Position

INSIGHTS INTO MUSIC
COMPOSITION
Insights into Music Composition is a guide and source of inspiration for

beginning students of music composition. Drawing on perspectives from
a range of experienced composers, the book introduces readers to the
compositional process, emphasizing how to think about creating a piece of
music from beginning to end by providing not only a survey of methods
but also an understanding of the overarching context for composition. The
authors present student composers with the tools to develop their own voice,
covering topics such as:
• methods for harnessing inspiration and creativity

• how to give shape, context, and meaning to a piece of music and create
moments that audiences will remember
• the value in exploring the music of other cultures and music’s
interdisciplinarity
• atonal and 12-tone techniques and the roles of form and style
• the benefits and pitfalls of student-teacher relationships and the
importance of building relationships with performers
Combining content from class scenarios with discussion questions, practical

exercises, an annotated guide of online resources, and a glossary of terms, the
text’s flexible structure allows chapters to be read through in order or drawn
on by topic. Clear and accessible, Insights into Music Composition is an ideal
resource for all students and instructors of music composition.
Gregory Young is Professor of Music at Montana State University, where he

was also Vice Provost for Undergraduate Education and Founding Director of
the Undergraduate Scholars Program.
Steve Roens is Professor Emeritus in Composition at the University of Utah,

where he has also served as Associate Dean of the College of Fine Arts,
Associate Dean of Undergraduate Studies, and Director of the Undergraduate
Research Opportunities Program.
INSIGHTS INTO
MUSIC COMPOSITION
Gregory Young and Steve Roens

Cover image: Dragan Todorovic / Getty Images
First published 2022
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Gregory Young and Steve Roens
The right of Gregory Young and Steve Roens to be identified
as authors of this work has been asserted in accordance with
sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Young, Gregory (Professor of music) author. | Roens, Steven,
author. | Croy, Elizabeth (Soprano) contributor. | Hart, Cheryl, contributor.
Title: Insights into music composition/Gregory Young, Steve Roens.
Description: New York: Routledge, 2022. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021047827 (print) | LCCN 2021047828
(ebook) | ISBN 9781032071961 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781032071923 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003205869 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Composition (Music)–Instruction and study.
Classification: LCC MT40. Y68 2022 (print) | LCC MT40
(ebook) | DDC 781.3071–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021047827
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021047828
ISBN: 978-1-032-07196-1 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-07192-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-20586-9 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869
Typeset in Classical Garamond and Myriad
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
CONTENTS
Preface vii
Acknowledgements ix
1 Inspiration and Creativity 1

2 Universal Principles 7
3 Compositional Process: Getting Started 12
4 Development of Musical Ideas 20
5 Building Upon Prior Music: Plagiarism, Quotes, Techniques 27
6 Technique, Notation 32
7 Lyrics, Prosody, Singers 39
Elizabeth Croy And Cheryl Hart
8 Form, Texture, Style, and Harmonic Language 46
9 Writing Atonal and 12-Tone Music 56
10 Global Perspective: Cultural Influences 66
11 Interdisciplinarity 70
12 Listening Critically 79
13 Diverse Perspectives on Composition 83
14 Subjectivity, Sensitivity, and Professor-Student Mentorship 89
15 Getting Successful Performances 99
16 Online Resources 105
Glossary 113
Index 116
PREFACE
This collection started with a meeting of professors at Montana State Univer-

sity to share ideas about teaching musical composition to a broad spectrum of
college-level music majors. Teaming up with my wonderful colleague from the
University of Utah, Steve Roens, whom I met through the Council on Under-
graduate Research, led to an expansion of a short manuscript and the suc-
cessful completion of this book. The original manuscript had trial runs with
several composition classes in which students shared feedback. Many other
ideas, examples, and exercises from professors across the United States were
collected, curated, and included when appropriate to enhance student learn-
ing. Each chapter begins with a quote related to the chapter content, followed
by content from actual class scenarios, and ends with discussion questions,
practical exercises, things to know, and online resources for further compo-
sition study. Undergraduate researchers Athena Carson, Hannah Anderson,
Alex Frazier, and Chris Cunningham helped with the collection and editing
of material. The addition of a chapter on prosody became apparent, and with
both authors being married to professional singers and teachers, we asked,
and they agreed to write one. Thus, Chapter 7 is a generous contribution by
Elizabeth Croy and Cheryl Hart.
This text is intended for both students and faculty members, as a guide and
source of inspiration throughout students’ compositional processes. It can be
read from start to finish or used as a reference as topics come up related to
the specific chapters. It is assumed that students using this book have a basic
understanding of the elements of music and their combination in musical cre-
ation. If not already acquired, keyboard skills, music reading, and competence
in analysis must be studied along with this pursuit of compositional skills.
An understanding of diatonic harmony and elementary counterpoint, scales,
rhythm and meter, clefs, and key signatures, musical notation and language,
function, and interaction of the elements of music will be helpful. At most
college music schools, students in composition classes must have successfully
completed at least two semesters of music theory.
This text focuses on composition for acoustic instruments, regardless of
the tools used to compose. Whether any of the various different computer
music notation programs are used, the concepts remain valid and appropriate.
The authors encourage participation in a final student composers’ concert or
viii PREFACE
recording, as there are important considerations for most composers regard-

ing the logistics of performance. We have found a useful model to be a one-
hour group meeting per week in which various compositional concepts are
discussed as well as a weekly composition lesson for each student with the
professor.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Young – The School of Music at Montana State University (MSU) has been a
fertile professional home since my first days of teaching here in 1988, com-
plemented by research and service to the state of Montana and beyond. The
ability to pursue research almost wherever it leads allowed for the creation of
an interdisciplinary course on the correlations between music and architec-
ture, taught with architecture professor Jerry Bancroft in 1991. In that course,
music students composed original works inspired and guided by buildings of
their choosing while architecture students designed buildings on music they
chose. Their work was featured in a journal article in Leonardo from M.I.T.
Press. Faculty colleagues in the sub-discipline of music composition at MSU
have included Linda Antas, Eric Funk, Jason Bolte, Cheyenne John-Hender-
son, Alan Leech, and Ilse-Mari Lee. Colleagues elsewhere who have been
influential include Heather Gilligan from Keene State University, Dan Bukvich
from the University of Idaho, Andrew MacDonald from Bishop’s University,
and Blago Simeonov from Toronto, Canada.
Roens – For the past 30 years, the University of Utah has provided oppor-
tunities for me to teach a wide variety of courses in music theory and compo-
sition and has been an important resource for performance and recording of
much of my work. In addition, opportunities in administration have resulted
in engagement with undergraduate research and an initial collaboration with
my co-author, Dr. Gregory Young, through the Council on Undergraduate
Research. Particularly important for this book has been my work teaching a
sophomore composition course at the University of Utah. For the design of
that course, I am indebted to my colleagues Drs. Miguel Chuaqui, Morris
Rosenzweig, and Igor Iachimciuc.
The following people generously provided musical examples and/or text
for this book:
Scott Lee, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Sara Graef, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Ryan Leach, film composer, Los Angeles, CA, USA

x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mara Gibson, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Luke Dahn, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, USA
Linda Antas, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
Kyle Gann, Composer, Author, from Dallas, Texas, TX, USA
Jon Brantingham, film composer, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Jerome Summers, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
Jason Bolte, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
James Mobberley, University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO, USA
Ingrid Stolzel, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
Heather Gilligan, Keene State University, NH, USA
Eric Funk, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
Elizabeth Croy, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
Cheryl Hart, Westminster College (retired), Salt Lake City, UT, USA
Athena Carson, composer, Bozeman, MT, USA
Andrew MacDonald, Bishop’s University, Lennoxville, PQ, Canada

1 INSPIRATION AND CREATIVITY
“Inspiration is a guest that does not willingly visit the lazy.”1

– Tchaikovsky
Thinking about this chapter’s opening quote, there is a striking similarity

between this and “luck is what happens when preparation meets opportu-
nity.” This second quote, attributed to Roman philosopher Seneca, reminds us
that for the most part, we make our own luck. Similarly, the more one spends
time composing, the more likely it is that interesting compositional discover-
ies will be made.
Inspiration and creativity are necessary, but sometimes elusive, first steps
for composers. In an ideal world, inspiration would strike, and ideas would
begin flowing like a river. Unfortunately, it’s usually not nearly that simple.
Inspiration is normally something that needs to be actively sought out. A new
environment or experience, improvisation, or exploring existing music can
all be sources of inspiration and creativity. Often a driving force may be a
commission or assignment, and much of the parameters are predetermined.
Nonetheless, it’s important to have techniques for using creativity to escape
compositional ruts. New ideas can be infinite, and sometimes it just takes
some digging to uncover them.
Sometimes composition students rely too heavily on inspiration, waiting
for it to happen, when in reality it often comes from a required assignment, a
commission, or simply finding friends who are willing to perform new music.
In fact, it is often easier to get ideas when some of the parameters are prede-
termined, like length, time/key signatures, or instruments, rather than starting
with a completely blank slate. However, it is worthwhile to seek out and
explore the places from which inspiration can derive. Composition class could
start with each student calling out a potential source of inspiration, to get this
discussion started. These often include nature, love, particular performers,
instrumental timbre and combinations, existing music, etc.
The following is a chart from the first session of an actual composition
class, in which students were asked to name some possible sources of inspira-
tion. In the blank spaces, fill in some more.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-1
TABLE 1.1
emotions commission love nature performer dance theatre film
lyrics instruments art rejection gratitude diversity materials singing
photos architecture books religion sports angels the devil jewels
people technology stories folksong food flowers music work
drinking protests parade selling homework marching animals hate
war
From Human Motivation, 3rd ed., by Robert E. Franken2:
• Creativity is defined as the tendency to generate or recognize ideas,

alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems,
communicating with others, and entertaining ourselves and others.
David Sands, a plant pathologist at Montana State University, has taught

and written about a course based on Linus Pauling’s premise that in order
to generate good ideas, one has to generate a lot of ideas and throw the bad
ones away. One major assignment in his class is to generate seventeen original
ideas, with no limits on topic. They must be self-generated and each explained
in one page or less, including the problem each one is intended to solve.3
Architecture professor David Fortin said, “I don’t think in a creative
endeavor you can push anyone anywhere . . . for me, the key is if you can find
out what that student wants to do, what makes them tick, and what makes
them passionate, they fill their palette.”4
Composer, conductor, and jazz pianist Eric Funk feels that when ideas start
coming, a composition sometimes starts to flow and takes on a life of its own.
He realized at one point with respect to his cello concerto: “I just hadn’t heard
the one I wanted yet – I thought . . . nobody is writing it.” And he began to
write what he wanted to hear. Many composition students find that their
best work takes less time than their worst work, that is, when a composition
begins to flow, it is usually worth writing down. Professor Funk also stated in
an interview: “There are no guidelines for people’s creativity.”5
Leonard Bernstein found that his most creative times were just as he was
waking up, in that period between sleeping and being fully awake. He also
found conducting easy and composing extremely difficult but felt it was more
important for him to compose.6
Jeremy Manier – University of Chicago professors in discussion about
creativity:
• “Sometimes I wake up in the middle of the night and I will hear the
whole structure of a piece,” Marta Ptaszynska says. “And then I have to
notate it quickly. These are moments that pass quickly by, like the wind.”
• “I never start a piece if I don’t know how the piece will end,” she says.
“It’s like buying a train ticket without knowing where you’re going.”
INSPIRATION AND CREATIVITY 3
• “I’ll write down a phrase that represents my idea, like ‘A brilliant stroke of
glass,’” says Ptaszynska, a 2010 Guggenheim fellow. “It doesn’t mean any-
thing to anyone else, but when I see those words later I hear the sound.”
• “I would say the first thing has to be a kind of energy to be creative.
You have to have passion in your stomach to create things.” – Augusta
Read Thomas
• “I hoped the audience would hear it as a highly nuanced essay,” Thomas
says.
• “I usually draw maps – a timeline of the piece, the shapes it’s going
to take, its harmonic fields,” Thomas says. “If you’re going to build a
huge building or cathedral, you can’t just go to the hardware store and
start hammering nails. I actually draft the beginning, middle, and end
of absolutely every sound. I want to know, what’s the inner life? Where
is it going, why is it going there? How does it relate to what comes
next, and why? Gestalt is everything to me.”7
Often discussed in conversations like these is the value of natural talent ver-
sus the development of the craft of composition. Many potential composers
never fully develop their craft, and their talent is never brought to fruition.
The conventional wisdom of 99% perspiration, 1% inspiration might be an
exaggeration but is nonetheless something to consider. The sources of inspi-
ration are somewhat mysterious anyway, and research doesn’t seem to shed
much light on them. We bring our life experiences to our work, whether we
are conscious of it or not. And sometimes when we are experiencing intense
emotions, our best music comes out. In many of the artistic disciplines, those
who have produced great art, like Vincent Van Gogh, have suffered a lot or
have had intense emotional experiences. The power of music should not be
underestimated; it can transport us, provide catharsis, stir up beautiful and
sometimes disturbing emotions, and captivate us, whether we are the com-
poser, performer, or audience member.
From Jon Brantingham – film composer and music theory enthusiast, dis-
cussing sources of inspiration (used by permission):
• How composers get this inspiration is as varied as the musical products

themselves. Some get it from reading, others from observing the world.
Many have inspirations from life events.
• Inspiration may not be in the form of a flash of brilliance in your mind.
It may be one note. Or maybe a rhythm. It may just be a word describ-
ing an emotion – love, hate, fear. Whatever the inspiration is, you must
be able to recognize it.
• Inspiration may not also come immediately. Many composers are
fond of writing down many ideas, improvising, or just playing freely
until they hear something they like. Then they’ll write it down or play
around with it.
• Sometimes you will not have inspiration. What do you do? You need
to stir your imagination. What works for me is to feed myself with as
many sources of potential inspiration as possible. I read about music

theory, I try new techniques, I listen to new composers, I’ll play differ-
ent instruments . . . but most important, I’ll force myself to write down
music. If you write down music, ideas will come eventually. Sometimes
you have to work to be inspired.8
From Ryan Leach, LA-based film composer on 11 ways to find immediate

inspiration for your next composition (used by permission)
• Rhythm
o From language, words, or text
o From another song
• Harmony
o Two chords
o A unique, unfamiliar, or different Harmony
o Chord progressions with “inherent logic”
• Pitch
o Choose any random interval
o An interval with significance (sad, happy, strong, stable)
o A unique or less familiar scale
• Timbre
o Unfamiliar instruments, instrumentation, or instrument combinations
o Explore new or less used instrumental techniques9
Questions for Discussion

1. Are there any sources of inspiration you have experienced that
have not been included in this chapter?
2. Do you really need inspiration, or is composition more of a craft in
and of itself?
3. Can creativity be taught?
4. Are some people just more naturally creative, and if so, why?
Exercise
Write three different continuations (one phrase each) to the melody in Exam-
ple 1.1 from the opening of Beethoven’s “Sonata for Piano, Op. 101.” After
you have finished your conclusions, compare your conclusions with Beetho-
ven’s (you can find a score and recording on the International Music Score
Library Project (IMSLP) website).
INSPIRATION AND CREATIVITY 5
EXAMPLE 1.1
Write three different continuations of four chords each to the chord pro-
gression in Example 1.2 (from the opening of J.S. Bach’s “Chorale No. 191
Von Gott will ich nicht lassen”). After you have finished all three, compare
yours with Bach’s (again, available from IMSLP).
EXAMPLE 1.2
Finally, choose your favorite continuation of either Example 1.1 or Exam-

ple 1.2 and write a second phrase to make a small piece either for a single line
instrument (Example 1.1) or piano (Example 1.2).
Things to Know from Chapter 1

• Regular practice and time spent composing are necessary.
• Inspiration can come from many diferent sources.
• Studying the techniques of composition will help you compose.
• Find your best time for composition and schedule it.
• Plan out your music in advance.
• Composing the frst full measure frst is like building the front door
of a house frst.
Resources for further study can be found in Chapter 16, by chapter title.
Notes
1. Tchaikovsky in a letter to his nephew (9 February 1893).
2. Franken, Robert. 1998. Human Motivation. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole Pub-
lishing Co., p. 396.
3. Young, Gregory 2018 [2017]. “Creative Interdisciplinarity in the Arts” book chap-
ter, in Exploring, Experiencing and Envisioning Integration in U.S. Arts Education,
ed. Nancy Hensel, London, England: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 19.
4. Ibid., p. 19.
5. Ibid., p. 19.
6. New Yorker, June 25, 2018 “Leonard Bernstein through his Daughter’s Eyes, by
David Denby.
7. Manier, Jeremy. “Exploring the Sources of Musical Creativity.” Accessed July 11,
2021. www.uchicago.edu/features/exploring_the_sources_of_musical_creativity/
8. Brantingham,Jon.AccessedJuly11,2021.www.artofcomposing.com/music-composing-
process
9. Leach, Ryan.
2 UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES
“The most exciting rhythms seem unexpected and complex, the most beauti-
ful melodies simple and inevitable.”1
– W.H. Auden
One of the primary goals when creating an original composition is to create

something new. Pushing boundaries and trying new things are a natural part of
the process. There are some principles, though, that apply almost universally.
Repetition can be a tool that unites a piece, but too much can bore the audi-
ence. Predictability can be satisfying in certain contexts, but surprises are what
make music interesting. Too much variety without unifying elements can become
confusing to the ear. The balance between unity and variety and other types of
universal principles helps give a piece shape, context, flow, and meaning. As
subjective as music is, composition mentors can rely on some universal princi-
ples such as unity and variety, lack of predictability, whether the music holds our
interest, etc. Sometimes thinking about what not to do is as valuable as the oppo-
site. The following are class responses when asked things to avoid in an original
composition. In the blank spaces, add anything you think might be missing:
TABLE 2.1
too repetitive shallow too much variety wandering poor harmony
no passion unplayable no direction boring no shape
plagiarized too long too short not cohesive poor melodies
too simple predictable jumbled, chaotic too complex, background,

unnecessarily wallpaper
poor form
Dos and Don’ts

from Rowy van Hest2 (Used by permission)
a. Use contrary motion if possible. Although similar motion can sound

good, don’t use it all the time. When possible, have one line descend if
the other ascends.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-2
b. Do not be afraid to use dissonances. Some people think dissonances

were invented in the 20th century, but they were not. They were
already around in the Renaissance. If you only write consonant inter-
vals, your composition might be limited.
c. Do not be afraid to use consonances. Some people think consonances
are not done in the 21st century, but they are. If you only write disso-
nant intervals, your composition might not be accessible to audiences.
d. Beware of parallel fifths and octaves. They can sound nice, but begin-
ners tend to use them by accident, especially when they are writing
chords.
e. In general, it’s best to keep the most exciting part of your composition
towards the end. Don’t give it all away in the beginning.
f. Write the music you would like to hear yourself. Never ever write
music you think someone else would like to hear, especially not critics.
Trying to be modern is so old fashioned.
g. Do not work too long on a composition at one time. Take some dis-
tance every now and then. Go out for a walk, read a book, or go to
bed. On the other hand, there is a direct correlation between time
spent and music composed.
h. It takes a brave composer to write in the key of C major. You can’t use
a lot of flats and sharps to hide a lack of ideas.
i. Write music on a regular basis. Do not think you always have to feel
inspired. Play some music first if you have no idea what to write.
j. It is not the task of a performer to make something beautiful out of a
pile of rubbish. Do your best on the score and do not rely on a miracle.
Make sure to include important details such as dynamics, articulations,
etc.
k. Do not think you can get away with a bad music score by calling it an
abstract or funny work. You’re only going to fool yourself. Compose
with authenticity and purpose.
l. It is best to be alone when composing. Eliminate distractions but don’t
be afraid to seek input.
m. Do not write music in a hurry. You have to feel relaxed. Take your time
but meet your deadlines.
n. Be in contact with your inner self when you write music. It will make
your music special to others.
o. Learn to differentiate between good and bad advice, no matter where
it comes from.
p. Do not think that your work always has to be original. New ideas
derive from old ones. Learn to master old techniques, practice them,
and develop yourself as a composer.
q. Don’t get angry if no one wants to play your work. Continue to study
and compose and build your network with performers.
r. If you always get stuck after a few measures, you should write small
parts first. Write four measures; then take a walk. Write the next four
UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES 9
measures. Read a newspaper. Again, write four measures. And so on

until you think you can write more in one go.
s. Never throw away an old composition. Cherish everything you’ve
made but don’t share it all with people other than your loved ones.
But don’t be afraid to cut out a part that you don’t like and save it for
another day or another composition.
t. A long composition isn’t always better than a short one. A symphony
isn’t always more interesting than a work for solo. You’re not going to
impress trained musicians by making quantity instead of quality.
u. Don’t be afraid your work will resemble the work of a known com-
poser. It will always resemble someone’s work.
v. If there is a part of your composition you really like, repeat it, develop
it, use it upon a return from something else, etc.
w. Have a trusted colleague look at your work on their own and take their
suggestions unemotionally. Learn to accept criticism but also be true to
yourself.
x. Let your music flow; if you are always erasing, it will hinder your prog-
ress. You can always take sections out later and save them for a rainy
day.
y. Don’t be afraid to move on from an idea, go to a different section or a
different piece, and then come back to gain fresh perspective
z. Try to finish ideas and then look at them in their entirety. Too often
people get stuck on a measure stubbornly trying to solve it rather than
working around it.
Just as some performance teachers tell students to make every note mean
something or at least have a role to play, Nadia Boulanger said “Every note
in the music must be necessary and pull its own weight, every part should be
able to stand alone; if you can remove anything without harming the passage
then it doesn’t belong there3.”

