Fundamentals of Photoelasticity

• Some Useful Definitions

• How Stress Is Calculated
• Principles of Photoelasticity
• Stress Measurement Techniques

Strainoptic Technologies, Inc.

Some Useful Definitions

• Residual Stress
• Polarized Light
• Index of Refraction
• Photoelasticity
• Birefringence
• Stress-Optical Constant
• Retardation
 Residual Stress

Residual stress is an intrinsic tension or compression

which exists in a material without an external load being
applied. In glass, so-called permanent residual stress is
induced in the primary manufacturing process. It is
relieved through annealing or subsequently added in
secondary thermal processing operations to impart
desired mechanical characteristics.
 Residual Stress

When there is an equilibrium between the tensile and

compressive stresses, the glass is said to be stable. An
imbalance in residual stresses can cause unexpected
weakness or spontaneous breakage.
 Polarized Light

• Light moves through transparent materials in the form

of waves. The frequency of the waveform varies with
the type of light. The standard wavelength for white
light through glass is 565 nanometers (10-9 meters).

• These waves are omnidirectional and “vibrate” out at a

perpendicular angle from the direction (propagation) of
the light beam.
Propagation
of light
beam

Light
Source
 Polarized Light
When light passes through a polarizing lens, all
components of the light wave are blocked except for
the components of the light wave in the plane of
vibration allowed to pass by the polarizing filter.
Privileged
Axis of
Polarizer 1

Omnidirectional
Vectors of Light

Light
Source
 Polarized Light

In “plane” or linear polarization, only the components

of the light vector parallel to the privileged axis of the
polarizer pass through. Light may also be subject to
“circular” and “elliptical” polarization methods, which
involve adding devices to the light path which alter its
characteristics. Privileged
Axis of
Polarizer 1

Omnidirectional
Vectors of Light
Plane
Polarized
Light
Light
Source
 Polarized Light
If another polarizing filter is placed in the path of the
polarized light beam, and rotated 90° (perpendicular)
to the polarizing axis of the first filter, all light will be
blocked.
Privileged No Light
Axis of (Dark Field)
Polarizer 1

Privileged
Axis of
Omnidirectional Polarizer 2
Vectors of Light rotated 90
Plane
degrees to the
Polarized
polarizing axis
Light
of the first
Light filter.
Source
 Polarized Light
If the second polarizing filter is rotated to an angle
less than or greater than 90° relative to the first
polarizing lens, only the components of the light wave
vibrating in that plane will pass through the filter.
Privileged Axis of
Polarizer 2
<>90 Degrees
Relative to
Polarizer 1
Attenuated Light
(Variable Field)

Plane
Polarized
Light
Light
Source
 Index of Refraction

A material’s index of refraction is defined as the speed of

light through a vacuum 3 x 108 meters/sec divided by the
speed of light through the material.
 Photoelasticity

The property exhibited by some transparent

solids, whereby they become doubly refractive,
or “birefringent,” when subjected to stress.
 Birefringence
When polarized light passes through a stressed
material, the light separates into two wavefronts
traveling at different velocities, each oriented
parallel to a direction of principal stress (, )
in the material, but perpendicular to each other.
Reference
Direction  Direction of Stress
 Direction
of Stress

Point of
Interest

Light Plane
Source Polarized
Light
 Birefringence

Birefringence results in the stressed material

having two different indices of refraction
(n1, n2).
In most materials, the index of refraction
remains constant; however, in glass and
plastics, the index value varies as a function of
the stress applied. This gave rise to the
Stress-Optic, or “Brewster’s” Law .
The Stress-Optic (Brewster’s) Law

(n1 – n2) = CB (1 –2)

WHERE
n1,n2 = Indices of refraction
CB = Stress-optical constant,
in Brewsters
1, 2 = Principal stresses
 The Stress-Optic Law

This law established that birefringence is

directly proportional to the difference of
principal stresses, which is equal to the
difference between the two indices of
refraction, n1-n2, exhibited by a stressed
material.
Therefore, birefringence can be calculated
by determining Δn.
 Retardation

The phase difference between the two light

vectors traveling through the material at
different velocities (fast, slow) is known as
retardation, commonly represented by the
symbol delta, 

The retardation value divided by a material’s

thickness is proportional to the difference
between the two indices of refraction, i.e.,

tn
 Retardation of Polarized Light
Through a Stressed Material

Reference
Direction

Retardation

Point of
Interest

Light Plane
Source Polarized
Light
How Stress Is Calculated
 The Stress Equation

Retardation
Stress =
Thickness * Stress-Optical Constant
 The Stress Equation

tCB

WHERE
 = Stress (in MPa*)
 = Retardation (in nanometers)
t = Thickness
CB = Stress-optical constant
(in Brewsters)

*(1 MPa = 145 psi)

 Principles of Photoelasticity

Instruments designed to observe objects under

polarized light are called polariscopes or strain
viewers. The first, or fixed, polarizing filter is known
as the “polarizer.” The second, or rotating, polarizing
filter is known as the “analyzer.” If the analyzer has a
calibrated scale that can be used for making
quantitative measurements, it is called a polarimeter.
 Principles of Photoelasticity
By rotating the second polarizing filter (analyzer), the
user can control the amount (intensity) of light
allowed to pass through. The components of the two
light waves that do pass through at any given angle
of analyzer rotation interfere with each other,
resulting in a characteristic color spectrum.

