A Hard Day's Night" was written by the The Beatles wrote "A Hard Day's
Beatles. Night".
The movie ET was directed by Spielberg. Spielberg directed the movie ET.
This house was built by my father. My father built this house.

Forming the passive voice

The passive voice in English is composed of two elements:

the appropriate form of the verb 'to be' + past participle

Affirmative Negative Interrogative Negative

Interrogative
The house was The house wasn't Was the house Wasn't the house
built in 1899. built in 1899. built in 1899? built in 1899?
These houses These houses Were these houses Weren't these
were built in weren't built in built in 1899? houses built in
1899. 1899. 1899?
To clean, passive voice
Subject + to be (conjugated) + past participle + rest of sentence
Simple present
The house Is Cleaned every day.
Present continuous
The house is being Cleaned at the moment.
Simple past
The house Was Cleaned yesterday.
Past continuous
The house was being Cleaned last week.
Present perfect
The house has been Cleaned since you left.
Past perfect
The house had been Cleaned before they arrived.
Future
The house will be Cleaned next week.
Future continuous
The house will be being Cleaned tomorrow.
Present conditional
The house would be Cleaned if they had visitors.
Past conditional
The house would have been Cleaned if it had been dirty.
Infinitive
The house must be Cleaned before we arrive.
Passive voice with infinitives

The infinitive passive voice is used after modal verbs and other most verbs
normally followed by an infinitive.

Examples

 You have to be tested on your English grammar.

 John might be promoted next year.
 She wants to be invited to the party.
 I expect to be surprised on my birthday.
 You may be disappointed.

Passive voice with gerunds

Gerunds are used after prepositions and verbs normally followed by a gerund.

Examples

 I remember being taught to drive.

 The children are excited about being taken to the zoo.
 The children are excited to be taken to the zoo.
 Most film stars hate being interviewed.
 Most film stars hate to be interviewed.
 Poodles like to be pampered.
  Poodles like being pampered.

Using "to be born"

"To be born" is a passive form and is most commonly used in the past tense.
However, in some cases, the present or future tense is appropriate.

Examples

 I was born in 1976.

 Where were you born?
 Around 100 babies are born in this hospital every week.
 We don't know on exactly which day the baby will be born.

Unit 6: Future Tense: Will /Going To

What's the difference? 'Will' and 'be going to'

Will + infinitive Be going to + infinitive

A decision at the moment of

A decision before the moment of speaking:
speaking:

Julie: There's no milk.

Julie: There's no milk.
John: I know. I'm going to go and get some
John: Really? In that case, I'll go
when this TV programme finishes.
and get some.

A prediction based on something we can see (or

A prediction based on opinion:
hear) now:

I think the Conservatives will

The Conservatives are going to win the election.
win the next election.
They already have most of the votes.

A future fact:
The sun will rise tomorrow.

For promises / requests /

refusals / offers:

I'll help you tomorrow, if you

like.

More examples:

 (The phone rings)

Julie: I'll get it!
('I'm going to get it' is very strange, because it makes us think that Julie
knew the phone was going to ring before it did).

 I'm going to go on holiday next week.

('I'll go on holiday next week' makes it sound like you've only just decided at
that minute. Of course, this is possible, but normally we plan our holidays
more in advance!).

Other points about the future:

We use the present continuous tense for definite future arrangements. Often, it
doesn't really matter if we choose 'be going to' or the present continuous. In the
following example, there is really very little difference in meaning:

 I'm going to the cinema tonight.

 I'm going to go to the cinema tonight.

We use the present simple tense in two cases. First, we use it for a timetabled
event in the future, like public transport or the start of a class:

 My train leaves at six tonight.

 His class starts at 9am tomorrow.
Second, we use it after certain words, when the sentence has a future meaning.
These words are: before / after / as soon as / until / when:

 I'll call you when I get home.

 She's going to study after she finishes dinner.
 Please drink some water as soon as you complete the race.

Unit 7: Might, May, Could, Can

Auxiliary Verbs "Can/Could" and "May/Might/Must"

Can
Used to express ability (to be able to do something):

 I can make jewelry.

 He can’t speak French.
 Can you open this jar?

Used to ask for permission:

 Can I use your bathroom?

 Can I leave now?
 Can I raise the volume?

Used to make requests or suggestions:

 Can I have more napkins?

 Can I have the bill?
 You can take this spot if you like.
 You can do whatever you want.

Could (past form of can)

Describes an ability that someone had in the past:

 I could swim when I was young.

 You could see the boat sinking.
  They could tell he was nervous.

Often used in auxiliary functions to express permission politely:

 Could I take this jacket with me?

 You could borrow my umbrella.
 Could you please let me pass you?
 Could I get you more water?