1. Does minimalism follow the principle of unity and variety?
2. Does John Cage’s composition 4’33” adhere to these principles?
3. Can you think of any music that has too much variety?
4. What would “maximalism” sound like?
Exercise
Two characteristics of strong musical compositions are the presence of
counterpoint with independence of melodic lines and clear and well-defined
harmonic movement. The most successful melodic lines avoid moving too
far in the same direction, after large leaps move in the opposite direction,
have a high point or climax, and descend to their final pitch. When two or
more melodic lines are present, these events happen at different points in
each line in the interest of independence of the lines.
Play and sing the melodic line in Example 2.1. After you have become
familiar with it, keeping in mind the characteristics listed, write a second line
above it.
EXAMPLE 2.1
Example 2.1 is from the “Air from French Suite II” by J.S. Bach. When
you have finished writing your melodic line, find the Air on the IMSLP web-
site and compare what you wrote with what Bach wrote.
Play and sing the melody in Example 2.2. After you have become familiar
with it, add three other parts to harmonize it. Be sure to create strong har-
monic progressions (that is, progressions that make sense with the melody
and move clearly from one harmony to the next in a logical way). Consider
that some harmonies may remain the same from one beat to the next but will
create a strong harmonic progression by moving from root position to an
inversion or vice versa. You may also create an occasional passing tone in
the bass.
EXAMPLE 2.2
Example 2.2 is the beginning of the third movement of Beethoven’s

“Sonata for Piano, Op. 109.” When you have finished harmonizing the mel-
ody, find “Op. 109 iii” on the IMSLP website and compare what you wrote
with what Beethoven wrote.
UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES 11

• Unity is important so that your piece is cohesive.
• Variety helps prevent boredom and create interest.
• The audience wants to hear your authentic voice.
• Avoid predictability ‘change something the second time.’
• Strive for clarity of texture, form, and line.
Notes
1. Mendelson, Edward, ed. 2008. The Complete Works of W.H. Auden: Prose, Volume
I–III: 1949–1955. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
2. van Hest, Rowy. n.d. “Music, Composition and Theory: What to Do and What Not
to Do.” Accessed July 12, 2021. https://composer.rowy.net/Composers_Do_and_
Dont.html
3. Ward-Steinman, David. 2011. “On Composing: Doing It, Teaching It, Living It.”
Philosophy of Music Education Review 19, no. 1: 5–23. Accessed July 12, 2021.
doi:10.2979/philmusieducrevi.19.1.5.
3 COMPOSITIONAL PROCESS
Getting Started
“There is only one real happiness in life, and that is the happiness of creating.”
– Frederick Delius
Most composers are fairly disciplined about their compositional process and real-
ize that one of the most important factors is time spent composing. Now in the
third decade of the 21st century, we have many options with respect to technol-
ogy in aid of composition, but some of the old-fashioned benefits of composing
at the piano or by ear with pencil and paper still remain. There isn’t a “correct”
way to compose, but one needs to commit to discovering what works best on an
individual basis, honing a useful skill set and finding one’s own voice and style.
Canadian composer Blago Simeonov1 would tell students to go to the
piano and play one note, listen to it, and think about what note they would
like next, hear it in their head, and play it. This is a good exercise for both
the ear and creativity. If the note you hear in your head is not the note that
sounds, you need to work on aural skills, which of course can be done by
repeating this exercise and checking to see if the note you imagined is the
note that sounds. The same can be done with chords, although it is more
difficult.
Another Canadian composer, Andrew MacDonald2, takes the following
approach: “To begin composing, I ask my students to write a little piece con-
sisting of three or four phrases for a single line instrument such as the clarinet.
I discuss a phrase in terms of contour and as a ‘parcel’ of musical thought, 3–4
bars in length, which I liken to a verbal phrase in a sentence. I ask that the stu-
dent delineate one phrase from the next by using a rest between phrases and/
or ending the phrase with a longer note. Each phrase must have its own con-
tour and the piece must have a sense of beginning, middle and end – I leave
that up to the student to determine.”
Starting With a Concept

Whether your composition is inspired by any one of the sources listed in
Chapter 1 or something completely different, it is good to have a concept,
emotion, feeling, or purpose in mind from the outset. Some composition
teachers have students create an abstract drawing that illustrates the concept
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-3
COMPOSITIONAL PROCESS 13
for the piece. (They don’t have to be able to draw well; it’s only for them.) If
you do this you might put captions underneath each section, including possi-
ble keys, texture, harmony, mood, dynamic, instruments, etc.
Or maybe a story would better encapsulate the concept for your piece and
serve as a guide throughout the composition process. Programmatic music has
a story that is made apparent to the audience; absolute music does not, even
though a story might have been used in its composition.
Starting With a Melody

Not every composition has to have a melody, but in general, it is a good idea.
Melody writing is a great exercise for composition students, and if it becomes a
daily routine to write at least one melody, then statistically, it is likely to result
in at least some good melodies. Several universal principles to good melody
writing are outlined in Chapter 2. Think of melodies that you like from exist-
ing repertoire and figure out why you like them. Many students write short,
symmetrical melodies and don’t expand on their potential. For example, the
first part of the melody can end with a half-cadence (like a question or anteced-
ent phrase) and the second part could come to more of a resolution (like an
answer or consequent phrase). Boulanger’s approach to composition pedagogy
was perhaps more horizontal or linear than vertical or harmonic. Line is, at
least initially, more important than harmony, so lines are to be worked out
first. The vertical details come later, and these are then subject to revision and
change. In this way, a sense of harmonic flow is established in a piece.3
Exercise
Imagine a three-note melody in your head and then sing it. This can be done
alone or in a class setting where everyone takes turns singing a melody.
Stepwise motion is easier to sing, and the three-note melody can be simple.
Just the process of imagining and then generating melodies will help build
aural skills. Listen to the opening of Rachmaninov’s “Piano Concerto No. 3,”
which illustrates that some melodies are very simple and yet can be used to
generate complex pieces.
Exercise
Start by writing two major, two minor, and two atonal melodies – just to get
in the habit of getting them down on paper. Remember that starting small is a
good way to not be overwhelmed, especially if the idea of composing a piece
for a public concert seems daunting.
Starting With a Chord Progression

Harmonic progressions can be arrived at through noodling at the piano, gui-
tar, or your instrument of choice and/or using your ear and theory training
to discover a particular series of chords. These could be drafted as broken or
solid chords and serve as a foundation for further elaboration. Using a chord
progression to write various musical treatments, like a canon or chaconne, is
a worthwhile exercise.
Starting With a Form

If one looks at the sketch of Beethoven’s “Pastoral Symphony (No. 6)” in the
British Museum in London, one can see that he had the form in mind from the
outset, with fragments of melody placed in particular spots with large blank
spaces in between. This approach helps the composer with the proportion-
ality of the form and is a bit like pouring the foundation for a house instead
of building it completely from the front door to the back door. Many com-
position students fall into the trap of completing the first eight bars without
enough thought to the rest of the piece.
Starting With a Rhythm

Some compositions, such as Steve Reich’s “Music for Pieces of Wood,” are
composed only of rhythms, albeit quite complex and layered ones. Most
compositions, however, use rhythm in combination with many other musical
elements, and some, like Bach’s famous chorales, have very little rhythmic
interest, focusing instead on exquisite part writing. Exercises are included at
the end of this chapter that explore the use of rhythm in composition.
Starting With a Tone Row

In a tone row, all 12 notes of the chromatic scale are used before repeating
any one of them. This creates the possibility for a different kind of motivic
development that is not reliant on a central melodic idea, and more broadly,
a formal development that is not dictated by key areas. One can generate
permutations from the primary tone row by means of retrograde, inversion,
and retrograde inversion. If strict serialism is perceived as too structured, the
same ideas can be used more freely, with non-strict serialism or pantonality.
See Chapter 9 for more detailed information.
Starting With Lyrics

The text that a singer declaims often serves as both inspiration and a guide
throughout the composition of a song. It is imperative that when using lyrics,
the composer becomes thoroughly familiar with the rhythm of the words,
so that they sound natural and not awkward when set to music. Saying the
words out loud over and over, varying the tempo, in speech and then with
pitch inflection,
will help melodic ideas sound natural, and the words will be
easy to understand. Otherwise, words or syllables like “of ” or “the” that are
unaccented when spoken can be made too prominent. Read more about this
in Chapter 7 – Lyrics, Prosody, Singers.
Collaborative Composition
At a music major seminar at Montana State University (MSU), I (Young) brought
my clarinet, a didgeridoo player (science professor), and a student djembe
player up on stage, and we asked the audience for ideas for a new composition.
After demonstrating the traditional possibilities on each instrument, the players
asked the music majors in the audience for ideas for innovative sound-mak-
ing, themes and structures for a composition, ways to start the piece, etc. The
result was a four-movement sketch with spontaneous working titles: “I. Sunrise
Sounds,” “II. The Wild Jungle,” “III. Conflict,” and “IV. Sunset Serenity.” Some
of the unexpected student ideas were singing into the clarinet while playing,
primitive screams into the bottom of the djembe, rubbing the didgeridoo ribs
with a stick, and other wild ideas that have yet to be refined.
Not only was
this a fun way to spend an hour with the music majors, but it also gave them
an insight into uninhibited creativity and gave me some great compositional
ideas.4 The work ended up on a recital titled “The Clarinet in Rare Contexts.”
Innovative Notations
Beyond the standard notations, other techniques have been used since c. 1900
to better inform the performer of the composer’s intent. These are important
to have in your toolbox as a young composer, and they allow the freedom to
more accurately express the music that you hear in your head. Example 3.1
shows a few of them:
EXAMPLE 3.1
a. Slowing down
b. Speeding up
c. Highest pitch possible
d. Approximate pitch
e. Vocalize pitch
f. Improvise on the given pitches
g. Specified duration

If you want to see extreme examples, see Jimmy Stamp’s article in the Smith-
sonian Magazine titled “51/2 Examples of Experimental Music Notation.”5
Writer’s Block
Often students come to their lesson and say, “well, I didn’t get much done this
week.” The two most common reasons for this are 1) they were overwhelmed
by other commitments, homework, or part-time jobs, and 2) they felt like
nothing they started to write sounded good. This latter reason is often referred
to in the writing world as writers’ block. In discussing this with a colleague
about voice lessons, the conversation turned to how we get flow started. If
you as a student feel pressured to produce something really good, whether
that pressure comes from the teacher or yourself, it could limit the flow of the
writing. One solution is to improvise with another person, like a jam session.
There are many ways to do this, depending on what instruments you are using.
For example, a bass clarinet student and I (Young, on piano) composed a piece
for the National Conference on Undergraduate Research in 2020 using the
following method. I would play an interesting chord on the piano, and she
would improvise and see where it led us. When we found something we liked,
we wrote it down. Then we started talking about sections, form, shape, cli-
max, and harmony. We kept the process going until we had a rough footprint
of the piece. From there we kept refining it, using computer music notation
and rehearsing until the final version was ready for performance. Having us
both involved took the pressure off her, as she felt intimidated at first.
Other Ideas
MSU Professor Laurel Yost likes to imagine the moment in a concert right
before the first note, wondering, “How is this piece going to start?” It’s a mag-
ical moment, and the answer could be anything from quiet string harmonics
to a loud brass fanfare or a pizzicato chorus. Thinking about the importance
of this moment and how your piece is going to start can be an important step.
Another important perspective might be gained by asking the question “What
will my listeners say about the composition after the concert when talking
to others – “You should have heard this piece by __________; it sounded
____________________________!”6
Efective Work Habits

Although successful composition is often the result of inspiration, it can be
important to foster that inspiration in as many ways as possible.
Whether you work on your music in a practice room or in a quiet room

at home, try to do your work always in the same place.
Whether you prefer to work in the morning or afternoon or evening,
find the best time for yourself and try to compose at the same time every
day. By doing that, you are more likely to be actively composing when
inspiration strikes!
Work on your composing regularly. One hour spent three or more days
a week can be much more effective than three hours spent once a week.
Try to write something every time you sit down to work. If you’re not
quite happy with what you wrote, you can always change it next time.
Keep in mind that not everything you write needs to be a masterpiece.

1. What can I do if I’m still stuck, nothing sounds good, and I don’t
have anywhere to start?
2. Are certain methods better than others in starting a composition?
3. How important is it to write down what you make up?
4. What other technologies can help with the initial process of com-
posing?
Exercise
Bring in an existing melody that you like, having decided specifically why
you like it. Where is the climax, which particular intervals do you like, or is it
the general contour or rhythm? Now try writing a melody using that specific
thing you liked but in your own way.
Exercise
Write a melody with the following limitations: use only three different inter-
vals of your choice and never more than two of the same intervals in a row.
Always sing your melodies. Nadia Boulanger would ask her composition stu-
dents to sing different lines of a composition, and most professors we know
understand the importance of aural skills.7
Exercise
Try writing a small phrase or two, with harmony, on paper at the piano or
an instrument of your choice. Then write another different composition of
the same approximate size using computer notation from the outset and
see if there are noticeable differences in the result. I find that I (Young)
usually get better results starting at the piano with a pencil and manuscript
paper; I then take what I have written and continue working on it at the
computer.
Exercise
For the Chopin “Prelude Opus 28 #4,” play through the chords and listen to
a recording of the whole piece. Then try to come up with your own “kaleido-
scopic harmony,” changing one note at a time to discover the kind of compos-
ing Chopin did. What exactly is Chopin doing harmonically in this excerpt?
Note the subtle chromatic shifts. Note also that many of his chords are also
functional, not just linear.
EXAMPLE 3.2

• Find what method of composition works best for you.
• Observe the results that come from diferent methods.
• Discipline almost always pays of in terms of productivity.
• The more music you have sketched, the more advice your teacher
can give you.
Notes
1. Simeonov, Blago, interview by Gregory Young. 2002. Conversation with Blago Sim-
eonov.
2. MacDonald,
Andrew, interviews by Gregory Young. 2002–2020. Conversations

with Andrew MacDonald.
3. Ward-Steinman, David. 2011. “On Composing: Doing It, Teaching It, Living It.”
Philosophy of Music Education Review 19, no. 1: 5–23. Accessed July 5, 2021.
doi:10.2979/philmusieducrevi.19.1.5.
4. Young, Gregory, Gary W. Don, and Alan Rieck. 2017. “A Research-Infused Under-
graduate Music Curriculum.” ERIC 1, no. 1: 70–73.
5. Stamp, Jimmy. 2013. “51/2 Examples of Experimental Music Notation”.
Accessed July 5, 2021. www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/5-12-examples-of-
experimental-music-notation-92223646/
6. Yost, Laurel, interview by Gregory Young. 2018. Conversation with Laurel Yost.
7. Shrude, Marilyn. 2008. “Teaching Composition in Twenty-First-Century America:
A Conversation with Samuel Adler.” American Music 26, no. 2: 223–245. Accessed
June 30, 2021. doi:10.2307/40071704.
4 DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL IDEAS
“Without craftsmanship, inspiration is a mere reed shaken in the wind.”

– Johannes Brahms (letter to his friend, Richard
Heuberger)
“Consciously used, the motive should produce unity, relationship, coher-

ence, logic, comprehension and fluency.”
– Arnold Schoenberg, (Fundamentals of Musical
Composition)1
Sometimes the greatest musical ideas come from the simplest of motives. The
opening of Beethoven’s “Symphony No. 5” is an obvious example. The theme
from Jaws is another example that also consists of only two different notes.
Entire pieces have been written based on a single theme, such as “Variations
on a Theme” by Haydn. A single theme, by means of inversion, diminution,
augmentation, retrograde, etc., can be rewritten in endless ways. Many stu-
dents are drawn to creating a string of new ideas and missing the value of
developing themes. Varying a theme can create a reference point that helps tie
a piece together, creating a familiar pillar for the listening ear. These are the
moments that audiences will remember.
There are countless examples in the repertoire of pieces based on fairly
simple melodic motives or upon a repeating bass line, such as “Canon in D”
by Johann Pachelbel. Young composition students often do the opposite, com-
posing an idea, followed by a new idea, another one, etc. until the compo-
sition resembles a patchwork quilt. Part of the craft of composition involves
making the most of an idea using developmental techniques instead of just
presenting the idea and moving on. It is important to learn about these possi-
bilities so you have a toolkit when the need arises.
The following are responses from a composition class about motivic devel-
opment possibilities. Fill in the blank boxes with other ideas.
TABLE 4.1
sequence inversion (real or retrograde truncation elongation
(diatonic, real) tonal)
repetition mode change interval imitation stretto
alteration
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-4
DEVELOPMENT OF MUSICAL IDEAS 21
change rhythm change embellish alter harmony alter texture

instruments
dynamics tempo accompaniment diminution augmentation
silent breaks
EXAMPLE 4.1
Exercise
Ask a classmate for or think of a random five-note melody. Write out as
many possible versions of that melody using the chart and example
provided.
Montana State University student Lauren Plant suggested that a
bingo game could be made with bingo cards made from this
chart. Starting with a motive, the caller would play examples
for everyone to identify and fill their bingo cards for prizes.
The following exercises are from Professor Heather Gilligan (used by
permission) of Keene State University:
Augmentation
1. Augment the following rhythm by doubling each note value.
EXAMPLE 4.2
2. Augment the following rhythm by adding an eighth-note value to

each given note. This excerpt contains no time signature. Your answer
should follow suit by avoiding the use of a time signature.
EXAMPLE 4.3
3. Diminish the following rhythm by halving each note value.
EXAMPLE 4.4
4. Diminish the following rhythm by making each note shorter than its
original value. You do not need to maintain the same time ratios between
notes. However, the shortest notes must remain the shortest, while the
longest notes must remain the longest. Avoid the use of a time signature.
EXAMPLE 4.5
5. Transpose the following melody to any pitch level. Make sure that
your intervallic material stays the same.
EXAMPLE 4.6
6. Invert the following melody around the first and last note, C. Spell-
ings do not matter.
EXAMPLE 4.7
7. Retrograde the following melody by presenting it backwards. Pitches

and rhythms must remain the same.
EXAMPLE 4.8
8. Apply two or more compositional operations to the following mel-

ody. Avoid the use of a time signature. In the space below the melody,
please list the operations that you used.
EXAMPLE 4.9
Exercise
1. Write a short motive that is rhythmically interesting and that uses
notes outside of a typical major or minor scale. Consider that you are
writing for flute, so your notes should be high in the treble clef. You
may include a time signature and bar lines if necessary.
2. Augment your original motive in a way that is interesting to you.
3. Diminish your original motive in a way that is interesting to you.
4. Using the compositional operations of augmentation, diminution, trans-
position, inversion, and retrograde, come up with three different forms of
your motive. You may use different operations each time but always use
two or more operations. State which operations you have used in each case.
5. On a separate sheet of staff paper, write down your original motive
and then follow these steps:
a. Write down your original motive. As you do so, decide whether
you want to keep it as you first wrote it or incorporate changes so
that you alter it in some way.
b. Expand on your motive in some way by writing more music after
it. Think about compositional choices as you’re doing this. How
will you make your passage longer? Will you expand the phrase
you’ve already written so that it’s one longer phrase? Will you
write a new phrase or phrases? Will the new phrase(s) be the same
length as your original phrase? (You don’t need to answer these
questions in writing; they are suggestions for what to think about
as you’re expanding your original motive.)
Exercise
Examine Menuetto I from the “G Major Cello Suite” by J.S. Bach2. Identify and
describe the two motives used in mm. 1–2 and mm. 5–6. How are these motives
transformed in mm. 7–8? Where do these motives appear in mm. 9–24?
EXAMPLE 4.10
In Menuetto II from the “G Major Suite,” describe the two motives used
at the beginning. How does Bach continue in mm. 4–8? How are the motives
used in mm. 9–24? Describe the relationship between the first motive in m. 1
and the motive in mm. 13–14.
EXAMPLE 4.11
Using the motivic procedures from either Menuetto I or Menuetto II, write
your own Menuetto for either solo cello or solo violin.
One aspect of composition that is sometimes overlooked is the use of silence.
four notes of Beethoven’s “Symphony No. 5” without a break
Imagine the first
before the next four notes! Can you think of musical examples that use silence to
enhance the musical drama? John Cage is famous for taking silence to the extreme,
in his 1952 composition 4’33” that consists entirely of silence. Of course, this was
an attempt to encourage all listeners to realize that there are sounds all around us.
Pauses for dramatic effect are common in music. The silence that occurs before
movement of Tchaikovsky’s “Piano
the Allegro con spirito section of the first
Concerto No. 1” (m. 107) helps the ensuing music seem more exciting. And sing-
ers or instrumentalists need to breathe, so silence is often written into the music
by the composer. Miles Davis used silence extensively in his jazz improvisations
and famously said: “In music, silence is more important than sound.”3

1. What are the most common ways to develop musical ideas?
2. Historically, have these methods changed over time?
3. Can you invent a new method? How about a palindrome?  Is this
really a new method?

• There are many ways to develop a motive and get more music from
it.
• Augmentation, diminution, retrograde, inversion, truncation, rhyth-
mic and/or intervallic alteration, elongation, etc. can expand your
ideas.
• Writing these diferent versions out can expand the possibilities.
• A motive is usually shorter than a theme or melody.
• A short motive is likely to provide more opportunities for develop-
ment.
• A theme or melody can spin of several motives.
Notes
1. Schoenberg, Arnold, Gerald Strang, and Leonard Stein. 1970. Fundamentals of
Musical Composition. London: Faber.
2. Bach, Johann Sebastian. “Suite for Cello in G Major.” Accessed July 9, 2021.
https://ks4.imslp.net/files/imglnks/usimg/d/d3/IMSLP70851-PMLP04291-Bach_-_
Cello_Suite_No1_in_G_(Becker_Peters).pdf
3. Davis, Miles. n.d. “Citatis.” Accessed July 9, 2021. https://citatis.com/
a25768/27e5e6/
5 BUILDING UPON PRIOR MUSIC
Plagiarism, Quotes, Techniques
“In order to compose, all you have to do is remember a tune that nobody else
has thought of.”1
– Robert Schumann
Borrowing ideas from existing music is a tool that composers often use, either
directly or indirectly, when creating new music. One of the most common
inspirations for composers is pre-existing music. There is nothing wrong with
this unless it involves blatant, uncited plagiarism. Composers in modern soci-
ety have the benefit of protection from intellectual theft. It’s important to
study, respect, and feed off existing music while avoiding plagiarism. A com-
poser seeks to find something new and great, but it’s impossible to know what
great art is without being exposed to it.
Using existing music as inspiration and guide may seem like copying,
stealing, paraphrasing, etc. But really what it is, metaphorically, is standing
on the shoulders of the composers who came before. Many of the composi-
tional practices we use today come from the Renaissance, Baroque, Classical,
Romantic, or later periods.
Often, students will think they have plagiarized from a certain composer,
but truly, in a court of law, their music would likely not pass the test for hav-
ing been plagiarized. A student says, “I think my music sounds too much like
Bach,” and the composition teacher thinks “I wish your music sounded more
like Bach.” Others have pondered, “Has all the good music already been writ-
ten?” or “Will we run out of combinations of notes?” to which the answer to
both is “no.”
While writer-in-residence for the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra, Ricky
O’Bannon wrote an article titled “When Does Homage Become Plagiarism?”
In it, he mentions the questioning of this topic by Mark Swed, a Los Angeles
Times classical commentator. “So-called creative thievery isn’t just the privi-
lege of pop musicians; it is the God-given right of all musicians and the very
basis of Western music,” Swed wrote. “Music was born as an art of absorp-
tion.” You would be hard put to find a great composer who didn’t use what
came before, and the more progressive the composer, the bigger the bandit. In
the grand scheme of music history, copyright law is fairly new. The question
Swed and others raise is if current hyper-litigious standards were applied, how
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-5
much great music would we have missed from composers like Bach who bor-
rowed and reworked ideas by Vivaldi? And if the regular plagiarism litigation
of the pop world akin to the “Blurred Lines” case finds its way to the classical
realm, how damaging could it be for the art form?
Classical music historians often describe this borrowing not as misap-
propriation but as homage, in which one composer uses music of another
almost with an appreciative nod to the work of their peer or predeces-
sor. Grieg borrowed from Mozart, Strauss from Beethoven, and Stravinsky
from Schubert. “I don’t think homage versus misappropriation is the choice
composers were making,” said Hank Reynolds. “In most cases, they were
drawing from what was considered to be the public domain and making no
pretense about it. It’s a mistake to judge them under a retroactive applica-
tion of modern law.”2
A concert poster for the Syrene Saxofoonkwartet (used by permission)
describes an interesting example of a concert based on the adaptation of a
previously composed work: “The cornerstone of their all-saxophone program
is Handel’s Water Music. Originally composed as an orchestral piece for King
George I as he rode down the River Thames, the Dutch group gives the work
a modern twist. ‘We try to bring the music to the now by playing it on modern
instruments and also to incorporate new compositions,’ ” says soprano saxo-
phone player Femke IJlstra.
“They’ll intersperse Handel’s music with a commission from Dutch com-
poser Celia Swart. ‘It’s four improvisations, and you have the feeling that
you’re underwater. So, everything is very slow, and it has a very nice contrast
with (Water Music).’ The water theme comes naturally. ‘Because we are from
Holland, we are already fighting against the water or living with water for
centuries,’ explains Femke.”3
Two interesting class sessions would be 1) a discussion of the elements
of Impressionistic music and then have students come up to the piano and
demonstrate them, and 2) all students take turns composing at the piano
using these elements in their chosen order and in combinations. Although
this may seem difficult and students might feel a little pressure, it’s not
that hard, partly because the elements of Impressionistic music are easy to
replicate. For example, you can use half-diminished 7th chords, chords of
omission, parallel harmonies, skyscraper chords (11ths and 13ths), filigree,
irregular groupings of notes, sonorité, extreme registers, and lack of formal
structure (stream-of-consciousness form). These elements can be found in
Chapter 8.