Retardation

Analyzer
Point of
Interest
Plane
Polarized
Light
 Principles of Photoelasticity

The intensity of colors displayed when a stressed

transparent or translucent material is viewed under
polarized light is modulated by the retardation.
 Principles of Photoelasticity

Each integer multiple of the standard wavelength of

light (= 565 nm for glass; 570 nm for plastics) is
called a fringe (N).
 Principles of Photoelasticity

The intensity of the colors diminishes as the

retardation or fringe order increases.
 Principles of Photoelasticity
The photoelastic color sequence (showing increasing stress) is:

Black (zero) Zero Order

Yellow
Red

Blue-Green
Yellow First Order
Red

Green Second Order

Yellow
Red

Green
Yellow
Third Order
Red
 Principles of Photoelasticity

These color patterns, visible when using polarized

light, can be used to observe and make a qualitative
evaluation of stress in an object. This method is very
subjective and requires experience and training.
 Principles of Photoelasticity

A quantitative measurement of residual stress can be

obtained using a polarimeter, an instrument that
measures retardation, which is proportional to stress.
Principles of Photoelasticity

Plane Polarization
and
Circular Polarization
 Principles of Photoelasticity

To determine the direction of principal stresses in a

sample, a plane polarization technique is typically
used. To do this using plane-polarized light, it is
important to first orient the sample such that the point
of interest (POI) exhibits minimum light intensity.
 Principles of Photoelasticity

In this orientation, a direction of principal stress at the

point of interest (either x or y) will be parallel to the
axes of the analyzer and polarizer.
 Principles of Photoelasticity

Rotating the sample 45 degrees places the sample

in the proper position for measuring retardation.
 Principles of Photoelasticity
Using circularly polarized light, the measurement is
independent of the direction of the principal stresses
at the point of interest. To change a plane polarimeter
to a circular polarimeter, two ¼-wave plates
are added to the light path as shown below.

Axis of First
Polarization 1/4-Wave
(Plane Plate
Added Axis of
Polarizer)
Retardation Polarization
(Analyzer)
()

Point of Second
Added Interest 1/4-Wave
Retardation Plate
()
 Principles of Photoelasticity
The relation used for calculating the retardation of
polarized light transmitted through a stressed material is:

CBt (x – y)

WHERE
=Retardation (in nanometers)
CB = Brewster Constant
t = Material Thickness
x,y = Principal Stresses

Measuring Techniques

Observation of Color Pattern Method

Compensator Method
Analyzer Rotation Method
Observation of Color Pattern Method

Strain Viewer/
Polariscope
Observation of Color Pattern Method

White light produces a complete spectrum

of light. This includes the visible spectrum
of 400 nm to 700 nm.
Observation of Color Pattern Method

The intensity of the light is modulated by

the retardation exhibited by the sample.
Observation of Color Pattern Method

• Results are highly

subjective to interpretation

• Can only be used for

qualitative measurements
 Compensator Method

Compensator
Compensator Method
• Simplest method of measuring
retardation

• Compensator (wedge) is a
calibrated, handheld device
that optically adds a retardation

of equal, but opposite sign to the

• The net result is a light intensity

sample.
of zero, which is easily
recognized visually as black
in the color pattern.
 Compensator Method
There are two types of compensators in common usage:

• Babinet or “Wedge” compensator (scale readout)

• Babinet-Soleil or “Double-Wedge” compensator

(digital readout)
 Analyzer Rotation Method

Analyzer

Polarimeter (with microscope option)

 Analyzer Rotation Method
The Analyzer Rotation Method uses a circular
polarimeter setup as shown below. This is called the
”Tardy” method. When only one ¼-wave plate is
used, it is called the “Senarmont“ method.

Axis of First
Polarization 1/4-Wave
(Plane Plate
Added Axis of
Polarizer)
Retardation Polarization
(Analyzer)
()

Point of Second
Added 1/4-Wave
Retardation Interest
Plate
()
 Analyzer Rotation Method
• The analyzer rotation method is generally used
to measure fractional levels of retardation (<570 nm).
• The sample is first positioned parallel to the reference

axis of the polarizer and analyzer.

• The analyzer is rotated until a minimum light
intensity is observed.

• The sample is then rotated 45 degrees from the

reference axis.
 Analyzer Rotation Method
Retardation is calculated from the fractional fringe
order that is read directly from the dial.

509 nm =
0.9 x 565
 Analyzer Rotation Method
This measurement (509 nm of retardation) is then
converted to stress using the equation below or
referring to a conversion chart.
tCB

WHERE
=Stress (in MPa)
 = Retardation (in nanometers)
t = Thickness
CB = Brewster Constant

(1 MPa = 145 psi)

Analyzer Rotation Method
Example:

Retardation ( = 509 nm

Thickness (t) = 6 mm
CB =
2.54
=tCB =509/(6.0 x 2.54)
=/15.24
 = 33.4 MPa or 4843 psi