Used to express possibility:

 All of them could ride in the van.

 You could always stay at our house.
 Could it be true?
 This plan could really work out.

May
Used to ask for formal permission:

 May I come in?

 May I say something now?
 May I ask one question?

Used to suggest something that is possible:

 She may agree with this plan.

 They may not be happy about what happened.
 It may shower tonight.

Might (past form of may)

Used to suggest a smaller possibility than may does (actually, might is more
common than may in American English):

 He might have finished it.

 I might go see a doctor.
 I might not come this time.
 It might be right.
 You might have lost it.
  The store might have been closed today.

Must
Used to express something formally required or necessary:

 I must complete the project by this week.

 The government must provide health care for everybody.
 Everyone must save the natural resources of the earth.
 The building must have a fire alarm.
 You must answer my question right now.

Used to show that something is very likely:

 He must be a genius.
 You must be joking!
 There must be an accident.
 She must be very tired.

Unit 8: Indirect or Reported Speech

Direct and indirect speech can be a source of confusion for English learners. Let's
first define the terms, then look at how to talk about what someone said, and how
to convert speech from direct to indirect or vice-versa.

You can answer the question What did he say? in two ways:

 by repeating the words spoken (direct speech)

 by reporting the words spoken (indirect or reported speech).

Direct Speech

Direct speech repeats, or quotes, the exact words spoken. When we use direct
speech in writing, we place the words spoken between quotation marks (" ") and
there is no change in these words. We may be reporting something that's being said
NOW (for example a telephone conversation), or telling someone later about a
previous conversation.
Examples

 She says, "What time will you be home?"

 She said, "What time will you be home?" and I said, "I don't know! "
 "There's a fly in my soup!" screamed Simone.
 John said, "There's an elephant outside the window."

Indirect Speech

Reported or indirect speech is usually used to talk about the past, so we normally
change the tense of the words spoken. We use reporting verbs like 'say', 'tell', 'ask',
and we may use the word 'that' to introduce the reported words. Inverted commas
are not used.

She said, "I saw him." (direct speech) = She said that she had seen him. (indirect
speech)

'That' may be omitted:

She told him that she was happy. = She told him she was happy.

'Say' and 'tell'

Use 'say' when there is no indirect object:

He said that he was tired.

Always use 'tell' when you say who was being spoken to (i.e. with an indirect
object):
He told me that he was tired.

'Talk' and 'speak'

Use these verbs to describe the action of communicating:

He talked to us.
She was speaking on the telephone.

Use these verbs with 'about' to refer to what was said:

He talked (to us) about his parents.
Unit 9: Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun is a short word we use as a simple substitute for the proper
name of a person. Each of the English personal pronouns shows us the
grammatical person, gender, number, and case of the noun it replaces. I, you, he,
she, it, we they, me, him, her, us, and them are all personal pronouns.

Personal pronouns are the stunt doubles of grammar; they stand in for the people
(and perhaps animals) who star in our sentences. They allow us to speak and write
with economy because they enable us to avoid repeating cumbersome proper nouns
all the live-long day.

Archbishop Desmond Tutu was born in 1931 in South Africa and Bishop Desmond
Tutu rose to international fame in the 1980s as an opponent of apartheid. The
Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Bishop Desmond Tutu in 1984. Bishop
Desmond Tutu has written seven books and has co written or contributed to
many others.

With personal pronouns, this paragraph becomes much easier, and much less
annoying, to read.

Archbishop Desmond Tutu was born in 1931 in South Africa and he rose to
international fame in the 1980s as an opponent of apartheid. The Nobel Peace
Prize was awarded to him in 1984. He has written seven books and has co written
or contributed to many others.

First-, Second-, and Third-Person Pronouns

A personal pronoun can be in one of three “persons.” A first-person pronoun

refers to the speaker, a second-person pronoun refers to the person being spoken
to, and a third-person pronoun refers to the person being spoken of. For each of
these three grammatical persons, there is a plural as well.

Subject and Object Pronouns

Personal pronouns can be either subjects or objects in a sentence. Subject

pronouns are said to be in the nominative case, whereas object pronouns are said to
be in the objective case.
Person Nominative Objective

First singular I me

Second singular You you

Third singular he, she, it him, her, it

First plural We us

Second plural You you

Third plural They them

The interrogative pronouns for all three persons are the same: who (nominative)
and whom (objective). Many people get confused about when to use the
interrogative objective pronoun whom, but it is quite easy to learn.

Mrs. Khan asked that the package be delivered to her at the office. (her = third
person singular objective)

To whom should I address my letter? (whom = interrogative objective; I = first

person singular nominative)

We would like to invite Stacy to join us for dinner. (we = first person plural
nominative; us = first person plural objective)