1. Is it best to completely avoid borrowing ideas from other music?
2. Why do famous composers borrow tunes from other music?
BUILDING UPON PRIOR MUSIC 29
Exercise
Composers use passages of each other’s music in a variety of ways,
sometimes as themes for a set of variations and sometimes, especially
with well-known passages, to make a point or as an allusion. Example
5.1 is the famous opening of the Prelude to Richard Wagner’s opera,
Tristan und Isolde.4 Play this passage and sing the top line.
EXAMPLE 5.1
Example 5.2 is a passage from Claude Debussy’s “Golliwog’s Cakewalk”

from The Children’s Corner (used by permission).5 Note Debussy’s
quotation of Wagner’s passage. How has Debussy framed this pas-
sage? How do you think he wants you to hear it?
EXAMPLE 5.2
Exercise
Examine No. 1 of “Four Old Tunes” from Fifteen Hungarian Peasant
Songs by Béla Bartok.6 How has Bartok reimagined this song for solo
piano? What device does he use in the piano to suggest a folk instrument?
What differs in the two statements of the tune? How does he articulate the
end of each?
EXAMPLE 5.3
Exercise
Write a piece for piano solo using No. 1 from “Four Old Tunes” as a model.
BUILDING UPON PRIOR MUSIC 31

• It’s okay to use a folksong or other thematic material as long as you
do something original with it.
• Citing the source or title of the original material is important.
• Try to add something of value to the original.
• It is safer to use music that is in public domain.
• Respect the spirit and intent of the original music.
Notes
1. Robert Schumann (Quoted in: Dictionary of Humorous Quotations, Evan Esar
(ed.), 1949, p. 156.
2. O’Bannon, Ricky. 2015. “When Does Homage Become Plagiarism.” Accessed
July 9, 2021. www.bsomusic.org/stories/when-does-homage-become-plagiarism.
aspx
3. Femke, Ijlstra. 2019. Accessed June 4, 2021. www.syrenesaxofoonkwartet.nl
4. Wagner, Richard. Prelude to Tristan und Isolde: IMSLP Creative Commons Attribu-
tions No. 4; Sibley Mirroring Project.
5. Debussy, Claude, and Pierre Gouin. 2006. “Les Éditions Outremontaises.” Accessed
June 21, 2021. https://ks.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/3/3d/IMSLP129861-
WIMA.e443-Debussy_Golliwoggs_Cakewalk.pdf
6. Bartok, Bela. No 1 of Four Old Tunes from Fifteen Hungarian Peasant Songs,
IMSLP Mcroskell, Public Domain.
6 TECHNIQUE, NOTATION
“Don’t only practice your art, but force your way into its secrets.”1
– Ludwig van Beethoven
Taking an idea and notating it so that a human can play or sing it is a skill that
must be developed. Computer music notation is a mixed blessing in this area.
Computers can play any rhythm that you write, but that doesn’t mean humans
can. Music students are also likely to study counterpoint at some point in
their studies. The goal is not to limit or restrict composers but to expose
them to common practices that are pleasing to the ear. Creating an original
melody or chord progression isn’t as simple as playing a series of notes and
hoping it works. Conventions help guide melodic and harmonic ideas so they
make sense and flow naturally. A deep understanding of theory, counterpoint,
instrumentation, orchestration, etc. will prove indispensable for the develop-
ing composer.
At a certain point, every student realizes that there is a considerable
amount of work and craftsmanship that are needed after coming up with
an original melody, chord progression, theme, etc. The techniques involve
counterpoint, harmony, arranging, and orchestration. Notating music so that
the performer can most easily read and play it takes quite a bit of study. Even
some of the best composers have written music that could have been notated
more clearly.
Examples of what not to do can be very helpful and will be examined next.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-6
TECHNIQUE, NOTATION 33
EXAMPLE 6.1
EXAMPLE 6.2
Often, with the help of a computer music notation program, students write music
that computers play perfectly and humans stumble over. The best way to see if the
rhythms are properly notated and playable is to tap or sing them without listening
to them on the computer. If you can do it accurately, your players probably will be
able to as well, as long as there aren’t other stumbling blocks like extreme range or
extreme leaps. Another important consideration for ensemble music is the use of
cue notes. When a player has been resting for several bars, it is important to put in
cues from other parts to ensure the player can come in on time. This is especially
true when composing for a chamber group that will likely not have a conductor.
The time to learn this is now, not at a rehearsal close to the concert date.
Dovetailing is a good practice so that instruments connecting parts aren’t
ending a group of notes, especially fast ones, before the next one starts. It is
usually better that they overlap at least one note. The following are bassoon
parts from Stravinsky’s “Octet for Wind Instruments.”2
EXAMPLE 6.3
Also, be careful about repeated notes or tongued notes at a fast tempo.

Trumpeters and flute
players can double tongue much more easily than clar-
inet players. It might work to have two players alternating repeated tongued
notes, as exemplified
by the Stravinsky example earlier. In general, rhythmic
notation is most easily understood if notated so that the beat is clearly shown.
Exercise
Identify the beat in each rhythmic sketch and indicate the probable meter.
EXAMPLE 6.4
Get to know the nuances of the ranges of different instruments. For exam-
ple, the clarinet can play pianissimo on its lowest note (E, sounding D), but
this is quite difficult
for the oboe and saxophone (the low Bb tends to come
out loudly). Another example is the high range of the cello, where it gets dif-
ficult
above thumb position on the A string. There is no substitute for having
an instrumentalist try out a passage or full part before the final composition is
finished. They might have suggestions that can make it more playable.

Some of the instruments in the woodwind and brass families are transposing
instruments. A good rule of thumb is that when they play a written C, it sounds
the name of the instrument, usually lower than the written note (e.g. when a
written C is played on a B-flat clarinet, it sounds a B-flat,
a major second below).
Luckily, the computer should do that transposition for you, but noticing whether
you are using a transposed or non-transposed score could be important.
And don’t forget about dynamics, articulations, piano pedaling, and string
bowings. Giving performers new parts that consist almost exclusively of notes,
devoid of these items, is like a carpenter giving a customer some bookcases

consisting of unfinished wood, with rough edges and no stain or paint. The
first note of any part must have a dynamic marking. Imagine the difference
between that note being played fortissimo versus pianissimo. And a passage
for woodwinds or brass will be tongued in a plain manner unless articulation
marks such as staccatos, tenutos, or slurs are indicated. See the comparison of
the example, before and after such markings are added. This is an example of
college student Liam Grant’s composition without markings. Figure out what
markings are missing and why they are important to the players and remem-
ber things like tempo, dynamics, bowings, accents and articulation.
EXAMPLE 6.5
Player fatigue is an important consideration, especially for brass players,

whose embouchure can get tired, especially when playing a lot of high notes
without some rest. Both brass and woodwind players, as well as singers, need
places to breathe. And the audience benefits from tone color variety when a
player rests and lets the other tone colors come through.
Here are some of the advantages of using the computer for music notation:
1. You can play back music and take on the role of objective observer.
2. You can cut and paste sections that you want to hear again later in the
piece (as in a rondo).
3. You can transpose and print parts easily, make edits and resize parts,
and save different versions of a piece. You can also save fragments of
music you might use later.
4. Another possibility is overlaying different melodies, rhythms, etc. to
see how they might work together.
5. Articulation marks that need to be put on hundreds of notes can be
done very easily.

1. Does music turn out better if the composer starts with pencil and
paper instead of a computer?
2. Let’s discuss both advantages and disadvantages to using comput-
ers in the process.
3. How do you avoid the temptation of a) letting the computer com-
pose for you and b) writing for a computerized super performer?

• It’s important to notate your ideas so that they are clear and easy to
read.
• Computer programs for music composition can be a useful tool but
can also create notation errors that are confusing to read.
• Your computer may be able to play a passage fawlessly, but human
musicians may not. Always be aware of what is playable and what isn’t.
• Other considerations for ensembles need to be addressed such as
cue notes and dovetailing.
• Remember phrase markings, articulation, string bowings, dynamics, and
piano pedaling to make your musical and expressive intentions clear.
Resources for further study can be found in Chapter 16, by chapter title
Notes
1. Beethoven, Ludwig van, in a letter to aspiring pianist, Emilie-, July 17, 1812.
2. Stravinsky, Igor. 1923. “Octet for Wind Instruments.” Accessed July 12, 2021.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyqLnP0hOnI 4’57”
7 LYRICS, PROSODY, SINGERS
Elizabeth Croy and Cheryl Hart
“I think that the usual concept of setting poetry to music does not accurately
describe the nature of the art-song. It suggests that the object of the song is
the musical enhancement of the poetry. I believe rather that the song is a
musical form which uses the elements of poetry [words, rhythms, images]
as elements of a musical structure. The music should assimilate the poetry
to itself, not be a mere accompaniment or addition to it. Therefore, there is
no reason why the song should be considered impure music, or some kind
of compromise between music and poetry. The song is just a special kind of
music.”1
– Ruth Crane Friedberg
The importance of setting a text to music in a way that sounds natural, facil-
itates the intelligibility of the words, and creates a whole that is greater than
the sum of its parts cannot be underestimated. This aspect of composition
requires an understanding of voice types, human abilities, vowel sounds,
ranges or tessitura, speech rhythms, and imagery. In this chapter, we begin by
exploring voice through art song. Art song consists of poetry that has been
set for voice with instrumental accompaniment. The Friedberg quote above
describes the relationship between poetry and music in the music of John
Duke.
Selecting Text
When composing for voice, typically the text is selected first. Traditionally
composers have used poetry, but contemporary composers have included a
variety of textual sources, including excerpts from books letters, newspa-
pers, online media, speeches, conversations, and any number of other written
sources.
You should begin with a text that is clear in its mood or message, that
has meaning for you, and that is relatively simple. There are online poetry
resources that include the Poetry Foundation (www.poetryfoundation.org),
Public Domain Poetry (ww.public-domain-poetry.com) and Commaful (com-
maful.com). If you are using a contemporary poem, be sure to secure per-
mission for your setting. Works published in the United States before 1926
are generally safely within public domain, but sometimes editions have later
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-7
copyright dates. You can check the status of the text you plan to use at https://
copyright.cornell.edu/publicdomain
Selecting Voice Type

To begin, it will be easiest to write for one voice or unison singers and to write
for singers you know personally as they can provide advice as to what is easy
or difficult for them.
Range Guidelines for the Singing Voice

Ranges of Professional Singers*:
EXAMPLE 7.1
*Drop down the top third for younger or amateur voices.

Choirs and Amateur Singers:
Diminished ranges and moderate tessituras (see later)
Children’s voices
C4-F5 (tessitura within treble staff)
Repetitive patterns, either rhythmically or melodically are easier to learn
and secure good intonation.
Tessitura
The term tessitura is broadly defined as the area in which most of the notes
lie within a given piece. Each individual voice has an optimal area within its
range that is focused and clear. Some voices are more comfortable in a higher
part of the range, while others are more comfortable in the low part of the
range. As a rule, moving up and down the range is less vocally taxing and
improves accessibility for more singers.
Sustaining a low or high tessitura for a long period can be taxing for the
voice. Furthermore, vowels become modified in extreme registers, making it
difficult to understand the text. If the text suggests a high range, periodically
dropping into the middle or low voice can provide a respite while also improv-
ing intelligibility. When starting to write a song, it is best to write for a specific
singer and keep most of the notes in the range that is optimal for that singer.
LYRICS, PROSODY, SINGERS 41
Range Considerations for Text

In extreme registers, try to avoid syllabic settings – one note per syllable – as it
will be difficult to sing, will sound choppy, and will be less intelligible. Melismas,
or multiple notes sung on one syllable with a single high note as a climax, will
produce a better effect in high registers. Good examples can be found in the
music of Mozart or Schubert. See the end of Schubert’s song “Die Wetterfahne.”2
EXAMPLE 7.2
An (intentionally) poor example can be seen in Mozart’s aria, “Come

Scoglio” from his opera Cosi fan Tutte written for a soprano that he intensely
disliked.3
EXAMPLE 7.3
So, what does this have to do with you as a composer? Writing with a basic
understanding of what will produce a beautiful sound and allow for the text
to be understood can have a huge impact on the success of a performance.
Here are some basic considerations to keep in mind:
• Use the natural rhythm of the spoken text to inform the rhythm of the
music. This will make the text more intelligible and will help strong
syllables to land on strong beats.
• Put stressed syllables (and important words) on strong beats, i.e. in 4/4
time, beats 1 and 3.
• Longer and higher notes will provide an accent for strong syllables.
• For intelligibility, keep much of the text in the singer’s middle range
and avoid syllabic settings in the extreme parts of the range.
• Sing through your melody to get an idea of how it feels in your voice.
Are there places to take a breath? Does it feel too fast or slow in certain
parts?
• Avoid staying in one part of the range for extended periods of time to
avoid fatigue and physical tension for the singer.
• Avoid closed vowels ([i], [e], for example) in extreme (high/low) ranges.
In an interview with Eric Funk, he remembered his discussion of fluid meter

structure with Paul Creston, who said “anything can be written in 4/4.” Yes,
and of course hemiola allows one to write something that sounds like it is in a
different meter. We don’t speak in 4/4; shifting meter affords a more natural
outpouring of the words. Responsibility falls on the composer to be fluent
in rhythmic notation, so that the player plays like the composer imagines it
sounding.4
As an example of fluid meter, Eric Funk set the rhythm of Henry the Fifth’s
St. Crispins Day speech by Shakespeare to show his class (used by permission).
EXAMPLE 7.4
Writing traditional poems forces the poet into a meter and rhyme scheme,
whereas such rhythms and rhyme schemes are completely optional now.
Compositional Plan
1. Select a text – a poem or prose text in public domain or an original text
– of your own or one for which you have been granted permission.
2. Decide on voice type – solo voice, soprano, mezzo, contralto, etc;
duet or choir.
3. Decide how the voice part will be accompanied (piano, ensemble, etc.).
4. Read the text aloud several times and focus on the meaning, the general
shape of the text, and what might constitute high points and low points.
5. Identify the general tone, mood, or feeling that the text evokes.
6. Read the text again for natural syllabic stresses. See which important
words stand out and exaggerate them (say the strong syllables louder).
7. Tap a steady pulse and read the text again, discovering which syllables
naturally fall on the pulses.
8. Keeping in mind what the text expresses, decide how you will express
this in your music.
9. Sketch out an approximate rhythm for the text. This can be adjusted
during the compositional process.
10. Begin working with the musical elements discussed in Chapter 3 while
staying true to the meaning of the text.
Compositional Examples
“Let It Be You” from Four Songs on Poems by Sara Teasdale by Eric Funk5
Let it be you who lean above me

On my last day,
Let it be you who shut my eyelids
Forever and aye.
Say a “Goodnight” as you have said it
All of these years,
With the old look, with the old whisper
And without tears.
You will know then all that in silence
You once knew,
Though I have loved, I loved no other
As I loved you.
– Sara Teasdale6
In this lovely setting of Teasdale’s poem, Funk opens the piece with the
voice and gently supports the conversational singing with warm harmonies.
The rhythmic alignment to speech, colorful harmonies, and gentle melodic
movement in the piano part create an intimate sharing of this endearing sen-
timent, available on Spotify.
Note the simple accompaniment, power of pause in the silence, thin tex-
ture to expose the intimacy of the voice, middle voice setting to keep the text
clear and conversational, and brief pauses at the ends of phrases.
“Mother, I Cannot Mind My Wheel” from Nantucket Songs by Ned

Rorem
Mother, I cannot mind my wheel;

My fingers ache, my lips are dry:
Oh! If you felt the pain I feel!
But Oh, who ever felt as I!
No longer could I count him true;

All other men may use deceit;
He always said my eyes were blue,
And often swore my lips were sweet.
Text by Walter Savage Landor7
Here the piano creates the nervous and reckless spinning wheel as the
character is distracted by thoughts of passion. The theme is reminiscent of
Schubert’s famous setting of “Gretchen am Spinnrade” with greater urgency
and loss of control.
Exercise
Sing the following lyrics by DuBose Heyward made famous in a song by
George Gershwin. Purposely use bad prosody to see how important good pros-
ody is and then listen to the original on YouTube. Summertime, And the livin’ is
easy, Fish are jumpin’, And the cotton is high.
Exercise
Find a short text (poem or prose) that has meaning for you and set it for
soprano or tenor and piano.

• Vocal ranges and tessituras are important to consider before
composing.
• Discover the natural rhythm of speech through repetition of the
words aloud.
• Learn how to avoid singer fatigue.
• Learn how to make sure the text is intelligible to the audience.
Notes
1. Friedberg, Ruth Crane. 1963. “The Songs of John Duke.” The NATS Bulletin 9.
2. Schubert, Franz. “Die Wetterfahne.” Accessed July 9, 2021. https://ks4.imslp.net/
files/imglnks/usimg/9/92/IMSLP00414-Schubert_-_Winterreise.pdf
3. Mozart, Wolfgang. “Come Scoglio from Cosi Fan Tutte.” Accessed July 9, 2021.
https://ks.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/2/2e/IMSLP134549-PMLP39835-Mo-
zart_-_Cosi_fan_tutte_PetersVS_rsl1.pdf
4. Funk, Eric, interview by Gregory Young and Athena Carson. 2021. Bozeman, MT.
5. Funk, Eric. Moon’s Ending CD, Croy, Elizabeth and Gosswiller, Julie. 2003. Peak
Recording, Bozeman MT.
6. Teasdale, Sara. 1925. Accessed July 9, 2021. www.lieder.net/lieder/get_text.html?-
TextId=15661
7. Lindor, Walter Savage. 1860. Accessed July 9, 2021. www.lieder.net/lieder/get_text.
html?TextId=9815
8 FORM, TEXTURE, STYLE, AND
HARMONIC LANGUAGE
“Music is ‘significant form,’ and its significance is that of a symbol, a highly

articulated, sensuous object, which by virtue of its dynamic structure can
express the forms of vital experience which language is peculiarly unfit to
convey. Feeling, life, motion and emotion constitute its import.”1
– Susanne Katherina Langer
“The composer’s goal is to engage the listener, to maintain interest and to

increase listener involvement, and then finally to lead back to the normal,
external world in a fulfilling way. We call the experience ‘balanced’ when
the listener feels satisfied with the experience as a whole.”2
– Alan Belkin
Many composers couldn’t imagine beginning a piece without the end in mind.
Others begin right at the start and let the piece unfold naturally. In either case,
form is vitally important. During the ages of Bach and Beethoven, form was
fairly rigid and considered quite necessary. Today form can certainly be freer
but still holds an important place in the compositional process, and there are
many historical forms from which to draw. Consistency of style and harmonic
language is important, and like form, there are many examples that can serve
as starting points. Form provides balance, development, and reference points
that guide a piece and enhance flow. Listeners enjoy a sense of beginning
somewhere, traveling far away, and finding home again. Without form, a com-
position can become a juxtaposition of ideas that lacks direction and flow.
Textures vary across musical time periods and can serve a variety of func-
tions. Form is important to keep in the back of one’s mind while composing,
and sometimes form and texture are related. A fugue, for example, has a contra-
puntal texture that often has a roughly set form, and when the subject, answer,
and countersubject are being written, that form guides the composer further.
The formal terms used to describe texture all refer to the number of voices,
or parts, in the music and the relationships between voices. The complexity
of these relationships determines whether the musical texture is thick or thin,
and generally, how much is “going on.”
As you explore these types of texture, keep in mind that music does not
have to be classified under a single category; many pieces involve multiple tex-
tures. In a single symphony, you may find examples of all three of these tex-
tures at different moments. Many rock and pop songs are “additive,” meaning
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-8
FORM, TEXTURE, STYLE, AND HARMONIC LANGUAGE 47
they start out monophonic and develop into polyphony later on – a perfect
example is Whitney Houston’s ballad “I Will Always Love You.” Here are the
three most common types of texture, from simplest to most complex.
Monophonic
Literally meaning one voice, monophonic texture (monophony) refers to a
single melodic line, though it may be played by one or many instruments.
The voices may be in exact unison or in different octaves, as long as the same
notes and rhythms are played. Non-pitched rhythmic accompaniment may
be present as well. A few examples of monophony include group singing of
simple tunes such as “Happy Birthday” or “The Star-Spangled Banner,” a solo
trumpet playing “Taps,” or someone whistling a song.
EXAMPLE 8.1
Homophonic
Homophonic texture (homophony) is the most common texture in Western
music, both classical and popular. It is defined as having one voice, a melody,
which stands out from background accompaniment. The accompaniment may
be simple chords or a harmony with melodic interest, but in either case, the
main melody must be clearly distinguishable. Homophony can be anything from
a singer accompanied by guitar chords, to compositions by classical composers.
EXAMPLE 8.2
Polyphonic
Polyphonic texture (polyphony or counterpoint) involves multiple melodic
voices, all of equal importance, occurring simultaneously. This complex, dense
texture is typical of Renaissance and baroque music. Keep in mind, though, that
multiple voices does not necessarily mean multiple instruments; polyphonic
music can be played on a single keyboard instrument, stringed instrument, or
guitar. Many examples of polyphony can be found in the music of Bach.
EXAMPLE 8.3
48 FORM, TEXTURE, STYLE, AND HARMONIC LANGUAGE
All rounds, canons, and fugues (in which melodies enter at different times)
are considered imitative polyphony. Free polyphony involves independence of
lines, without limitation, such as in the following episode from J.S. Bach’s The
Well Tempered Clavier, Fugue No. 2 in C minor, BWV 847.
EXAMPLE 8.4
Chorale style is also a texture and can be seen in Bach’s hundreds of cho-
rales or almost any hymn book. It consists of four-part harmony, usually in
quarter notes with eighth notes serving as non-harmonic tones. The rhythm is
steady, and the rate of chord change is normally every beat. They are usually
scored for SATB (soprano, alto, tenor, bass).
While some pieces either have a loosely sketched form or do not follow an
established pattern, form often helps establish proportions, cadences, symme-
try, unity, balance, and other important considerations.
Examples of form that have been used for centuries are outlined below.
A chaconne, or passacaglia, is a type of musical composition in which vari-
ation occurs over a repeated short harmonic progression, often with a fairly
short repetitive bass line. Listen to Bach’s “Chaconne” for violin, from Partita
#2, BWV 1004, which is a famous example.
EXAMPLE 8.5
Exercise
Try writing a canon yourself, and if it helps, you can model it after Johann
Pachelbel’s famous “Canon in D,” which has been used for processional
music at countless weddings.
Two-part and three-part inventions, made famous by J.S. Bach, are nor-
mally in imitative contrapuntal texture, with a form that resembles that of a
fugue. They make great exercises for keyboard students and for composition
students to analyze and replicate. They consist of a short exposition, followed
by a development and often a brief recapitulation. The key difference is that
inventions do not generally contain an answer to the subject in the dominant
key, whereas the fugue does.
Fugues are similar although they are usually three to five voices, and the
subject is imitated by an answer a fifth away while the first voice contains a
countersubject. Write a short, four-voice fugal exposition according to the
following structure (you might have to adjust the answer to the subject so as
to stay in the same key (tonal answer):
EXAMPLE 8.6
Sonata
Sonatas are multi-movement works that start and sometimes end with a move-
ment in what is called sonata form. A combination of homophonic and contra-
puntal techniques, sonata form has a standard structure that is outlined next.
A transition B (closing theme) A transition B (closing theme)

II–(Intro)–II–——EXPOSITION——–IIII—DEVELOPMENT–—(retransition)—I—RECAPITULATION–—II–(coda)–II
[tonic------] [ modulates] [dominant (V)] [modulatory----------] [ tonic] [V pedal] [tonic-------------------------------------]
[or relative (III)]
EXAMPLE 8.7
Minuet and Trio

The minuet and the trio tend to be small ternary structures, like the minuet or
trio movement itself, an ABA’ structure.
EXAMPLE 8.8
Concerto
The three movements of a concerto usually alternate in tempo, or speed, with
the first and third movements using a faster tempo and the second using a
slower tempo.
The first movement of the concerto is usually set at a moderate to fast
tempo. It is also usually the longest movement and uses a variant of the sonata
form. A regular sonata form is built in three sections:
• The exposition, when the main melodies are stated

• The development, when musical ideas are developed
• The recapitulation, when the exposition is restated in the tonic key
However, the first movement of a concerto often uses what is called a double
exposition. This means that the first section of the movement is played twice,
first by the orchestra alone and the second time by the soloist accompanied by
the orchestra. You can see an example of this form here:
II–Exposition 1–|–Exposition 2–|—— development–––—|––

–Recapitulation–—|–Cadenza–|–Coda–II
I V or III I V or III V and modulatory I I64 V I
orchestra solo & orch. solo & orch. orch. (solo) solo orch.
EXAMPLE 8.9
Rondo
In rondo form, a principal section alternates with one or more contrasting
sections. Some think of the rondo as a double decker sandwich or lasagna, and
the principle of unity and variety is easily seen because the A sections provide
the unity, and the contrasting sections provide the variety. Possible patterns
for five-, seven-, and nine-part rondos are ABACA, ABACABA, or ABACAD-
ABA. In the latter case, if you insert a re-transition to lead back to A from each
B section, you have the magical word “ABrACADABrA.”
TABLE 8.1
A B A C A B A
Major I V I IV, vi, i I I I
key
Minor i III, V i iv, VI i i i
key
Styles and Harmonic Language

Throughout history, style and harmonic language evolved from composers inno-
vating upon what came before. There are many examples of composers “break-
ing the rules” and forging new styles and harmonic language. Common examples
include the subito pianos of Beethoven, the parallel harmonies of Debussy and
Ravel, the sudden meter changes of Stravinsky, and the 12-tone rows of Schoen-
berg. Of course, to break the rules, one has to know the rules, so next are some
examples of how certain music, which was once new, was composed.
Baroque music (1600–1750) has been referred to already and is exempli-
fied by the Bach chorales, inventions, fugues, etc. It is largely consonant with
expressive dissonances, is often highly ornamented, and generally follows
fairly strict counterpoint rules (rules derived much later from those analyzing
the music). Different regions had unique stylistic elements, or national style.
The two dominant and contrasting styles were French and Italian. Other
countries mixed and or mimicked elements of each of these to create their
own styles. Listen to Bach’s Goldberg Variations, Corelli’s Concerti Grossi,
and Lully’s Armide overture, for representative samples of the Baroque era.
Classical music (1750–1830) has a lighter, clearer texture than baroque music
and can be less complex. It is mainly homophonic – melody above chordal
accompaniment (but counterpoint by no means is forgotten, especially later in the
period). It also makes use of style galant in the classical period, which was drawn
in opposition to the strictures of the baroque style, emphasizing light elegance in
place of the baroque’s dignified seriousness and impressive grandeur. Variety and
contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before. Variety of keys,
melodies, rhythms, and dynamics (using crescendo, diminuendo, and sforzando),
along with frequent changes of mood and timbre were more commonplace in
the classical period than they had been in the baroque. Melodies tended to be
shorter than those of baroque music, with clear-cut phrases and clearly marked
cadences. The orchestra increased in size and range, the harpsichord continuo fell
out of use, and the woodwinds became a self-contained section. As a solo instru-
ment, the harpsichord was replaced by the piano (or fortepiano). Early piano
music was light in texture, often with Alberti bass accompaniment, but it later
became richer, more sonorous, and more powerful. Importance was given to
instrumental music; the main kinds were sonata, trio, string quartet, symphony,
concerto, serenade, and divertimento. Sonata form developed and became the
most important form. It was used to build the first movement of most large-scale
works but also other movements and single pieces (such as overtures).
Romantic music (1830–1900) has longer, asymmetrical phrases and more
dissonant harmony. Compositions became increasingly expressive and inven-
tive. Expansive symphonies, virtuosic piano music, dramatic operas, and pas-
sionate songs took inspiration from art and literature. Important Romantic
composers include Tchaikovsky, Brahms, Mahler, and Verdi.
20th Century French

Impressionism (Debussy, Ravel, and others, 1870–1920)
The ingredients can be found in impressionistic music, sometimes isolated
but often in combination.
1. Whole-tone scale – C, D, E, F#, G#, A# or Db, Eb, F, G, A, B

2. Half-diminished seventh chords (e.g. B,D,F,A)
3. Parallel harmonies – (e.g. C-E-G#, D-F#-A#, E-G#-B#)
4. “Skyscraper” chords (9ths, 11ths, 13ths)
5. Pentatonic scales
6. Filigree
7. Sonorité
8. Irregular groupings of notes (5, 7, 9, 11 etc.)
9. Stream of consciousness form

10. Chords of omission
11. Extreme registers
Experiment at the piano or other instrument with these ingredients, impro-

vising until you get comfortable with all, and try them in combinations, such
as an irregular grouping of notes from the pentatonic scale in an extreme reg-
ister. Find the combinations you like best and try to use them in a composition
or fragment.
Neoclassical music replicated the forms and structures of the classical
period but with more dissonant harmonies. Neoclassicism in music was a
20th century development, particularly popular in the period between the
two World Wars, in which composers drew inspiration from music of the
18th century. Some of the inspiring canon was drawn as much from the
Baroque period as the Classical period – for this reason, music which draws
influence specifically from the Baroque is sometimes termed neo-baroque.
“Two significant composers led the development of neoclassical music: in
France, Igor Stravinsky proceeding from the influence of Erik Satie, and in
Germany, Paul Hindemith proceeding from the ‘New Objectivism’ of Fer-
ruccio Busoni.”3 Prokofiev’s Classical Symphony is a neoclassical work, and
Ancient Airs & Dances by Ottorino Respighi is an example of neo-Baroque
music.
Dodecaphony emerged as a reaction to Romantic music and is intended
to use all 12 notes in a row, without a tonal center. Also known as “serial-
ism,” this technique was developed by Arnold Schoenberg and taken up by his
pupils Anton Webern and Alban Berg (2nd Viennese School). It was further
developed by Milton Babbitt, who used these serial techniques for many other
musical elements, including dynamics, instruments, registers, etc.

1. Is form not as important in the 21st century?
2. Is it possible to create a new form that will catch on?
3. How can you use compositional elements of past eras in your
music?
Exercise
Examine the passage from “Dido’s Lament” from the opera Dido and Aeneas
by Henry Purcell. Notice that one of the lines repeats several times. Where
does this repetition occur? Does it help to organize the rest of the music? If
so, how?
EXAMPLE 8.10
Write a short piece using Purcell’s bass in either a major or minor key.
Exercise
Write out the whole tone scale on manuscript paper or computer notation
in its two versions provided above. Analyze the excerpt from the A section
of Debussy’s “Voiles”4 below and write your own short excerpt using that
scale.
EXAMPLE 8.11
Now analyze the B section excerpt to figure out what scale is being used
and write a short excerpt using that scale:
EXAMPLE 8.12

• Various textures can be used; multiple textures can be used in one
movement or piece.
• Texture is sometimes related to form but not always.
• Considering the form of a work is an important frst step in compos-
ing because it is a way to organize your ideas and develop them in a
compelling manner.
• Each era of music has defning characteristics, from which composers
today can draw inspiration.
Notes
Langer,
1. Susanne Katherina. 1953. Feeling
and Form. New York, NY: Charles Scrib-
ner’s Sons, p. 42.
2. Belkin, Alan. “A Practical Guide to Music Composition.” Accessed July 11, 2021.
www.dolmetsch.com/form.pdf
3. Neoclassical Music. n.d. “New World Encyclopedia.” Accessed July 11, 2021. www.
newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Neoclassical_Music
4. Debussy, Claude. “Preludes, Book 1, No. II. Voilles.” Accessed July 11, 2021.
https://ks4.imslp.net/files/imglnks/usimg/8/87/IMSLP59704-PMLP02394-Debussy-

-Preludes-Livre1--Schirmer-Ed--1stHalf.pdf
9 WRITING ATONAL AND 12-TONE
MUSIC
“In your works, you have realized what I, albeit in uncertain form, have
so greatly longed for in music. The independent progress through their own
destinies, the independent life of the individual voices in your compositions,
is exactly what I am trying to find in my painting.”1
– Wassily Kandinsky (in a letter to Schoenberg)
“ . . . if it is art, it is not for all, and if it is for all, it is not art.”2

– Arnold Schoenberg
Atonal and 12-tone music have been two of the most important developments
of the 20th and 21st centuries. Arising from the increasing chromaticism of
late 19th century music, these approaches characterized the music of com-
poser Arnold Schoenberg and his students Alban Berg and Anton Webern, all
three composers known collectively as the Second Viennese School. The influ-
ence of the Second Viennese School spread rapidly and joined impressionism
and neo-classicism as primary trends in the 20th century. Here we focus on
atonal and 12-tone techniques as they provide a good context for continuing
the study of harmony and counterpoint.
Toward the end of the 19th century, as the music that composers were writ-
ing became increasingly chromatic, tonal functions began to be more limited,
and intervallic structure became more important in the direction and unfold-
ing of a piece. As composers sought to have unique voices, they increasingly
left tonality behind in favor of other principles of organization. Combining
intervals into groups gave rise to a new way to structure music, with intervallic
groups (also called sets) becoming the primary harmonic element. Although
there were other alternatives to tonal composition – modes and collections
used by the impressionist composers, for example, as well as the extended
tonality used by neoclassical composers – atonal composition and later the
12-tone system developed by Arnold Schoenberg became and continue to be
a prominent aesthetic of 20th and 21st century music. While a number of dif-
ferent aesthetics have existed side by side through the 20th and into the 21st
century, some of which will be mentioned at the end of this chapter, atonal
and 12-tone technique provide a most useful arena for the continuation of the
study of harmony and counterpoint, elements that have been a central part of
our studies thus far.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-9
WRITING ATONAL AND 12-TONE MUSIC 57
To begin the study of atonal composition, Dr. Luke Dahn from the Uni-
versity of Utah provides his students with the following exercise (used by
permission).
Composition Project: Three Inventions
Overview
• These three two-part inventions can be written for two treble
instruments (i.e. flute and clarinet; violin and oboe; etc.) or for piano.
• Guidelines for each invention must be followed strictly, particularly
regarding intervallic requirements, though certain liberties are specified
for each invention.
Avoid harmonic unisons and octaves, if at all possible. If a harmonic uni-

son or octave is unavoidable, find ways of diminishing its importance.
However, unisons may be used and can be very effective at the piece’s
conclusion.
• Each invention’s “subject” is its main theme and should remain con-
sistent throughout the invention (i.e. do not use a second different
theme midway through the piece). Each invention’s “countersubject”
should also remain consistent. “Tonic” refers to its original pitch level;
“Dom.” (dominant) means up a P5 (or down a P4); “Tn” signifies some
assigned tonal or pitch-level. When “Tn” appears in the grid, it is rec-
ommended to use a pitch level not previously used.
Additional Compositional Considerations
As with Bach’s two-part inventions, the episodes of free counterpoint,

when no complete statement of the subject appears, often use frag-
ments of the subject and countersubject. The invention as a form is an
exercise in the efficient use of musical materials – as if the entire piece
emerges out of a single melodic theme or “subject.” However, some
episodes can provide more thematic contrast as well.
• Each invention has a recapitulation (“recap”) when the opening is

restated at its original pitch level. Explore ways of creating a sense of
return by using contrast, particularly tonal contrast, in the episode that
immediately precedes it.
• Consider all non-pitch parameters in shaping the overall form of the
piece. Exploring contrast in non-pitch parameters can be particularly
effective in the episodes, which are more developmental in nature.
• How does one create a sense of cadence in this musical language?
58 WRITING ATONAL AND 12-TONE MUSIC
Invention #1 (M2+P4)
• Use only M2/m7 and P4/P5 intervals melodically and vertically.
• Use 7/8 meter (you may use 2 + 2 + 3 structure, 2 + 3 + 2 or 2 + 3 + 2,
or a combination of these).
• Use the following grid for your invention. You may insert an additional
measure or two in the episodes if necessary.
TABLE 9.1
Mea- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
sure
Voice Sub- Count- S CS Episode – free counterpoint (Si- S Free
#1 ject er-sub- (Dom.) lent) (Tn1) coun-
(ton- ject In- ter-
ic) vert- point
ed
Voice Subject Count- S Episode – free counterpoint S CS Free
#2 (tonic) er-sub- (dom.) (Tn1) in- coun-
ject invert- ter-
verted point
ed
Notes EXPOSITION – “exposes musi- . . . leads to a cadence Inverted S at a new
cal material preparing S in m. 9 pitch level
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Free CS S Episode – free S (ton- CS Episode – free counter- Ca-
coun- (Tn2) counterpoint ic) point dence
ter- to
point tonic
Free S CS Episode – free CS S (ton- Episode – free counter- Ca-
coun- (Tn2) counterpoint ic) point dence
ter- invert- to
point ed tonic
Subject at a new pitch level RECAPITULATION – as the beginning Back
to
tonic
Invention #2 (M2+M3)
• Use only M3/m6s and m2/M7s both melodically and vertically.
• Use 6/8 meter.
• Use the following grid for your invention.
TABLE 9.2
Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Voice Subject Count- S Episode – free counterpoint

#1 (tonic) er-subject (Dom.)
Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Voice Subject Count- S (Dom.) CS Episode – free counterpoint

#2 (tonic) er-sub-
ject
notes EXPOSITION – exposes musical material . . . leads to a cadence preparing S in

m.9
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
S (Tn1) CS Free Episode – free counterpoint CS in- S (Tn2)
counter- verted inverted
point
S (Tn1) Free Episode – free counterpoint S (Tn2) CS in-
counter- inverted verted
point
Subject at a new pitch level Inverted S at a new

pitch level
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Episode – free counterpoint S (tonic) CS Episode – free Cadence
counterpoint to tonic
Episode – free counterpoint CS S (tonic) Episode – free Cadence

counterpoint to tonic
RECAP To tonic
Invention #3 (m3+TT)
• Use only m3/M6 and A4/d5 both melodically and vertically. NOTE:
This means the piece will be “stuck” inside the fully diminished
7th chord. You will have to “modulate” to different diminished
7th chords at key moments. To modulate, you will obviously
need to break the interval rule. But while other intervals will be
needed melodically, be consistent harmonically. For example,
when in measure 5 the subject appears in the dominant, the lower
voice’s countersubject should “modulate” to the dominant at
the same time. Think of these modulations in terms of harmonic
rhythm, which can be accelerated or relaxed to create or weaken
momentum.
• Use 5/8 meter. You may use 2 + 3, 3 + 2, or alternate between the
two.
• Use the following grid for your invention.
TABLE 9.3
Measure 1–2 3–4 5–6 7–8 9–16 17–18 19–20 21–22
Voice S (tonic) CS S CS Episode S (Tn1) Free
#1 (tonic) (Dom.) – free coun-
counter- terpoint
point
Voice S (tonic) CS S Episode S (Tn1) CS Free
#2 (tonic) (Dom.) – free coun-
counter- terpoint
point
Notes EXPOSITION – exposes musical mate- . . . leads Subject at a new pitch level
rial to a
cadence
preparing
S in m.17
23–24 25–26 27–28 29–30 31–32 33–34 35–36 37–38 39–40

Episode – free counterpoint CS in- S(Tn2) Episode – free counterpoint
verted inverted
Episode – free counterpoint S(Tn2) CS in- Episode – free counterpoint
inverted verted
Inverted subject at a new pitch level
41–42 43–44 45–48 49(-50)

S (tonic) CS Episode – free coun- Cadence to tonic
terpoint
CS S (tonic) Episode – free coun- Cadence to tonic
terpoint
RECAP Back to tonic
Exercise
Write three two-part inventions using the directions listed above.
You may have noticed that in your inventions, the intervals you used
could sometimes be heard together to create a melodic or harmonic group of
pitches. These groups are called sets and are the basic harmonic or melodic
units of atonal music. Sets can also be organized in such a way as to include
all 12 pitches. In the 12-tone (or dodecaphonic) system used by the composer
Arnold Schoenberg, as mentioned at the end of Chapter 8, each of the 12
tones is stated before any tone can be stated again. This arrangement results
in what is called a tone row, a linear progression of all 12 tones. The tone row
is the basis of all twelve-tone compositions.
Examine Twelve Tone Study by Steve Roens. Can you find the row? Once
you have identified it (it occurs as the first 12 pitches of the piece), use the initial
statement to identify (or “count”) the row throughout the piece. Having estab-
lished the order of the pitches of the row in the first two measures, you should
be able to find the correct order of pitches in dyads and chords later in the piece.
EXAMPLE 9.1
Although the small piano piece provided is successful in its use of the row,
simply stating the row repeatedly as he has done would soon become monoto-
nous in a longer piece. In Schoenberg’s music, this problem is solved by apply-
ing to the row the kind of motivic manipulations that occur in much of the
music of Bach and other composers. Accordingly, along with the row in its
prime form, Schoenberg uses its inversion, retrograde, and retrograde inver-
sion. In addition, he increases his possibilities by using different transpositions
of each of these row forms. While providing many advantages, all of these
manipulations of the original row could be difficult to keep in mind. To help
with this, 12-tone composers use a 12 by 12 matrix that contains all of the
forms of the row at all transpositions so they can see at a glance all of the pos-
sibilities for the continuation of a piece. In this matrix, the row (labeled P for
prime) is read from left to right, the inversion (labeled I) is read from top to
bottom, the retrograde (labeled R) is read from right to left, and the retrograde
inversion (labeled RI) is read from bottom to top. The labeling system for
transpositions is based on a fixed do approach in which C is 0, C-sharp/D-flat
is 1, D is 2, . . . . B-flat is t (20) and B is e (11). In addition, the 12 by 12 matrix
is not only useful for composing a piece but also for analyzing a 12-tone piece.
Examine Miniature by Montana State University graduate Athena Car-
son. Use the matrix immediately below to identify the row forms and their
transpositions.
EXAMPLE 9.2
TABLE 9.4
I0 I1 I2 I6 I7 I8 I5 I4 I3 Ie It I9
P0 0 1 2 6 7 8 5 4 3 e t 9 R0
Pe e 0 1 5 6 7 4 3 2 t 9 8 Re
Pt t e 0 4 5 6 3 2 1 9 8 7 Rt
P6 6 7 8 0 1 2 e t 9 5 4 3 R6
P5 5 6 7 e 0 1 t 9 8 4 3 2 R5
P4 4 5 6 t e 0 9 8 7 3 2 1 R4
P7 7 8 9 1 2 3 0 e t 6 5 4 R7
P8 8 9 t 2 3 4 1 0 e 7 6 5 R8
P9 9 t e 4 3 4 5 2 1 0 8 7 R9
P1 1 2 3 7 8 9 6 5 4 0 e t R1
P2 2 3 4 8 9 t 7 6 5 1 0 e R2
P3 3 4 5 9 t e 8 7 6 2 1 0 R3
RI0 RI1 RI2 RI6 RI7 RI8 RI5 RI4 RI3 RIe RIt RI9
How is the row presented? While the presentation of the row is clear in
its initial statement, in m. 8, the row is slightly obscured. In what way is it
obscured? Is the order still clear? Is there an overall structure that determines
the choice of row forms?
Exercise
Using a row of your own creation, make a matrix. Get it started manually;
then go to a website you will find under “12-tone matrix” and type in your
row. The matrix calculator will then complete the matrix for you. With Min-
iature as a guide, write a short 12-tone piece for piano. Limit yourself to the
same two transpositions for each row form.
For Further Study

Electro-acoustic music: Originally created for tape or tape and acoustic
instrument(s), it is currently created through computer programs with or
without acoustic instruments. Prominent composers include Edgard Varèse,
Vladimir Ussachevsky, Alice Shields, Milton Babbitt, and Mario Davidovsky
along with many others. Source materials include both electronically gen-
erated sounds and recorded natural sounds that are then manipulated in
the process of creating a piece. Recent developments include interactive
electronic sounds that respond to an instrument or other stimulus as well as
what is now called fixed electronics, pre-recorded sounds usually generated
by a computer program. Listen to Mario Davidovsky, Synchronisms No. 6
on YouTube.
Other Stylistic Developments of 20th/21st Century Music
Pandiatonicism: Commonly used in major keys, this involves the free use
of all seven notes of the scale without resolving dissonances as one would in
functional tonality. Often the bass notes determine the harmony, and any of
the seven notes in the key can be used in the chord. Aaron Copland and Igor
Stravinsky both used this technique, and it is commonly found in neoclassical
music.
Polytonality: Many people think of the music of Charles Ives, who put two
keys together, with each one having a certain independence, while both sound
at the same time, as polytonality. Listen to Anna Bignami’s discussion of poly-
tonality on YouTube, at the piano with examples.3
Total Serialism: All aspects of a piece are controlled by a row, including
not only pitch material but also rhythm, dynamics, and even register. (Milton
Babbitt, All Set) (This work and others cited are available on YouTube.)
Use of Extended Techniques: Beginning with the Second Viennese School
(Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern) and continuing with increasing frequency up
to the present, these include non-traditional ways of creating sound on tradi-
tional instruments such as the use of sul ponticello (bowing near the bridge
on string instruments) (Schoenberg Trio), flutter tongue on wind instru-
ments), and less traditional use of instruments such as plucking the strings of
the piano, prepared piano (inserting elements, often screws or bolts, inside
the piano between the strings to change its sound), knocking on the body
of string instruments, blowing through wind instruments accompanied by
vocalizations, and key clicks and blowing through brass instruments without
using the embouchure to produce an attack (Harvey Sollberger, Riding the
Wind I).
Minimalism: Developed by composers including Steve Reich, Terry Reilly,
Philip Glass, and John Adams, short figures or melodic fragments are repeated
over large time spans with gradual changes. Elements are minimal with exten-
sive repetition (Steve Reich, Different Trains).
Aleatory Music: Also known as chance music, this music is characterized
by chance elements that are often controlled by specific parameters such as a
choice of notated paths (Pierre Boulez, “Piano Sonata No. 3”) or with impro-
vised sections with more general guidelines as in selected works of John Cage
(John Cage, Radio Music).
Collage Music: A relatively simple and repetitive original background is
punctuated by quotations of music by earlier composers, often from the tonal
repertoire (George Rochberg, Contra Mortem et Tempus).
Interval Cycles: This technique uses a succession of like intervals that con-
tinues until it arrives at the starting pitch class. A pitch class consists of all the
notes with the same letter name (e.g. all the C#s, or all the Fs).
Composition Project #1, Scott Lee, University of Florida (paraphrased and

used by permission)
Write a piece featuring one (or more) of the following non-tonal pitch gen-
erating techniques. Feel free to use only one of these techniques or to combine
them but make sure that the majority of your piece features at least one of
them. You are welcome to build on one of your sketches to create this piece
or to start fresh.
• Polytonality
• Whole-tone scale
• Pandiatonicism
• Serialism or tone rows
• Interval cycles
Length and Instrumentation

Your piece should be between three and five minutes long for two to four
performers. No solo pieces. Your piece must involve live performance (i.e. no
exclusively electronic pieces). You can write for yourself, your classmates, or
other performers.
Please be considerate of your performers concerning the difficulty of the
music you write for this project. When writing in a non-tonal idiom, it’s even
more important to be aware of what you’re asking a performer to do. It’s
always a good idea to consult with performers during the compositional pro-
cess to get feedback. Plan rehearsals well in advance and be considerate of
your musicians’ time and effort.
Also required is a 100- to 150-word program note. Score and parts should
be carefully engraved and free of collisions. Parts should employ cues when
appropriate.

• Atonal music focuses on intervals and groups of intervals called sets.
• Twelve-tone music uses a row (a linear sequence of notes to organize
all 12 pitches).
• A 12-tone matrix enables composers to easily recognize and use the
diferent row forms that include prime, inversion, retrograde, and ret-
rograde inversion.
• Other trends in 20th and 21st century music include electro-acoustic
music, minimalism, aleatoric (chance) music, and collage music.
Notes
1. Kandinsky, Wassily, in a letter to Arnold Schoenberg, 18 January 1911; as quoted
in Schonberg and Kandinsky: An Historic Encounter, by Konrad Boehmer, ed.
Amsterdam: Harwood Academic, 1997, p. 9.
2. New Music, Outmoded Music, Style and Idea (1946); as quoted in Style and Idea
(1985), p. 124.
3. Bignami, Anna. 2020. “Explore Polytonality: Upper Structures [part1/3].” Accessed
July 6, 2021. www.youtube.com/watch?v=jgygaUSvRMA
10 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
Cultural Infuences
“Historically, black music has influenced other cultures and other genres and
created other genres.”1
– Miguel
We’ve all heard the phrase “music is a universal language.” Music certainly
has an amazing ability to bring people together. In reality, though, music can
differ as much as language in certain parts of the world. There is value in
exploring the music of other cultures. One may experience something they
have never heard before, maybe something they really enjoy. New experiences
lead to new ideas. Additionally, one can pay homage to other cultures by
incorporating their musical language. We love and respect our own traditions,
but there exists a world of music to explore.
Latin jazz is just one example of the influence of the music of another culture
or the combining of cultural attributes. When Bela Bartok and Zoltan Kodaly
traveled around the rural parts of Hungary collecting folk songs on a primitive
recording device, the results engendered a fresh perspective, resulting in a sig-
nificant original contribution to the standard repertory. In Kodaly’s Dances of
Galanta, for example, he used direct quotations from folk melodies he had col-
lected, many of which might have been lost otherwise. This is regarded as early
ethnomusicology, a “field of scholarship that encompasses the study of all world
musics from various perspectives. It is defined either as the comparative study
of musical systems and cultures or as the anthropological study of music.”2
Montana State University (MSU) music graduate Anthony Gaglia travelled
to Qatar in 2016 to present at the first ever World Congress on Undergraduate
Research, held November 13–15 at Qatar University in Doha, Qatar. Gaglia,
who graduated the previous semester with a bachelor’s degree in music, pre-
sented his research on Haitian classical guitar music, including the work of
Frantz Casseus, the only Haitian composer whose work is included in the
standard classical guitar repertoire. Gaglia also presented an original work
as the culmination of his research. “This is such an amazing opportunity for
me,” Gaglia said. “I’m still trying to fathom that my music and research are
taking me to the other side of the world. I’m so excited to share my music with
students and faculty from around the world, and to represent MSU and the
School of Music at this first global conference.”
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-10
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 67
Gaglia composed and recorded his original work to add to the repertoire.
Inspired by his volunteer work in Haiti in 2012, Gaglia investigated the
rhythms and harmonies of different Haitian genres and chose specific com-
positional techniques to capture his impressions of the country. The project
began as research for the senior capstone class for music majors. After decid-
ing to write his own music for guitar ensemble, Gaglia consulted his guitar
instructor, who provided additional mentorship and advice. As part of his
project, Gaglia composed an original piece for five guitars, “Impressions of
Haiti.” The piece utilizes both traditional and extended guitar techniques
some of which he created just for this piece. “I tried to incorporate the differ-
ent parts of Haiti that inspire me, including voodoo rituals and the work of
Casseus while being true to my own compositional voice,” Gaglia said.3
Chinese-American composer Bright Sheng, a composition professor at the
University of Michigan, has mixed Asian and American cultures, including
Tibetan folk music, with great results. And one of the most successful wind
ensemble compositions of the 20th century is Variations on a Korean Folk
Song by John Barnes Chance.
I (Gregory Young) was in Japan to perform in several concerts. I noted that
at an intersection, the traffic lights turned red in all four directions so that
pedestrians could walk in any direction, including diagonally. At the same
time, a folk song was played for blind pedestrians so that they knew it was
safe to cross. Inspired by this, I thought I would do a little melodic dictation
for new material, just as Bartok did, and when I got home, I realized that
what I had written down was actually a Scottish folk song, “Comin’ through
the Rye.” I ended up using it for a three-movement piece for two clarinets
titled “Duo Japan.” Another example comes from the Canadian Province,
Newfoundland and Labrador. I taught at Memorial University there and used
one of the many great Newfoundland folk songs, “She’s Like the Swallow” for
my “Variations on a Canadian Folk Song for Clarinet and String Orchestra.”
Argentine composer Astor Piazzolla used the tango (containing elements
from the African community in Buenos Aires and influenced both by African
rhythms and European music) as the basis for his compositions. You can listen
to Piazzolla’s “Libertango” on YouTube.4
Cuban-born composer Paquito D’Rivera has written music in jazz styles
inspired by a variety of influences, including those from both African and
Cuban music. You can hear these influences in “New Morning” on YouTube.5
Exercise
Listen to a YouTube recording of Six Studies in English Folksong by Ralph
Vaughan Williams (copyright 1927 by Stainer & Bell) and use your ear to
explore the different ways he sets the folk songs. When presenting six in a
row, what did he do to create variety in the treatments of the melody in terms
of accompaniment?
68 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

1. What are the advantages to including infuences from other cul-
tures?
2. Will my music sound authentic if I am not a member of the culture
from which I am being infuenced?
3. What are some cultures that have not been thoroughly explored as
infuences in Western music?
Exercise
Bartok used a Hungarian peasant song as the theme of the piece provided.
How does the piece unfold with respect to this theme? Does Bartok’s setting
change the nature of the theme as the piece continues? If so, how?
EXAMPLE 10.1
Write a piece using a melody from folk or world music using Bartok’s
piece as a guide.
Exercise
Pick a country that you are interested in and see what kind of unique musi-
cal elements appear in its music. It could be intervals, rhythm, instruments,
melodic contour, harmony, or a variety of other things.
GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 69

• Using folksongs from another country or culture can make interest-
ing mixes.
• Fusion often results from cultural cross-pollination.
• Writing out lots of possible development ideas from an international
theme can help guide your compositional technique.
• Other cultures might employ unique musical elements.
Notes
1. Miguel, Luis. 2021. “Miguel Quotes.” BrainyQuote.com. BrainyMedia Inc.
Accessed April 6, 2021. www.brainyquote.com/quotes/miguel_502026
2. Nettl, Bruno. n.d. “Ethnomusicology.” Accessed July 3, 2021. www.britannica.com/
science/ethnomusicology
3. Recent MSU graduate to present at World Congress on Undergraduate Research
in Qatar, MSU News Service. 2016. Accessed July 9, 2021. www.montana.edu/
news/16320/recent-msu-graduate-to-present-at-world-congress-on-undergraduate-
research-in-qatar
4. Vlasic, Marko. n.d. “Astor Piazzolla – Libertango (Full Album).” Comp. Astor
Piazzolla. Accessed July 9, 2021. https://music.youtube.com/watch?v=k_pLL278
zoM&list=RDAMVMp1uTHTMnbTI
5. D’Rivera, Paquito, Manuel Machado, Pepe Rivero, Reinier Elizarde, and Olivera
Michael. 2019. “Quintet – 1.” Comp. Paquito D’Rivera. Accessed July 9, 2021.
www.youtube.com/watch?v=zJ_HelEp6pg
11 INTERDISCIPLINARITY
“Breakthrough innovation occurs when we bring down boundaries and

encourage disciplines to learn from each other.”1
– Gyan Nagpal
Music has a home in a vast number of disciplines. Film, TV, theatre, video
games, literature, and art are all examples of disciplines that rely heavily on
music. It’s also important to be aware of interesting correlations the field of
music can have with a variety of other disciplines that might not be so obvi-
ously connected. Some of the most exciting discoveries recently have occurred
at the intersections of traditional disciplines. Seminars at Montana State Uni-
versity have already been taught exploring the relationships between architec-
ture and music, economics and music, and music and the brain. Undoubtedly,
there are other interdisciplinary projects and courses involving music at uni-
versities around the world.
Original musical compositions of all types are being used extensively in
a great array of disciplines, including film, theater, retail, art installations,
video games, and computer applications. These specific uses of original music
will determine various parameters for the composer. For example, incidental
music for theatre performances can vary in scope, difficulty, and instrumen-
tation depending on what the director wants in terms of quantity, integration
with the storyline, or other considerations. Music can interact with almost
any discipline, resulting in a myriad of innovations. “It could be said that
the architect ‘paints’ with building materials, the composer ‘constructs’ using
vibrations, and the scientist ‘composes’ forms and formulas using the ‘modes’
of math and physics” (Munagala Bargha).2
Music and Architecture

Have you ever heard the quote “I call architecture frozen music”? In 1991 I
(Young) was approached by an architecture professor, JB Bancroft, with that
very question. They both thought it was by the famous American architect
Frank Lloyd Wright but upon further research found that the German poet
Goethe said it 200 years earlier. They discovered that these two disciplines had
a lot in common, especially in the areas of terminology and sources of inspira-
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-11
INTERDISCIPLINARITY 71
tion. Their conversations led to the designing of a new course, “Musi-Tecture,”

as an interdisciplinary seminar for music majors and aspiring architects. After
delving into the correlations in class and homework assignments, the music
students composed original pieces inspired by architecture, and the architec-
ture students designed buildings guided by music. The speed at which the stu-
dents composed their final semester pieces, after spending most of their time
researching the commonalities between the two disciplines, indicated that they
were truly inspired and motivated. An article was then published about the
course in “Leonardo” by M.I.T. Press, and it included some of the student com-
positions and designs.3
Music and Art

A proposed interdisciplinary research seminar is called Music and Sculpture.
Art professor Nelleke Beltjens and Gregory Young designed an undergraduate
research seminar in which eight music students and eight sculpture students
pair up and design joint projects, each pair creating a new multi-media piece in
which original music will reflect original sculpture and vice versa. This course
was modeled on the music and architecture seminar outlined earlier but instead
of extensive faculty preparation, student engagement in setting up the process
will add a new level of interaction to this original creative or artistic work.4
In 2018, Montana State University (MSU) student Philip Shuler composed
a brass quintet based on a winter landscape by the great artist Claude Monet
called The Magpie. The first step was to research other music that used paint-
ings as inspiration, including Mussorgsky’s Pictures at an Exhibition, Rach-
maninoff ’s Isle of the Dead, and Liszt’s Hunnenschlacht. The painting Philip
chose depicted a magpie sitting on a farm fence on a winter morning. He
thought this painting had a lot to offer both musically and for research. Monet
was an impressionist painter, meaning that he tried to capture brief moments
on his canvas and emphasized light, color, and movement. Monet painted The
Magpie in the winter of 1868–69, when he spent months at his friend’s estate,
focused on capturing natural light on snow.
I used this in the composition process by only briefly looking at the image
in a practice room and playing on the piano. I repeated this process for
weeks while recording each session. After about a month I went back and
listened to all my recordings to find musical ideas that I liked and from
there I took those ideas and started to form a three-movement piece of
music. The three movements are entitled “Gray Morning,” The Magpie”
and “The Coming Storm.” The first and third movements are slow and very
melodic, to capture the calm and serene feelings the painting gave me. The
third is a little darker, thinking of the snow and the cold that is coming. The
second movement is completely different, focusing on the clever and some-
times troublesome bird – it is much more upbeat and playful. The piece was
written for the Bridger Brass Quintet and was an enjoyable project.5
MSU professors Eric Funk, Angella Ahn, and Julia Cory Slovarp impro-
vised in public to original artwork, and it was very well received. Using that
concert as inspiration, Gregory Young teamed up with colleagues to improvise
to original artwork using singing bowls, triangle, soprano, and clarinet. Also
in that concert was a newly improvised piece for clarinet and marble run, an
“instrument” constructed by MSU piano professor Laurel Yost.6
Music and Psychology

Understanding how listeners listen could be important for a composer. There has
been a lot of research conducted in the area of music therapy on the psychological
benefits of listening to music,7 and the extent to which student composers need or
want to delve into that research is really up to them. Memory, sleep, pain manage-
ment, cognitive performance, and other human conditions can be positively or neg-
atively affected by music listening. However, when we compose music, we should
at least put ourselves in the position of the audience when we imagine how our
music will sound. A podcast on the Art of Composing website in which Northwest-
ern University Professor Robert Gjerdingen talks about the secrets of the greatest
composers is informative with respect to this subject of listening and aural skills.8
Composition and Dance Choreography

From Professor Heather Gilligan, Keene State University (used by permission)
Composition/Choreography Collaboration
Here’s an exercise to incorporate different art forms into the compositional
process. Each composer is paired with a dance choreography student in a
composition/choreography exchange. Composers and choreographers each
create two short works as described below; partners will then select one or
both pieces to be showcased in a performance. Start with the Visual Prompt:
A BRAINSTORMING ACTIVITY
Take some time with your image to write a stream of consciousness, what-
ever words come to mind. Set a timer for 5 minutes. Think of different
ways to approach the image: content, design, rhythm, function, balance,
geometry, tones, references, etc.
Think about ways you could capture these thoughts musically and
discuss them with your partner(s). Give consideration to your partner’s
thoughts about capturing the image in movement, and let those ideas
inform your compositional thinking.
Come up with an overall form before beginning to write. You will deter-
mine this form in collaboration with your choreography partner. You may
choose a traditional form such as ABA, rondo, theme and variations, etc., or
you may choose a form based on an abstract concept such as shape, contour,
or a particular pattern that appeals to you. Determine a form that both or all
collaborators feel best captures the image in your visual prompt.
Once you have determined your overall form, structure, and purpose, the
next step is to write the first of your two short pieces. Take the brainstorm-
ing session into consideration and use that information to inform your writ-
ing. Write a two-minute piece for solo piano that either directly or abstractly
responds to the visual prompt and adheres to the agreed-upon form. Likewise,
your partner will respond to the visual prompt through choreography.
The second composition will be a two-minute response to your partner’s
choreography. Likewise, your partner will create a choreography based on
your composition.
After the performance, a class discussion will include all composers and
choreographers. Each group will have a chance to discuss their process, chal-
lenges, successes, and outcomes.
Music for Film, contributed by Linda Antas

Writing music for film allows the composer to use another art form as inspi-
ration and have their music participate in telling a story – something music
without text cannot do, at least in any objective detail. Like all interdisciplin-
ary art, writing for moving image brings music to a wider audience, even if
the music isn’t the viewer’s direct focus. The nearly infinite options in modern
composition can be overwhelming, even to a more experienced composer.
Having a specific world to fit your music into and knowing the conventions of
the music found in film can make the job easier.
Especially when working in film, a composer must be familiar with history
(music and general) and have strong written theory, aural perception, and orches-
tration skills. The composer should be familiar with all styles and eras of Western
music through the current era. The influence of Romantic music is very strong in
film music because of its dramatic shifts in dynamics, rich use of orchestral tim-
bres, and wealth of interesting harmonies such as borrowed chords, mediant rela-
tionships, and modulations. A film composer should also know about the music
of non-European cultures or at least have the research skills to learn about it. This
knowledge helps inform us of exactly what makes a certain type of music sound
the way it does so that we can create whatever is asked of us by the filmmaker.
In addition to the musical skills, a film composer needs to understand the
filmmaker’s intentions about how the story will be told and how the music
relates to these. The composer will be drawing inspiration from the charac-
ters’ motivations, relationships with other characters, their social status and
culture, and the era and location of the action.
Music in film is there to help immerse the viewer in the world of the film.
The most practical reason it’s there is to cover distracting sounds in the the-
ater. There are many different emotional and psychological functions that
music plays. A list of the functions film music can have includes
Diegetic – Music being made within the scene, such as a character singing
or a radio
Creating Atmosphere – Setting the overall tone of the film or scene
Illustrating Movement – Mimics or emphasizes movement on screen
Creating Relationships in Plot – Like Wagner’s leitmotifs, using specific
themes to represent objects, people, and ideas
Show the Characters’ Emotions – Letting the viewer in on the character’s
emotions, even when their actions or words betray their true feelings
Social, Cultural, Time, or Geographical Reference – Informing the viewer
how the scene or character relates to one or more of these details
Imply a Sense of Space or Number – Scenes with a small number of,
or lonely, characters, often use a solo instrument or small ensemble;
scenes with many characters or magical or dramatic events tend to use
a large ensemble
The time allowed for scoring is short – typically six weeks in Hollywood
films and as little as a week for TV shows, commercials, and student films. The
sooner the composer knows any details about the film, the sooner ideas can
start forming. If you feel you don’t yet work quickly enough for this kind of
work, practice scoring quickly and keep even the tiniest “scraps” of music on
hand for when an opportunity comes along.
Reading the script as soon as possible allows the musical ideas to begin
forming and be shaped by all the details the script contains. If you’re inter-
ested in reading a film script, you can find many complete original scripts
of well-known movies online at sites such as the Nashville Film Institute’s
website.9
Start your composing by watching a scene several times without sound.
Draw your inspiration from the visuals alone: characters’ actions and facial
expressions, costumes, and the setting. There are a number of good reasons
composers should be comfortable with improvisation. This is one of them:
you only get one first look, and it will have the most impact on you. You may
want to make a few versions of improvised materials, use the best one or com-
bine them, and then get to the fine-tuning.
As a collaborative process, the composer gets feedback from the filmmaker.
It might be anything from being told it’s perfect to being told it’s completely
wrong. Some composers will bring more than one cue to the session, if time
allows, or will be comfortable improvising alternate ideas on the spot.
A film composer should know several examples of each movie genre and
spend time observing how the music functions within and across genres and
what kinds of music and orchestration are typical in each genre. Below is a
listing of common film genres.
Action, adventure, war, disaster

Comedy
Coming-of-age drama
Crime, mystery, detective story, courtroom drama

Sci-fi or fantasy
Gangster
Horror
Love story
Historical fiction
Documentary
Animation
Popular music is more commonly found in comedies, to set the time period and
social/cultural affiliation of the characters, and sometimes in chase or high-action
scenes. It’s also used as an uplifting finale or a thoughtful epilogue – the mood
that follows us out to the parking lot.
Electronic sounds are often used in horror, science fiction, and documen-
tary films (especially those about science and technology) or to emphasize
strange or confusing locations. Electronic sounds are often made by manipu-
lating recorded samples but often bear little resemblance to any sound made
by an instrument or sound heard in the natural world. The sounds themselves
can be unnerving because we can’t identify the source. In the film Soul, elec-
tronic sounds are used in the scenes set in the realm in between the world of
the living and the afterlife. The main character’s real world is filled with jazz.10
The genres in these examples may also use the orchestra, but most of the
other genres rely even more heavily on it. Generally, the more action-heavy
or character-packed the scene is, the thicker the orchestration and the more
rhythmic and intense the music is. The brass section is often prominent within
the orchestra for heroic action or battle scenes. Voices are often used for oth-
erworldly or magical situations and impending or actual death, especially as
the result of heroic actions.
Winds, especially upper winds, are often used for running motor-like pas-
sages, flourishes within the full orchestra, reinforcement for melody, or poi-
gnant solos along with subtle accompaniment. The upper strings often play a
similar role. They are also a good choice for underscoring. Lower winds are
often part of the bass, sometimes along with other sections, or as timbral vari-
ations of the low strings and low brass. The lowest registers of the orchestra
are felt almost as much as heard and are often used for foreboding scenes.
Along with becoming aware of conventions relating to styles, orchestra-
tion, and genre, film composers are often tasked with setting the time and
place or culture of the film through music. Location and cultural cues in the
music are typically made by borrowing from the cultures’ instrumental tim-
bres. Since music in many parts of the world is transmitted aurally, the film
composer will have to have a good ear to pin down music from outside the
Western tradition. Music from other cultures, especially in Hollywood films,
is not extremely authentic. Elements such as instrumental timbres, microtonal
scales mapped onto equal temperament, and general characteristics of mel-
odies are inserted into Western and European music. The music is meant to
give a sense of place or culture by sounding like music that the audience will
accept as from that other culture, having heard few or no authentic versions
of that music.
Another topic that a film composer should be aware of is the “hit” or the
“sync point.” If overdone these can be a distraction, so like all things in film
scoring, they should be doled out with care. A “hit” or “sync point” is a place
in the film where the music should do its best to accentuate an occurrence
in the visual. This could be a punch or explosion in an action or war film or
the revealing of a mystical amulet or stone tablet in a fantasy film. It means a
place where a musical accentuation is needed to heighten the occurrences in
the visuals.
Underscoring is composing music to be played while characters are speak-
ing. It often occurs during poignant or tense discussions between two charac-
ters. It should be very unobtrusive and not interfere with the dialog. Guidelines
for underscoring include
• Sustain during dialogue, moving in between sentences or during pauses

in the dialogue.
• Consider shifts of emotion where a character spoken to is
“absorbing” what has just been said to them.
• Instruments that work well are strings and winds in their more subtle
registers.
With all this information, you should be ready to start writing some music for
film. Use the highest quality clips that you can. The professional visuals will
inspire you, and poorly fitting or poorly produced music will sound better
than it should when accompanied by low-quality video.
If you’ve never scored any video, a commercial with no dialogue is a great
place to start. You won’t have to work around the dialogue or other sounds. You
can also try scoring some visual music using abstract art. Because it’s abstract,
it will be a good exercise for having the music flow with visuals that aren’t
dictated by the kinds of physical actions that humans or animals would make.
The director and the music team work together over the course of several
weeks or months. The music team includes the composer, orchestrator, copy-
ist, composer’s assistant, and music librarians, in addition to the recordists
and engineers who produce the final recording for use in the film. The process
for the composer typically starts with the spotting session, which is held after
picture-lock (the final version of the visuals). During this session, the producer
and director clarify how they want to use music throughout the film. Deci-
sions include where cues will begin and end, what kind of sound is wanted,
and the role of the music in the film. Since music in many parts of the world is
transmitted aurally, the film composer will have to have a good ear for hearing
and identifying what contributes the exotic flavors in a variety of non-Western
music. Of course, one has to be careful because approaching non-Western
music from a European-based musical lens can lead to tropes that take away
from the authenticity.

1. Is it easier or harder to incorporate an interdisciplinary component
when writing original music?
2. Will interdisciplinarity stife the originality?
3. Are there interdisciplinary collaborations with music that might not
have been tried yet?
Exercise
One kind of interdisciplinarity is the relationship between poetry and
music. Examine “Im Zimmer” from Alban Berg’s Seven Early Songs
at 10:47 on the following YouTube link that tracks the piano and vocal
score:11
On the internet, you can translate the poem into English. How does Berg
express the meaning of the poem? Where are the high points of the poem?
Are there corresponding high points in Berg’s setting?
Now use “Im Zimmer” as a model for a song based on a poem you have
chosen to set.
Exercise
Examine Op. 2 no. 2 by Alban Berg from Der Glühende.12 (On the internet,
you can translate the poem into English.) How does Berg express the mean-
ing of the poem? Where are the high points of the poem? Are there corre-
sponding high points in Berg’s setting?
Exercise
Using your analysis of Op. 2 no. 2 as a model, compose a song based on a
poem you have chosen to set.

• Original musical works are used in many diferent disciplines.
• There are university courses that examine one discipline from the
lens of another.
• It is hard to fnd a discipline that has no relation to music.
• Music and dance majors can partner with each other to create new
works.
• In writing for flm or games, a composer can use another art form for
inspiration.
Notes
1. Nagpal, Gyan. 2012. Talent Economics: The Fine Line Between Winning and Los-
ing the Global War for Talent. Kogan Page Publishers.
2. Bhargav, Munagala. 2017. “ ‘Quora.’ Who Said Architecture Is Frozen Music and
Why?” Accessed July 10, 2021. www.quora.com/Who-said-architecture-is-frozen-
music-and-why
3. Bancroft, Jerry, Mark Sanderson, and Young Gregory. 1992. “Musi-Tecture: Seek-
ing Useful Correlations Between Music and Architecture.” Leonardo (M.I.T.)
39–43.
4. Young, Gregory. “Interdisciplinary Undergraduate Research in the Arts & Human-
ities at Montana State University” CUR Quarterly, Winter 2008.
5. Shuler, Philip. 2018. Unpublished senior capstone project, Montana State Univer-
sity.
6. Young, Gregory. 2016. The Clarinet in Rare Contexts. Faculty Recital, Montana
State University.
7. Cherry, Kendra. 2019. “How Listening to Music Can Have Psychological Benefits.”
December 10. Accessed July 10, 2021. www.verywellmind.com/surprising-
psychological-benefits-of-music-4126866
8. Brantingham, Jon. 2016. “AOC 011: Partimenti and the Secrets of the Greatest
Composers – An Interview with Robert Gjerdingen.” Art of Composing. March 24.
Accessed July 10, 2021. www.artofcomposing.com/aoc-011-partimenti-and-the-secrets-
of-the-greatest-composers-an-interview-with-robert-gjerdingen
9. n.d. “Examples of Movie Script: 50+ Scripts You Should Know.” Accessed July 10,
2021. www.nfi.edu/examples-of-movie-script
10. Soul, Directed by Pete Docter and Kemp Powers, Pixar, 2020.
11. Fleming, Renée, and Berliner Philharmoniker. 2018. 7 Frühe Lieder for orches-
tra. Cond. Claudio Abbado. Comp. Alban Berg. https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=1lz9_841ftg
12. Berg, Alban. 4 Gesänge, Op. 2, No. 2 ‘Schlafend trägt man mich in mein Heimat-
land.’ https://s9.imslp.org/files/imglnks/usimg/b/be/IMSLP41243-PMLP31132-
Berg--4_Ges%C3%A4nge_Op_2_No_2_Schlafend_tr%C3%A4gt_man_mich_in_
mein_Heimatland.pdf
12 LISTENING CRITICALLY
“There’s music in the sighing of a reed; There’s music in the gushing of a

rill; There’s music in all things, if men had ears; The earth is but the music
of the spheres.”1
– Lord Byron
Creating something great typically requires experiencing something great.

Listening critically to respected composers’ works should be a vital part of a
young composer’s routine. One needs to learn how to absorb and understand
what a composer is doing and use these ideas to create something new. The
goal is not typically to replicate directly, so composers should expose them-
selves to various types of music and see what tools are frequently used to cre-
ate memorable moments. Conversely, some teachers advise students to limit
listening, especially when it comes to one’s most beloved composers. Striking
a balance between borrowing or imitating and creating something completely
new is a challenging but necessary step.
The title of this chapter may seem to have an obvious answer, and
indeed, most composition teachers would say listening to a wide variety
of music is critically important. Listening to different types of music not
only expands composers’ perspectives and gives them new ideas, but it also
affords the opportunity to listen to several different aspects of the music. It
is not unreasonable to think that there is a range of experiences among the
members of an audience listening to the same piece of music in a concert,
depending on their musical expertise and listening experience. Some will
hear and be able to identify most of the harmonies, some might notice spe-
cific things like a 4–3 suspension or a Phrygian cadence, and others might
just be able to feel a mood without knowing why it engendered that mood.
Still others might just notice how fast the performer’s fingers were moving.
As students compose their own music and gain more experience listening
to and analyzing music, they will be able to listen with increasing absorp-
tion to what is happening in the music. An interesting bass line, texture,
or contrapuntal technique can capture the imagination and inspire a new
composition.
Thinking about how the human ear sorts out the different aspects of music
happening at any one time, Alan Belkin writes
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-12
complexity: usually the element with the greatest level of activity attracts
the most attention, e.g. in a texture consisting of simultaneous held notes
and moving lines, the moving lines take precedence.
novelty: when presented with familiar and new material at the same
time, the new material demands more attention.
loudness or timbral richness: if playing lines of equal complexity in the
same register, a trumpet will demand more attention than a flute.2
Listening to your own music as part of the composition process is equally

important. Where does the musical direction seem to lead? Do you want to
bring it to a different place and surprise the listener? It is also important to
listen for overarching concepts, to listen to the composition at the tempo
indicated, and to pay careful attention to the transitions between sections, if
applicable.
Thomas Svoboda, when teaching at Portland State University, stressed the
importance of listening to Bach chorales and writing down all four parts. It
was a deeper experience than traditional ear training, like hearing an interval
and writing down the interval or singing it back.3
According to Joseph Klein, “exposure to a variety of contemporary musi-
cal styles and techniques is critical to the understanding and application of
compositional resources. An understanding of music literature and its context
within music history is critically important, and typically begins with the rep-
ertoire of the student’s own instrument/voice. . . . composition is an inherently
comprehensive activity, encompassing a broader range of experience than any
other discipline within music.”4
In an email to a composition class, composer Eric Funk recently wrote
Today I’d like to focus your listening on two specific things: interval struc-
ture and counterpoint. Every decision you make, from “this pitch to that
pitch” is important. Each interval has inherent beauty, and various com-
binations produce different results. Harmony is implied, not determined
or decided, by a second voice. When there are three voices you can lis-
ten to them as two-part counterpoint in combinations – 1 & 2, 1 & 3,
2 & 3. Rather than reductively pushing for triadic meaning, keeping the
2-voice relationships aurally predominant affords “opening” as opposed
to “closing” the meaning. Pedal tones needn’t serve as more than the
canvas. Ambiguity has its own power because of its suggestivity. Just as
an “incomplete” statement conjures wonder, two part counterpoint stirs
up its own brand of mystery. That’s why composers like Richard Wagner,
Dimitri Shostakovich and Sofia Gubaidulina frequent its magic potential.
By not “saying” the truth but rather running parallel to it, you allow the
listener to be nearer to the truth and more accurately discern it from the
continuous proximity.5”
Samuel Adler, when teaching at the Juilliard School of Music, taught
analysis not “chord by chord” but rather, having students try to get into
LISTENING CRITICALLY 81
the mind of the composer by figuring out what’s going on in every mea-
sure. Why did the composer treat the viola like this? What is the sequence
of entry for the different instruments? What kind of contrapuntal tech-
niques are used? How does the composer achieve musical direction
toward the climax, etc.6
The Bach chorales have provided infinite insights into music composition.
American wind band composer David Maslanka (1943–2017) had a regimen
that included playing Bach chorales on the piano everyday and singing all four
parts in turn. He also wrote chorales in the style of Bach as a compositional
exercise and published 117 chorale settings on melodies taken from Bach’s
371 chorales.7
In early 2017, not realizing his death would come that year, Maslanka said
that even in his mid-70s, he had lots of music still to write and was very
much looking forward to it. And over breakfast, while listening with him to
his music, some movements of which were very long, he seemed completely
engaged to the point of not wanting anyone to even whisper anything because
he was listening so intently (personal conversations, Gregory Young with
David Maslanka, January 2017).8

1. If I listen to music too much, will I be overly infuenced by the music
I hear?
2. Will listening stife my own original ideas?
3. Do I have to listen to music I don’t like?
Exercise
While looking at the score, available at the link provided, listen to Syrinx by
Claude Debussy (recording available on YouTube). Identify each phrase of
the piece. What makes this sound different from a tonal piece? What kind
of pitch organization occurs in the final measure? What does this have to do
with the rest of the piece?9
Write a piece for solo flute or clarinet based on Syrinx.

• Listening to diferent types of music provides new ideas.
• It is important to listen to your own music to understand how it
works in all its parts.
• You should focus on interval structure and, even in triadic textures,

on two-part counterpoint.
• Try to get into the mind of the composer by fguring out what’s going
on in every measure.
• Playing and singing Bach chorales can enhance both listening and
composition.
Notes
1. Lord Byron (Don Juan, Canto 15).
2. Belkin, Alan. 2008. “A Practical Guide to Music Composition.” Accessed July 9,
2021. www.unitus.org/FULL/Belkin.pdf
3. Eric Funk, Interview with Peter Pomajevich, Montana State University. 2019.
4. Klein, Joseph. “A Comprehensive-Immersive Approach to Beginning Composi-
tion Instruction.” Accessed July 11, 2021. https://josephklein.music.unt.edu/sites/
default/files/klein_comprehensive_immersive_05-09.pdf
5. Eric Funk, email message to composition class, Montana State University. April 8,
2021.
6. Shrude, Marilyn. 2008. “Teaching Composition in Twenty-First-Century America:
A Conversation with Samuel Adler.” American Music 26, no. 2: 223–45.
7. Maslanka, David. n.d. “Collected Chorale Settings.” Accessed July 12, 2021.
https://davidmaslanka.com/works/collected-chorale-settings-2005/
8. Maslanka, David, interview by Gregory Young. 2017. Bozeman Montana.
9. Debussy, Claude. n.d. Accessed July 11, 2021. https://imslp.hk/files/imglnks/
euimg/2/22/IMSLP175411-WIMA.14bc-Syrinx.pdf
13 DIVERSE PERSPECTIVES ON
COMPOSITION
“Works of art make rules; rules do not make works of art.”1

– Claude Debussy
Some of the world’s finest composers have left behind books, documents, and
quotes to help developing composers hone their craft. And although most
music theory and composition teaching has been focused on a widely accepted
canon, there are many composers who have been grossly underestimated and
unrecognized due to race and/or gender. Their lack of representation has
diminished the number of role models for aspiring young female, BIPOC, and
LGBT+ composers. Ideally, we will get to a point in which we stop using the
term “female composer” since we don’t use the term “male composer.” This
chapter explores the spoken and written words of a wide variety of composers
about their music and about the compositional process. These can give us a
glimpse into the mind of a composer from which we can gain a more com-
prehensive picture of this elusive activity. A seemingly simple quote can carry
a powerful message. Composers aren’t always the most articulate speakers,
and they can’t always fully explain their processes in ways that are useful to
us. Nonetheless, sometimes it’s the simplest ideas that carry the most weight.
To learn about past and current composers, we often go straight to the
music, and as discussed in Chapter 12, listening critically to a wide variety of
music is important. In addition to this, however, reading about or listening to
composers talking about the process of composition can be both interesting
and informative. Since composition is not normally taught to young children,
although it probably should be, we sometimes have preconceived assumptions
about the process or think it’s just something mysterious that happens and
only to some people.
In part due to the many music history books that have been published
over the past hundred years, the vast majority of composers we read about
are white men, some of whom passed away a long time ago. Due to race and
gender bias, the women and people of color who composed music and who
wrote about the process were overlooked, forgotten, or otherwise not given
the opportunities or credit they deserved.
For example, Fanny Mendelssohn Hensel (1805–1847) is possibly the most
influential female composer of the 19th century. She was a piano prodigy,
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84 DIVERSE PERSPECTIVES ON COMPOSITION
composer, and salon hostess. Despite growing up with the same privileged
musical education as her brother Felix, the two went on to lead very different
lives – a difference that highlights the gender disparities of the time. Hensel’s
lifelong struggle was finding a delicate balance between being a composer and
being a socially acceptable upper-class woman. Because of this, Hensel did not
publish her music until a year before her death. Her life consisted of private
recitals, for which her salon was created. Meanwhile, Felix completely over-
shadowed her with his public life.
As children, Felix and Fanny had very similar musical educations, but as
they got older, Felix enjoyed more publicity, and Fanny was forced to be
more private with her music. At age 14, her father replied to one of her letters
about this contrast, in which he said that music would be a vocation for Felix,
but for her, “it must only be an ornament.” He went on to say that had she
been in his place, then she would have “merited equal approval,” meaning
that her father saw her and her brother as equally talented, but because she
was a woman, it was not acceptable for her to pursue music as a profession.
Hensel did find a loophole of sorts with the Lied (art song). She was actu-
ally encouraged to write Lieder because the genre’s diminutive proportions
made it acceptable for an upper-class woman to write. Hensel’s aim to please
her father can be seen in her early Lieder, in which she set poems of her
father’s favorite French poets to music. She later turned to Goethe and went
on to write 255 Lieder – about half of her total compositional output.2
Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179) entered the Benedictine monastery
in Disibodenberg at age 14, where she learned Latin, the Psalter, strict reli-
gious practice and music. Through the convent, one had access to extensive
knowledge that was not easily available in 12th century society, especially for
women. Although the church and Medieval society was exclusively male-dom-
inated, convents and abbeys were an entirely different world. Women like
Hildegard were able to obtain positions of power and leadership and access
to an education. Because of these unique circumstances, as well as Hildegard’s
famed prophetic and miraculous abilities, her life and compositional output
is notable. More of her works survive today than any other composer of the
Middle Ages. She was able to record her visions as texts and poems with the
permission of the abbot. One such work is Scivias, containing four lyric texts
set to music. Her visions, seen as a direct means of communication with God,
allowed her to achieve influence inside and outside the abbey. She advised
people of all social classes in the outside world according to her prophecies.
Hildegard also founded her own convent at Rupertsberg, where she was
abbess. It was an achievement that was virtually unheard of at the time.
Hildegard wrote the earliest recorded musical drama that was not associ-
ated with the liturgy: Ordo virtutum (The Virtues), which is a morality play
with allegorical figures depicting 16 virtues and the devil in a battle for the
human soul. Hildegard also wrote about natural science and medicine and
was influential in Christian mysticism. She is one of the few known to have
written both the text and music for her works.3
DIVERSE PERSPECTIVES ON COMPOSITION 85
Hildegard’s works were largely forgotten until the 19th century, when they
were edited and published. Her more recent influence can be seen in Christo-
pher Theofanidis’ Rainbow Body for orchestra, which is based on Hildegard’s
chant “Ave Maria, O Auctix Vite.” Theofanidis not only captures Hildegard’s
unique melodic contour and plainchant aesthetic but also programmatically
draws on Buddhist ideas of reincarnation, which he sees as a metaphor for
Hildegard.4
Using a wide-angle lens to learn from composers of the past and present
rather than thinking that there is a standard toolbox from which to draw, we
can gain important and diverse perspectives on composition.
The more music theory and history are looked at from as many angles as
possible, and put into as many different contexts as possible, the more
the music of the past will be demystified and the better the student will
metabolize the many lessons contained within.5
In some cases, it may be difficult to connect with a composer’s music

but not necessarily that composer’s thoughts about composition. And find-
ing the value in a composer’s ideas when one doesn’t really like their music
can expand the willingness to listen and learn from new perspectives. If the
opportunity arises, discussing the creative process with various composers can
make it seem less elusive. Learning from those with a wide variety of experi-
ences can be helpful, and young women composers can especially benefit from
hearing thoughts from more experienced women composers.
Norman Dello Joio: “I had this perceptive theory teacher, Mrs. Havens, who
recognized the hidden talent I had and instead of saying I was breaking
rules, she encouraged my attempts at originality. I think back with gratitude
to that cherished woman and the role she played in shaping my career.” On
the other hand, “My composition teacher at Julliard had no direct influ-
ence on my writing because everything I brought to him was okay. He
never corrected or suggested anything. I was grateful to Hindemith because
I really needed to be held responsible for my work. Paul Hindemith (Lutch)
insisted all of his composition students learn a wind instrument, and Hin-
demith’s own music had strong melodic appeal. He also insisted that com-
position required discipline and concentrated effort – ‘simply being called
a modern composer would not cover for inferior technique and unclear
form decisions.’ ”6
Jessie Montgomery: “Music is my connection to the world. It guides me to
understand my place in relation to others and challenges me to make
clear the things I do not understand. I imagine that music is a meeting
place at which all people can converse about their unique differences and
common stories.”7
American composer, violinist and educator Jessie Montgomery inter-
weaves classical music with elements of vernacular music, improvisation,
language, and social justice in her music. The above quote reflects how
her life experiences – growing up in Manhattan’s lower east side during
a time when the neighborhood was at a major turning point in its history
and attending rallies and gatherings where artists and activists gathered
to celebrate the social movement, have shaped the purpose of her music,
performance, advocacy and education.
Jennifer Higdon: “[The audience] has paid to come to a concert, and it is my
responsibility, right from the very first note, to hold [their] attention right
through to the end.”8
Nina C. Young: “My pieces come before Haydn and Mozart, which are clas-
sical composers from the classical period, with smaller orchestras and dif-
ferent kinds of sounds and priorities than what I’m writing. But I don’t
think of myself as totally separate from them, It’s part of a continuum
and evolution. My sounds can only exist because their sounds existed,
and they can only exist because those sounds of their predecessors existed
as well.”9
Paola Prestini: “I like to say that in order to be a 21st C artist nowadays, of
course you have to have talent, but you also have to have some kind of
mix of entrepreneurship and activism and a desire to educate. But more
and more, I think that it’s not that you have to have all these properties,
because everybody’s different; but you do have to have some sense of
consciousness in terms of your musical ecology, your peers, and what you
can do to help affect your surroundings.”10
An important aspect of Paola Prestini’s music is collaboration with
poets, conservationists, filmmakers, and others. Through these collab-
orations, Prestini explores extra-musical themes that interest her. Men-
torship is also important to her – she co-founded the nonprofit National
Sawdust, which is committed to equity among composers. Part of the
foundation is the Hildegard Competition for young female, trans, and
non-binary composers.
Ellen Reid: “I think that especially through music, because it involves time,
it’s really a window into someone’s inner landscape, or something about
their world, or their mind.”
Los Angeles/New York–based composer and sound artist Ellen Reid
explores a wide variety of genres, including opera, film scores, sound
design, and choral and ensemble writing. She won the 2019 Pulitzer prize
for her opera p r i s m and was commissioned by the NY phil for their
Project 19. Reid co-founded the Luna Composition Lab with Missy Maz-
zoli, which is a mentorship program for young female, nonbinary, and
gender non-conforming composers.11
Alfred Schnittke: “Any composer, if he is not deaf, has different layers and a
different hierarchy in his musical mind. However, not every composer can
work with the lower layers of his musical world. Some composers, like
Webern prefer to turn these layers into something ‘sublime’ to make them
hidden and not obvious. . . . In Mahler’s music, these low or unterhaltung
DIVERSE PERSPECTIVES ON COMPOSITION 87
layers are open and obvious. Mahler, Shostakovich, Ives and Zimmerman
all put the outer musical world, all its musical periphery, into their music.
And this is my way as well.”12
Music by Black Composers is an excellent database created by violinist

Rachel Barton Pine, which aims to increase visibility of Black composers and
expand the classical canon. Although its focus is on instrumental repertoire
and pedagogy, there is also a plethora of biographical information of compos-
ers spanning from the 18th century to the present day that can be a wonderful
source of inspiration for young composers.13
Anglo-African composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor (1875–1912) studied at
the Royal College of Music in London and went on to be one of the most visi-
ble composers of color of the 19th C. His music was important in the fight for
race equality and the diversification of classical repertoire because he included
elements of traditional African music in his compositions.
The product of a white aristocrat and his black slave mistress, Joseph
Bologne le Chevalier de Saint-Georges (1745–1799) was given many oppor-
tunities by his father and became an athlete, a swordsman, and a violinist and
composer. His two violin concertos, opus 2, were very well received, but dis-
crimination based on race led to military sanctions, and his music is only now
regaining some of the respect it deserves.14

1. It seems like what many composers say when talking about music
doesn’t help much – isn’t it better just to learn from the actual music?
2. What may be easy for them might not be for me; how will hearing
thoughts from past composers actually help?
3. Most of these composers had more rigorous theory training than
we have had. How can we make up for this?
Exercise
Explore some of the living composer’s websites listed in Chapter 16

• Reading or listening to what composers have to say about their work
can be interesting and informative.
• Gender bias and racism have caused valuable composers of the past
and their writings to be overlooked.
• Music that seems difcult or undesirable can become more approach-
able when composers’ ideas are considered.
• Lack of diversity can make fnding role models difcult for young com-
posers.
Resources for further study can be found by fully exploring the Notes.
Notes
1. Debussy, Claude. 1992. As quoted in Companion to Contemporary Musical
Thought by John Paynter, p. 590.
2. Christian, Angela Mace. Hensel [née Mendelssohn (-Bartholdy)], Fanny Cäcilie.
2018. Accessed July 9, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/omo/9781561592630.013.
3000000159
3. Burkholder, J. Peter, Donald Jay Grout, and Claude V. Palsca. 2014. A History of
Western Music. New York; London: W.W. Norton, pp. 64–65.
4. Theofanidis, Christopher. 2000. “Rainbow Body for Orchestra.” Accessed July 9,
2021. www.theofanidismusic.com/works/program/rainbowbody.html
5. Becker, Dan. 2006. “Balancing Act: Some Thoughts on Teaching Com-
position.” Accessed July 9, 2021. https://nmbx.newmusicusa.org/Balanc-
ing-Act-Some-Thoughts-On-Teaching-Composition/
6. Lutch, Mitchell (ed.), and Timothy Salzman. 2003. A Composer’s Insight. Gales-
ville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, p. 17.
7. Montgomery, Jesse. 2021. Accessed July9, 2021. www.jessiemontgomery.com/about-
violinist
8. Higdon, Jennifer. 2013. “On Composing Music.” Accessed July 9, 2021. www.
youtube.com/watch?v=C5dpEIXpPT4
9. Young, Nina C. 2020. “On Her Project 19 Commission, ‘Tread Softly’.” Accessed
July 9, 2021. www.youtube.com/watch?v=N2AbazKCqB8
10. Prestini, Paola. 2014. “Following Her Vision.” Accessed July 9, 2021. www.you-
tube.com/watch?v=yijyPA_7yWk
11. Reid, Ellen. 2020. “Project 19 Profile.” Accessed July 9, 2021. www.youtube.com/
watch?v=HcVdU18nxDw
12. Ivashkin, Alexander. Alfred Schnittke. London: Phaidon, pp. 53 & 121.
13. Pine, Rachel Barton. “Music by Black Composers.” Accessed July 9, 2021.
www.musicbyblackcomposers.org
14. Saint-Georges, Joseph Bologne De (1745–1799) Artaria Editions. n.d. Accessed
July 9, 2021. www.artaria.com/pages/saint-georges-joseph-bologne-de-1745-1799
14 SUBJECTIVITY, SENSITIVITY, AND
PROFESSOR-STUDENT
MENTORSHIP
“The musician is perhaps the most modest of animals, but he is also the
proudest.”1
– Erik Satie
The relationship between student and teacher when it comes to composition

certainly can be complex. Students must try to separate themselves from their
compositions as much as possible, so that they can remain open to suggestions
and not take criticism personally. Teachers must point out areas of improve-
ment without stifling the student’s creativity. Classroom settings in which
ideas can be shared and questions discussed are often paired with individual
lessons. Ultimately, the student should be the sole creator. Every relationship
will be different, but it’s worth exploring what, historically, works well and
what does not.
Student Perspective
From Montana State University graduate Athena Carson:
Having had two very different teachers so far in my education as a com-

poser, both have been equally helpful and have contributed to my devel-
opment in different ways. Together they have addressed all of my needs by
1) building skills from the ground up, ex. theory, orchestration; 2) finding
the best way to say in music what I have in mind, 3) exploring the esoteric
side of composition; 4) expanding the content of what I’m writing, and
5) treating music like a language, using correct grammar and expanding
my vocabulary. I have found that my process is very introspective, and a
certain level of trust is needed between student and teacher. Some stu-
dents can learn from each other through student composers’ concerts and
discussing their works in progress but others not so much. Sometimes the
level of mutual respect and trust is not always there.
A good place to start for both student and professor is mindfulness during
critique. Especially when it is an original work, the creator often feels strongly
about the notes on the page. The ensuing dialog about the music in question
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90 SUBJECTIVITY, SENSITIVITY, MENTORSHIP
might require a certain amount of sensitivity and diplomacy from both stu-
dent and professor. Each is hearing it with a different set of ears due to their
different backgrounds, and often the student has played it over and over, and
it has become familiar. In a class setting, gathering everyone’s ideas, answering
questions, and sharing in general create an environment that fosters produc-
tivity. Content is not mathematical or formulaic, and teaching composition
often is a dialogue with the student. We are a community of creators, interact-
ing non-competitively with each other to share ideas.
From Mara Gibson: (used by permission)
• Teaching composition requires a balance between the student and the

teacher, between the micro and the macro. The strategy includes the
teacher’s understanding of the creative process, the student’s reflec-
tion on that process, and a design of individually tailored tasks for the
student – a set of activities mutually agreed upon. Constant shifting
between the big picture and the small steps is critical.
• Like most artists, composers are basically lifelong students.
• Therefore, the most effective composition teachers are foremost
learners and listeners.
• As a composer and a teacher, I encourage the development of preliminary
expectations for a piece, ideally before any notes are composed. What
is the composer’s musical and/or non-musical intention, and how does
that relate to form, timbre, and any number of parameters? Then, and
only then, do we move into design. Graphs work really well for me at
this stage! After notes begin to emerge, we review the initial intention.
Has it changed? Should it change? Maybe the material is calling for a
different architecture than originally planned.
• When I was learning the piano as a child, I was rigidly told how to play.
However, it was not until I had an opportunity to shape those ideas
that I began writing music and discovering my artistic voice.
• Composing and interpreting music are very personal endeavors,
ones that vary tremendously from personality to personality. I came
to recognize my voice when I was granted the freedom to explore.
In part, this was about me giving myself ownership, and in part,
I needed my teachers to give me permission, to provide an extra
nudge.2
From James Mobberley, at the University of Missouri – Kansas City (used

by permission): Composers are deeply connected to their work on levels that
range from the emotional to the spiritual. As teachers, we are at our best when
we help to build a student’s awareness of this connection and when we tie the
absorption of technical information directly to the student’s drive to create
and to grow. Providing this kind of mentorship to students from the day they
enter music school gives them the best chance of fully developing their skills
and artistry. Composition students need to take general courses in musical
SUBJECTIVITY, SENSITIVITY, MENTORSHIP 91
technique. It is the combination of the broader approach to developing a gen-

eral knowledge base and the more immediate experience of working toward
ideal choices for the piece at hand that provide a developing composer with
the best combination of skills.
The first lesson on a new piece begins with questions about intent that rein-
force the student’s understanding of what they are hoping to accomplish. This
provides the teacher with a window into why the work is proceeding in the
way that it does and a strong platform of credibility when making suggestions.
Rationale
Typically (in high school and college classes), the teacher knows what the
student needs to know and is there to show them how to correctly produce
results. For developing composers, the “right and wrong” ways to do things
are secondary to the understanding of their art and the intent behind the
choices they make as they create it.
A teacher can certainly be of benefit to students simply by looking at their
work and fixing mistakes or describing what they themselves would have done
instead or would do next. But when students inevitably come to the realiza-
tion that the teacher’s aesthetic cannot be the driving force behind their own
actions, they can reach a crisis point if arriving at this stage without having
developed a significant understanding of their own intent.
This method helps students learn more about their own biases and the
choices they make and why they make them. Through a better understanding
of their own motivations, students gain more confidence in the effectiveness
of their work. Their ability to discuss their music and to discuss the works of
their peers improves as well.
Upon first hearing a student’s composition:
Definitely treat it as a conversation rather than a monologue. This is your

only chance to interact with this student; if you begin with questions
about them, their background, and their level of instruction and then
about the piece itself (intent, etc.), your comments will be as relevant
as possible.
If possible, begin with something that you liked, or that worked well. If
your comments are at least 50% positive, these form a platform from
which you can suggest additional areas of focus to make things “even
better.” Again this is your only chance to have an impact. A list of
mistakes to fix, although helpful, is about as much of an interaction as
if the information were sent in an email.
It is natural for students to feel as though whatever you are saying is

something they should already have known; if you word things so as to
not help them believe this, it will improve the experience. For example,
“This section would be more effective if you added a contrapuntal bass
line and extended it by another six measures” could be stated in this way:
“Do you think that the end of this section should function as a significant
climax or focal point?” (if yes or maybe) “One way I’ve found to enhance
a climactic effect in situations like this is to increase the complexity of the
counterpoint in the lead-up and perhaps also to prolong the final lead-up
a little bit. Just something to think about as you listen next time.” The first
is more or less a statement of fact, more or less shutting off conversation
or, worse, creating an adversarial mood; the second is an invitation to con-
sider an alternative point of view and will more likely result in a meeting
of the minds.
So, What is a Mentor Supposed To Do?

A mentor is supposed to act as another set of eyes and ears on the music, pro-
viding suggestions, just like the instructor, including other music to look at or
listen to, library and other resources, techniques to explore, options for solv-
ing specific issues in their music, notation and orchestration tips, suggested
options for compositional process alterations, etc.
Provide advice, as from a fellow student’s point of view, such as how to deal
with an instructor whose methodology, aesthetic, or personality is challenging
or unfathomable; how to navigate the various classes or sessions that make up
the course of study; and how to deal with campus bureaucracies. You can also
provide advice on more personal issues (as you both feel comfortable). Know
the contact information for the campus support offices.
When needed, focus on the nuts and bolts of notation, score study, etc. –
the picky stuff – so that the instructor can spend more time on things like the
development of the student’s individual voice, expansion of concepts in time
and other domains, and professional development.
Provide positive reinforcement, encouragement, and support.
What Should a Mentor Avoid Doing and Saying?

Try not to knowingly contradict the instructor; if it happens, explain carefully
that each person gives suggestions from her/his own point of view and that
in cases like this, it’s best to talk further with the instructor to clarify things.
Try not to make general suggestions that point a student away from their
own current aesthetic; if the mentee’s work is derivative, take the more dif-
ficult path of allowing them to write what they want to write while subtly
asking about minor options in the details of the music at hand (e.g. “What
would this phrase sound like in the minor key?”; “Next week can you bring
in six of your favorite songs – try to pick ones that are different from each
other in some ways; tell me what you like the most about each of them.” The
follow-up could be a conversation about ways to take the elements s/he likes
from multiple songs and put them in a single piece that doesn’t sound too
much like any one of them).
It is important that “students learn more about their own biases and the
choices they make and why they make them. Through a better understanding
of their own motivations, students gain more confidence in the effectiveness
of their work. Their ability to discuss their music and to discuss the works of
their peers improves as well.”3
Classroom exercise: Telephone game – each student writes a bar and passes
it along; each bar is a question that responds to the previous question bar. Play
the resulting “composition” in class and discuss.
Eric Funk advises students to write what is in their heart. “There will
always be differences in appreciation of any given music between teacher and
student, and there will always be things we can learn from each other, but as
Shakespeare said, ‘To thine own self be true.’ ”
He wrote the following to his composition class:

Should you hate your music? Be critical but love it. Separate yourself
from it, which is hard. Imagine what your composition teacher would say
about it. Gradually begin the process of learning to be your own teacher.
One of the trickiest things to do is to “teach” composition. Ultimately
that usually equals a mentor working with a mentee one on one, listen-
ing to and evaluating sketches. The strongest outcome while multidimen-
sional has one really important outcome: you learn to simultaneously be
both the mentor and the mentee. In other words, you start to master
the ability to evaluate the quality of your material with the binocular
vision that affords the necessary parallax for a depth of field required to
objectively and precisely adjudicate the quality of what you’ve written.
The biggest pitfall always remains the danger of habit – writing what
you always write and “liking” it because it’s familiar. That familiarity is
the result of repeated playing of the material, over and over and over,
until it becomes ‘the way it is‘. With that can come the biggest threat to
your music: you’re unable to objectively evaluate the material for inher-
ent weakness and modify it to the strongest version. Even reading this
might possibly make you feel defensive. That defense is likely lodged in
a territoriality around your subjectivity doctrine. I use that invented term
here to describe the feeling that what YOU like is what YOU like and
what OTHERS like is what OTHERS like and it’s all good. It’s a kind of
safe ambivalence. It’s like a miniature form of cultural relativism where,
for example, cultural anthropologists feel that right and wrong depends
on the culture. What seems wrong to we observers in one studied culture
might well be right from their perspective.
I only go there . . . to help you learn to practice being and becoming
both the creative force AND the objective adjudicator of your work. That
begs the question “what am I looking for as weaknesses in my sketches”?
I contend that it’s not a specific set of overarching materials. Instead,
it’s specific to the sketch/piece you’re in the process of composing. You
MUST be totally open-minded when evaluating your material.
Since musical taste is such a personal thing, care must be taken on both
sides to not offend. Citing specific reasons why a particular passage might
need improvement and balancing the negative with finding a pleasing example
in the music are often good strategies. After all, the mentoring relationship
is important, and there are some famous examples when composition teach-
ers stated that they did not approve of a certain passage that went on to be
included in a revered composition. One such example is from the Paris Con-
servatory, in which Debussy incurred the disapproval of the faculty, particu-
larly his composition teacher, Guiraud, for his failure to follow the orthodox
rules of composition then prevailing.4
When George Gershwin applied to study composition with the noted
Nadia Boulanger, who, along with several other prospective tutors such as
Maurice Ravel, rejected him. They were afraid that rigorous classical study
would ruin his jazz-influenced style. Maurice Ravel’s rejection letter to Ger-
shwin told him, “Why become a second-rate Ravel when you’re already a
first-rate Gershwin?”5
When the professor and the students discuss the pros and cons of a specific
student composition or student compositions in general, the Socratic method
can be very useful. Since we all bring different musical experiences, it is best
to avoid purely judgmental comments but rather to ask questions. What aes-
thetic are you trying to achieve here? Are there things you could add that
would help achieve it? Or things you could take away?
George Bernard Shaw once apologized for the length of a letter he wrote to
a friend, saying he didn’t have time to write a shorter one (this was originally
written by Blaise Pascal).6 It’s easy in music composition, especially with ease
of cutting and pasting in computer music notation programs, to ramble on
as an aspiring composer. Often it is a good idea to really decide what are the
very best parts of the composition and then develop those ideas and throw the
lesser parts away or put them aside for future use.
Here are a few paraphrased notes from composer and theorist Kyle Gann
(used by permission):
• It always seemed to me that what was mainly absorbed from an older

composer was attitude, and we gravitate toward attitudes that appeal
to us.
• It seems that there are two kinds of composition students: those who
write too little music because they’re too self-critical and those who
write too much because they’re not self-critical enough.
• I try to isolate the essential idea of a piece and write my own little
variations on it, to look for ways to continue.
• Sometimes I’ll pull out a piece of my own, show the original problem
I struggled with, and show how I solved it.
• Some students, as soon as they’ve written three notes, think that those
notes aren’t good enough, comparing them with Bach.
• Sometimes if they’re obsessed with a certain composer they worship,

I’ll forbid them to listen to that composer anymore. I had to quit
listening to Cage in college for this reason.
• The students who write too much are much harder for me. It’s difficult
to convince them that revision is golden, that even when it’s going
well, you shouldn’t always settle for the first idea that presents itself.
And then, there’s little opportunity to direct the course of a piece when
it comes in with the final double bar already in place.
• Young composers tend to get inspired by a sonic image and then just
start out without knowing where they’re going.
• It seems like college-age composers have tremendous bursts of
inspiration and are almost incapable of composing when not inspired.
• Some young composers find a certain method to generate music and
use it strictly. This gets internalized after age 30.
• Composition is a lifelong process of evolution; don’t get stuck clinging
to the process that always worked in the past. The most important
thing is to extend your technique into a new area, get stuck, until
an imaginative breakthrough suddenly makes you see where your
imagination has been too limited. When you gain experience, you learn
to accept that “stuck” feeling as the necessary prelude to a creative
breakthrough.7
Don’t be afraid to throw things away. Or set them aside for use later. Some
“inventions” will just be a better fit in a future composition. Often, an eraser
can be useful. The famous scene in the movie Amadeus comes to mind when
“his majesty” told Mozart that his new composition was a fine effort but, in
a few places, there were too many notes. Mozart responded that there were
exactly the number of notes he required, no more, no less. Then he asked the
king, “Which notes would you like me to cut?” If you haven’t seen the movie,
we highly recommend it.8
Professors need to remember, like the Ravel and Debussy examples and at
least one in my career (Young), that the students in your class might go on to
become more successful as composers than their instructors.

1. What benefts can be gleaned from professors sharing their own
music with students?
2. How do both sides agree on the nature of the mentoring relation-
ship?
3. Is it better to talk about how to structure a mentorship or just let it
happen?
Luke Dahn (University of Utah) has the following rubric for grading the
work of composition students: (used by permission, with minor edits)
Evaluation of Compositions
The attached composition rubric may be filled out (by both student and
teacher) for each composition project. Self-assessment is a crucial part of
art-making.
Poor (F) = 0 pts, Below Average (C/D) = 1 pt, Good (B) = 2 pts, Excellent
(A) = 3 pts
Total score: 12 (12 = A+; 11 = A; 10 = A-; 9 = B+; 8 = B; 7 = B-/C+;
6 = C; 5 = C-; 4 = D+; 3 = D; 2 = D-; 1 = F)
Other possible penalties: Incomplete work; Failure to incorporate any
required elements; Late submission.
TABLE 14.1
Idiomatic Writing Formal Clarity, Overall Creativity and Score
Cohesiveness, Richness of Musical Presentation
and Sense of Language
Direction
Excellent Exceptional com- Exceptional Exceptional creativity, Exceptionally
mand in writing overall sense thoughtfulness and thor- neat and clean
for the specific of direction oughness in constructing score – Proper
instruments – A strong musical materials – Mu- notation used –
cohesiveness of sical ideas are distinctive Clear, detailed
materials – For- and compelling and have performance
mal clarity strong defining character- instruction –
istics – Careful attention Looks profes-
to and effective use of sional
non-pitch parameters
Good Good command Good overall Creativity and thought- Neat score
in writing for the sense of direc- fulness in constructing – Notation
specific instru- tion – Demon- musical material – mostly accu-
ments – Some strates cohesive- Some musical ideas are rate – Certain
questionable ele- ness of materials compelling; some have notational
ments but noth- – A sense of for- strong defining char- elements could
ing persistent mal clarity acteristics – Materials be cleaner) OR
could be developed more certain perfor-
thoroughly – A consider- mance instruc-
able degree of attention tions could be
to non-pitch parameters clearer
Below Lack of com- Sense of overall General lack of creativity Problems
average mand in writing direction needs- and thoughtfulness in with improp-
for the specific improvement – musical material – Musi- er notation
instruments Lacks cohesive- cal ideas are not particu- – A number
ness of materials larly compelling, lacking of notational
in distinctive qualities elements need
to be cleaner
(e.g. accidentals
overlap
Idiomatic Writing Formal Clarity, Overall Creativity and Score

Cohesiveness, Richness of Musical Presentation
and Sense of Language
Direction
– Multiple prob- – Formally un- – Materials betray a cer- with slur
lems or errors clear – Composi- tain lack of imagination marks) OR
(e.g. range issues, tion too short or OR a certain triteness performance
practically impos- too long – Demonstrates a general instructions are
sible gestures) lack of attention to non- unclear
pitch parameters
Poor Poor writing Weak sense of Little care and thought Score messy
for the specific direction – Lack- put into constructing – Notation
instruments – ing in cohesive musical materials – Mu- incoherent
Numerous prob- use of materials sical ideas are weak and
lems or errors – Formal confu- lack distinctive qualities
sion
Other possible penalties: incomplete work; failure to incorporate any

required elements; late submission.

• Both student and teacher should show sensitivity when discussing
student work.
• Development of preliminary expectations with respect to form,
timbre, and other parameters should be encouraged.
• Students should have the freedom to explore.
• It’s best to start the frst lesson on a new piece with questions about
intent to help students understand what they hope to accomplish.
• On frst hearing a student’s composition, the response should be a
conversation rather than a monologue.
• Gradually begin the process of learning to be your own teacher.
• If a student is obsessed with a certain composer, it might be a good
idea to stop listening to that composer.
• Don’t be afraid to throw things away or put them aside for future use.
Notes
1. n.d. “Erik Satie Quotes.” Brainy Quote. Accessed July 13, 2021. www.brainyquote.
com/quotes/erik_satie_403292
2. Gibson, Mara. 2014. “Rethinking How We Teach Composition, Part 1.” New
Music Box. February 20. Accessed July 13, 2021. https://nmbx.newmusicusa.org/
rethinking-how-we-teach-composition-part-1/
3. Mobberly, James. n.d. “Modes of Teaching: Methodologies, Techniques and Con-

cepts.” James Mobberley // Teaching Music Composition. Accessed July 13, 2021.
https://jamesmobberleymusic.files.wordpress.com/2015/10/modes-of-teaching-
handout.docx
4. Jensen, Eric Frederick. Debussy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 27.
Accessed July 13, 2021. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/debussy-
9780199730056?cc=us&lang=en&
5. Jablonski, Edward. 1987. Gershwin. New York, NY: Doubleday Books, pp. 155–
169.
6. Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, Blaise Pascal in *Lettres Provinciales* (1657) no
16.
7. Gann, Kyle. 2007. “How to (Not) Teach Composition.” Post Classic: An Arts Journal
Blog. May 11. Accessed July 13, 2021. www.artsjournal.com/postclassic/2007/05/
how_to_not_teach_composition.html
8. Forman, Milos. 1984. Amadeus. Los Angeles, CA: Orion Pictures.
15 GETTING SUCCESSFUL
PERFORMANCES
“It’s a luxury to not have to just be performing with other people to have
my music heard.”1
– M. Ward
Even after the composition is finished, finding a group willing and able to
perform it successfully is another matter. Few student composers have the
resources to hire performers, and it takes some networking to find volunteers
to perform new works unless the composer has already established a signifi-
cant positive reputation. Building relationships with people who will perform
original works is extremely important. It is hard to know exactly how a piece
will sound until it’s actually being performed by humans rather than by a
computer. The software programs available are great tools but can never fully
replicate the real experience. Remaining open to performer comments and
criticism will greatly increase the likelihood of a successful performance.
It is interesting that “it is as a performer that all musicians – including
composers – begin their musical journey. Competency as a performer is
often a key determinant in the ultimate success of a composer.”2 Before
Mozart started composing his “Clarinet Concerto,” K. 622, he was inspired
to compose for Anton Stadler, a fine instrumentalist. Starting with specific
players in mind is relevant in a composition course that has as a require-
ment, a performance on a student composers’ concert. What has proven not
to work is waiting until three weeks before the concert to see if there are
fellow students willing and able to practice, rehearse, and perform a new
work. So, take a note, so to speak, from Mozart’s example and start with
the players.
Meet in a practice room and have students play patterns, ranges, or tech-
niques that they like to play and that they are good at. Have them describe
pieces that they viewed as very well-suited to their instruments and ask why.
Having performance faculty do instrument demonstrations for the whole class
has been found to be very helpful. Other instrumental demos can be done by
members of the class.
One rule of thumb we tried at Montana State University was to say that
if the performance time was three minutes, the players should have their
parts distributed to players three weeks before the concert. Before this rule,
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-15
100 GETTING SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCES
someone described the Student Composers’ Concert as “the one where you
get your music as you are going on stage.” Needless to say, this was a situation
that had to be remedied.
John Denman, former clarinet professor at the University of Arizona in
Tucson, said that when his colleague, composer Robert Muczynski, was com-
posing his “Time Pieces” for clarinet and piano, he would walk down the
hall and ask John to play a passage. This is an important lesson for young
composers, especially when writing for a given instrument for the first time.
Having players willing to play samples of your piece is a tremendous resource,
to get a sense of how the music you have composed will actually sound in a
performance. Some instruments, like the guitar and harp, are challenging for
composers unfamiliar with them.3
This author (Young), when writing a new piece for soprano, flute, clarinet,
and guitar, paid a small honorarium to the guitar player to play through the
guitar part and make adjustments that would increase the playability for that
instrument. Having performers suggest edits to enhance suitability of the part
for their instrument is a good idea and can increase the likelihood of a suc-
cessful premiere. Being present when the player does this might also inspire
the composer in ways not otherwise anticipated.
Ideally, if the composer has the chance to make edits after the first
rehearsal, the final result can be enhanced. For example, a rhythm that the
computer plays perfectly, as computers usually do, might prove very difficult
for the performer and could benefit from a notational or rhythmic adjust-
ment. Composers often get very familiar with a passage after listening to
MIDI performances of it and wonder why the performers don’t play it well.
Another consideration is the ability level of the performers. There are many
degrees of performance ability, even within categories of students and pro-
fessionals. Learning their strengths beforehand, such as technique, tone, and
ranges, is helpful. I remember an example at a high-level composition work-
shop in which a composer wrote extended passages for a soprano in the very
top of her range, and when the soprano suggested it was difficult to stay in
that tessitura for that long, the student composer replied: “The book said
sopranos can sing in that register.”4
As mentioned in Chapter 6, carefully notating the articulations, bowings,
and dynamics should be done before the players get the parts to prepare for
the first rehearsal. Often these are added by student composers when the per-
formers ask questions like, “What dynamic would you like here?” or “Should
this passage be tongued or slurred?” If you have completed your work as a
composer, these questions should be rare.
Here are some tips on this subject from Canadian composer Colin Eatock:
• The composer organizes a concert and hires musicians to play his/her

music.
• Composers join together to create a new-music society or collective
and present their music.
GETTING SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCES 101
• Some kind of ad hoc “mutual back-scratching” arrangement is

established.
• A composer approaches performers and lobbies them to perform his/
her music.
• Performers give subsequent performances, of their own volition, of a
piece a composer has paid or lobbied them to play.
• A composer submits a work to a “call for scores” by a performing
group.
• Performers seek a composer out and commission him/her to write a
new piece for them.
• Performers hear a piece of music they like and decide to perform it.5
An example of the second bullet is as follows:

Sara Graef initiated the Composer-Performer-Collective at California State
University, Los Angeles, to facilitate the interaction between student compos-
ers and performers during the process of creating a new piece. Composers
enrolled in the composition class, while a set group of performers enrolled in
the ensemble. Each term a different set of performers was recruited in order
to ensure variety in instrumentation and style (e.g. mixed chamber ensemble,
saxophone quartet, percussion ensemble, choir, solo vocal with piano, etc.).
This eliminated the typical composers’ burden of finding volunteer perform-
ers and allowed them to receive valuable feedback about idiomatic writing,
the impact of effective notation during the rehearsal process and how to com-
municate with performers. Performers got practice sharing feedback about
playability and notation and experience interpreting brand-new pieces. It con-
nected the performers to the composers and the process, and the creation of
new music became immediate, personal, and rewarding for everyone.
With the New Music Ensemble, there is a distinct effort to program music
written in the past 10 or 15 years by composers with diverse backgrounds.
(Of about 40 pieces programmed since 2015, about 70% are by women, and
many are by composers of color.) Every concert includes a significant amount
of improvisation, and most performers are asked to do something with which
they have little experience, such as improvising, speaking, singing, clapping,
playing inside the piano, or something else. The group welcomes students at
all levels of performance, which means that composition majors – regardless
of performance experience – are encouraged to participate alongside perfor-
mance majors. Repertoire is chosen to highlight strengths in ways that per-
formances always feel rewarding and challenging to just outside the students’
comfort zones.
Music is chosen both for subsets and for the entire group, and everyone
remains on stage for the duration of the concert, with simple stage lighting
used to highlight active performers. Because the instrumentation and person-
nel tend to change from term to term, programming can be a challenge. Even
finding suitable open-instrumentation pieces can be difficult, so Professor
Graef began writing a piece for each concert, enabling me to focus on the
strengths of the particular group. Students get to be somewhat involved in

the process, which always involves some element of improvisation or inde-
terminacy, and we workshop sections throughout the rehearsal period, giving
the students a sense of ownership and pride in the performance. We tend
to emphasize issues of social or environmental justice, and brand-new pieces
allow us to address current issues. The concerts, which often feature multi-me-
dia, amplified pieces with live processing or pre-recorded tracks, generally
move quickly, completed in under an hour so the energy remains high and the
audience stays riveted and enthusiastic.6
Here are some illuminating statements from clarinetist, composer, and

conductor Jerry Summers:
I was hired to play clarinet with the expanded Vancouver Symphony in a

summer concert which was conducted by Igor Stravinsky (Firebird, Rite
of Spring, and Fireworks). Clearly a daunting event for a 19-year-old clar-
inetist! What affected my subsequent musicianship were the rehearsal
techniques employed by Robert Craft, who meticulously prepared the
orchestra for Stravinsky to conduct. Essentially, the way he layered each
related episode or block of music and then overlaid them as each line
was polished. The integrated results were breathtaking . . . and actually
efficient! My own rehearsal technique as a chamber musician and sub-
sequently a conductor evolved as a direct result of this profound illu-
mination. Having written music myself, the actual linking and building
of musical elements within each piece were similarly conceived. I guess
you could say that I learned how important the detailed relationships
became in preparing performances . . . and working through the elisions
and points of tension and release in music. Also, the printed dynamic indi-
cations are so relative . . . ie. dependent upon the context of the scoring,
the acoustic in a particular environment, the relative strengths of players,
the relative location of dynamic indicators considering the strong/weaker
natural phenomena with each instrument and group (ie . . . ff on low
flute, or pp in the weaker throat register of the clarinet) – I have found
that composers often don’t account for such insights. Beethoven, for
example, would write ff in a tutti climactic point . . . whereas some par-
ticipating instruments need to actually play less than that (ie. some brass
or percussion). Compositional notation is, at best, a general indicator of
the nuances within a work . . . (ie. slower or faster vibrato, no vibrato, on
the fingerboard, near the bridge, pizzicato never pp etc).7
Another consideration that might result in many more performances is

providing alternate parts for different instruments. For example, the “Six
Studies in English Folksong” by Ralph Vaughan Williams mentioned in Chap-
ter 10, was written for cello and piano but has alternate instrumentation for
GETTING SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCES 103
violin, viola, clarinet, English horn, bassoon, alto sax, or tuba in place of the
cello.
In summary, the words of Eric Funk are appropriate here:
Make certain that each new piece doesn’t find a home in a drawer or a box
never to be heard and “die” there. You need to work for performances.
And then you need to work for more durable preservations (recordings)
and get those to as many people as you can. If what you’ve “said” in your
piece has resonance with the collective, it’s really critical that you do every-
thing in your power to make it available. No magic someone is going to
show up and discover you, produce your work, and launch your composi-
tion career. It’s entirely up to you whether your music is heard. And ulti-
mately, it’s you who are in charge of the quality of what you compose. This
is the time in your composer life when you begin to embrace and master
craft and content. You never actually arrive or “get there.” It’s a life-long
process of evolving. As you become you, what you have to say and how
you say it will necessarily change. Things you express musically next year,
five years from now, 30 years from now, will be very different from what
you’re composing today. But there will be evidence of the “you” today,
even in the last piece of music you compose in your lifetime. It’s all quite
beautiful. Be conscious. Be clear and communicate your vision through the
manuscript.

1. How do I fnd performers, and will they want to play my music?
2. What are the most important things to think about in preparing my
manuscript for actual performers?
Exercise
A good way to start out getting to know performers is to write a solo piece
with piano accompaniment and then find fellow students who will be willing
to perform it. Examine the second of four pieces for clarinet and piano by
Berg.8
How does Berg unify the piece in the absence of traditional tonality? How
do the clarinet and piano articulate their respective high points? Is there a
consistent use of intervals in each instrument?
Analyze the Berg piece and use it as a model to write a piece for clarinet
(or another solo instrument) and piano.

• Starting a piece with specifc players in mind can lead to a good per-
formance.
• Ask performers about what works on their instruments and what
they like to play.
• Give performers plenty of time to learn their parts.
• Having performers suggest edits to enhance the suitability of their
parts can lead to a more successful performance.
• Don’t be misled by a MIDI performance that can make awkward writ-
ing sound good, even when it isn’t.
• Be aware of the level of ability of your performer(s).
• It is of the highest importance for young (and older) composers to
make sure their works receive performances.
Notes
1. Breihan, Tom. 2011. “M. Ward Going Solo Once Again.” Accessed July 13, 2021.
https://pitchfork.com/news/42403-m-ward-going-solo-once-again/
2. Klein, Joseph. 2007. “A Comprehensive-Immersive Approach to Beginning Com-
position Instruction.” p. 1. Accessed July 13, 2021. https://josephklein.music.unt.
edu/sites/default/files/klein_comprehensive_immersive_05-09.pdf
3. Denman, John, interview by Gregory Young. 1992.
4. Croy, Elizabeth, interview by Gregory Young. 1989.
5. Eatock, Colin. 2011. “How to Get Your Music Played.” Dr. Colin Eatock, Com-
poser. November 24. Accessed July 13, 2021. www.colineatock.com/eatock-dai-
ly-blog/how-to-get-your-music-performed
6. Graef, Sara, email message to Young Gregory. 2021.
7. Summers, Jerry. email message to Gregory Young. 2020.
8. Berg, Alban. 1920. “4 Stücke, Op.5.” Accessed July 13, 2021. https://ks4.imslp.
net/files/imglnks/usimg/f/fd/IMSLP12907-Berg_-_Op.5_-_4_Stucke_for_Clarinet_
and_Piano.pdf
16 ONLINE RESOURCES
This chapter is an annotated guide to a wealth of free resources that can be

read online, PDFs that can be printed and shared, music scores, and short vid-
eos. Although it takes time to go through all of the online resources, we highly
recommend that you invest some time with as many as you can.
Inspiration and Creativity (Chapter 1)

Exploring the Wonders of Musical Creativity. www.uchicago.edu/features/
exploring_the_sources_of_musical_creativity Three esteemed University of
Chicago professors describe the work and wonder of inspiration. Jeremy
Manier involves three women – Shulamit Ran, Augusta Read Thomas, and
Marta Ptaszynska – in an informative article, along with video clips containing
performances of their compositions and interviews with the composers.
The Secrets Behind the Music Composing Process. www.artofcomposing.
com/music-composing-process This is a series of articles by Jon Brantingham,
film composer and music theory enthusiast, discussing sources of inspiration
on the Art of Composing website. Originally written in 2011 but updated
with additional articles in 2019.
11 Ways to Find Immediate Inspiration for Your Next Composition.
https://music.tutsplus.com/tutorials/11-ways-to-find-immediate-inspira-
tion-for-your-next-composition – audio-20428 This is part of a series by Los
Angeles–based film composer Ryan Leach on Songwriting & Composing:
From Inspiration to Execution. This website has lots of pertinent information,
including YouTube videos about songwriting and practical tips on composing.
Universal Principles (Chapter 2)

A Practical Guide to Music Composition, by Alan Belkin, University of Mon-
treal, Canada. www.dolmetsch.com/form.pdf This is a nuts-and-bolts type of
guide to music composition that is fairly traditional but also useful in terms of
straight-forward information on things like form, musical direction, balance,
blend, flow, etc.
Ward-Steinman, David. “On Composing: Doing It, Teaching It, Living It.”
Philosophy of Music Education Review, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Spring 2011): 5–23.
DOI: 10.4324/9781003205869-16
106 ONLINE RESOURCES
www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.2979/philmusieducrevi.19.1.5.pdf?refreqid=-
excelsior%3Abf2d7430a2a582e72e66c1d581728e11 This is an interesting
article by a composer and professor who studied with both Nadia Boulanger
and Darius Milhaud and spent 36 years teaching at San Diego State Univer-
sity. “This paper is concerned with the craft and pedagogy of contemporary
classical composition, starting with an examination of French pedagogy as
I received it from Darius Milhaud and Nadia Boulanger in the late 1950s.”
Music, Composition and Theory, by Rowy van Hest. https://composer.
rowy.net Rowy van Hest is a Dutch composer educated at the Brabants Con-
servatory of Music in the Netherlands and taught music theory and compo-
sition for many years. This website has free advice on composing music and
downloads of instructional PDFs.
Compositional Process: Getting Started (Chapter 3)

Pierce Gradone on his compositional process. http://piercegradone.com/?p=155
Pierce Gradone, assistant professor of music composition at Knox College,
was asked to write a brief sketch of his compositional process, and this con-
tains some pragmatic as well as conceptual commentary that undergraduate
composition students might find helpful.
How to Begin Your HSC Composition. www.elizabethjigalin.net/hsc-comp
Elizabeth Jigalin is a composer and teaching artist based in Sydney, Austra-
lia. This structured approach to the compositional process is divided up into
seven sections: Intentional Listening, Structure, Visual Thinking, Inspiration,
Improvising; Instruments, and The World You’re Composing In. Complete
with video clips, there is a lot of good information here.
“I want to compose a piece. What should I do?” A Composing Starter
Kit by Robin McClellan. https://notes.noteflight.com/composing-starter-kit
As the title suggests, this is really for beginners and represents a step-by-step
guide from Note Flight that provides an entry point for those who don’t have
a lot of training in music theory or composition.
The Compositional Process, by Edison Denisov. www.jstor.org/stable/
942977?seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents This full-length article, trans-
lated from the Russian and printed in the journal Tempo by Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, offers a comprehensive view of Denisov’s process, including
both philosophical and practical perspectives.
Compositional Processes as Research: Music and/as Process at the
Annual RMA Conference, 2015. https://musicandasprocess.org/2015/02/06/
compositional-processes-as-research-music-andas-process-at-the-rma-
annual-conference-2015 A group of mainly British based academics (one
South African) explore many relatively new areas of practice and research, in
particular the spaces between improvisation and composition and the bound-
aries between practice and process.
Teaching Composition in Twenty-First-Century America: A Conversation
with Samuel Adler, by Marilyn Shrude, publ. In American Music, Vol. 26,
ONLINE RESOURCES 107
No. 2 (pp. 223–245) www.jstor.org/stable/40071704?refreqid=excelsior

%3A4d11474d35b23e18517b05b2046a28a5&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_
contents This interview format is a nice way to learn from a famous com-
poser=author whose six-decade career has included teaching positions at the
Eastman and Juilliard Schools of Music.
Development of Musical Ideas (Chapter 4)

“Motivic Development is How a Piece Moves,” by Edward Levy. www.jstor.
org/stable/3392583?seq=5#metadata_info_tab_contents Published in the
Music Educators Journal, Vol. 56, No. 2 (Oct. 1969), this article goes into
detail about the smallest unit of musical material, the motif, and how it is
developed. This is an important perspective for the development of musical
ideas, one that young composers should spend some time on.
Developing Motives (Or How to Write a Symphony With Only Four Notes) by
Ryan Leach, on Envatotuts+. https://music.tutsplus.com/tutorials/developing-
motives-or-how-to-write-a-symphony-with-only-four-notes–audio-5003 This
online how-to tutorial focuses on starting with a motive and developing it. It
contains short examples that can be heard from the website or seen as notated
on manuscript.
The Process of Musical Composition: Interviews with 8 composers, by Stan
Bennett. www.jstor.org/stable/3345061?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents This
wealth of information was published in Research in Music Education Vol. 24,
No. 1 (Spring 1976), pp. 3–13. Semi-structured, with a given set of initial ques-
tions, this format starts with composers remembering the process of writing their
first work and ending with how they see the impact of their music on the world.
Portfolio of Compositions Conceived in Relation to an Exploration of
Silence in Music, by LO Ting-cheung https://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/18077/1/
phd-lo-revised.pdf This doctoral dissertation covers an important topic that
often is ignored in composition class – the role of silence. Often John Cage
is mentioned in composition classes, and a nod to his 4’33” is given in music
history class, but silence occurs so often in music that this article is worth at
least a brief examination.
Building Upon Prior Music: Plagiarism, Quotes, Techniques

(Chapter 5)
How does music listening help you to develop your originality in composing?
by Ethan Hein. www.quora.com/How-does-music-listening-help-you-to-de-
velop-your-originality-in-composing Ethan Hein, music technology and music
education professor, answers this question in an interesting way. Along with
his three-paragraph answer, there are quite a few related questions on the
right-hand side of the website, such as “Why am I unable to compose music
despite listening to music all day every day?” and “How can I compose original
music? It feels like everything I write is obvious, or has been written before.”
When Does Homage Become Plagiarism, by Ricky O’Bannon. http://bso-

music.org/stories/when-does-homage-become-plagiarism This article explores
the fine lines between homage and plagiarism, noting that it would be hard to
find music in which the composer didn’t use what came before. It also gives
examples of court cases involving plagiarism and discusses the system used to
adjudicate cases and provide justice.
How do you guys avoid accidental plagiarism when composing? https://
ocremix.org/community/topic/43401-how-do-you-guys-avoid-accidental-pla-
giarism-when-composing An interesting online discussion about the topic of
copying and plagiarism, by young people in a blog format with comments.
Anyone can sign in and join this discussion.
How do music composers prevent accidental plagiarism? by Matti Paalanen.
www.quora.com/How-do-music-composers-prevent-accidental-plagiarism
Producer, composer, guitarist, and pianist Matti Paalanen writes about the fact
that most short combinations of notes have already been composed in some
fashion. But longer melodies with rhythms not so much, “so the probability
of accidentally creating a long line of notes and harmonies that is part of a
well-known tune is not that high without you actually realizing that it is a tune
you have heard before.
Technique, Notation (Chapter 6)

AdvancedCompositionalTechniques,byStevenLebetkin.
http://stevenlebetkin.
com/speaking-engagements Following in Bernstein’s footsteps in attempting
to explain “what makes music tick and why it affects us, Steven Lebetkin
offers a series of topics that he speaks about to audiences, and the website con-
tains six interesting YouTube videos. These cover subjects like “What Makes
Great Music Great,” “Reaching Audiences in the 21st Century,” Speaking Out
on Film Composing Then, Now and in the Future,” etc.
Music Notation Style Guide, Indiana University Bloomington. https://
blogs.iu.edu/jsomcomposition/music-notation-style-guide This website has a
wealth of information including other books and resources to help students
achieve clarity in notation of musical intent.
Lyrics, Prosody, Singers (Chapter 7)

Simple Song by BJ Brooks, West Texas A&M University. www.wtamu.edu/~
bbrooks/Simple_Song/Text.html In this article, BJ Brooks explains in detail
how to set a text, beginning with a careful study of the text itself and pro-
gressing from a basic homophonic setting to a finished art song. Examples of
texts to set are included.
What is Art Song? by Emma Riggle. www.allclassical.org/what-is-art-
song Emma Riggle provides a detailed history of art song in this article
and includes performances of representative works as well as an extensive
bibliography.
What is Art Song? by Mary Ann Malloy. www.artsongupdate.org/Articles/

What%20is%20Art%20Song.htm In another article with the same title as the
previous one, Mary Ann Malloy provides an overview of art song with an
emphasis on its nature and the ways in which it is distinct from folk song.
Form, Texture, Style, and Harmonic Language (Chapter 8)

Copland’s Style by Lawrence Starr. www.jstor.org/stable/832582?seq=
1#metadata_info_tab_contents A 23-page article by Lawrence Starr on Cop-
land’s style, though published in 1981, offers a glimpse into the various influ-
ences on one of America’s greatest composers. An eclectic output over his
90-year lifespan allows Lawrence Starr to delve deeply into a variety of stylis-
tic elements and why his compositional kudos has ebbed and flowed. A discus-
sion of popular versus serious works adds interest to the article.
Texture. www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/z23cb82/revision/1 An easy guide
to texture with video and straightforward explanations of monophonic, poly-
phonic, homophonic heterophonic and chorale style texture. Especially in the
polyphonic section, fugal imitation is outlined with musical examples.
A Compendium of Ideas About Form in Music, by Jocelyn Morlock. www.
musiconmain.ca/compendium-of-ideas-about-form This is a very informative
article in which Jocelyn Morlock asks questions from a wide variety of com-
posers about today’s astounding diversity of music processes and structures.
It includes questions about how their views on form have changed over time,
whether the listener should be consciously aware of the form, and how form
relates to contrast and repetition.
How Important is “Form” in the Songwriting Process? By Gary Ewer.
www.secretsofsongwriting.com/2014/07/03/how-important-is-form-in-the-
songwriting-process This article is perhaps more appropriate for popular song
composers but has some wisdom about classical music as well. For example, on
the topic of the importance of form in classical music, he writes, “The longer a
piece of music is, the more important it becomes to preplan its formal design.”
Writing Atonal and 12-Tone Music (Chapter 9)

Tonality in crisis? How harmony changed in the 20th century by Arnold Whit-
tall. www.bl.uk/20th-century-music/articles/tonality-in-crisis# In this article,
Arnold Whittall explores changing approaches to harmony and the concept
of tonality in early 20th century music through works by Richard Wagner,
Claude Debussy, Arnold Schoenberg, and Béla Bartók.
What is Twelve-Tone Technique in Music?: A Complete Guide by Dan Far-
rant. https://hellomusictheory.com/learn/twelve-tone-technique In this article,
Dan Farrant provides a definition of 12-tone music and discusses its back-
ground and the way in which it is differentiated from serialism.
Electronic art music from monoskop.org (much of the text originally pub-
lished as part of the Doctoral Dissertation of Sarah Louise Bassingthwaighte
(2002) titled Electroacoustic Music for the Flute). https://monoskop.org/

Electronic_art_music This article summarizes the nature and history of con-
temporary electronic and computer music. It includes an extensive list of the
most influential composers and their works.
Global Perspective: Cultural Infuences (Chapter 10)

Cross-cultural perspectives on music and musicality by Sandra E. Tre-
hub, Judith Becker, and Iain Morley. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC4321137 This article has strong philosophical and ethnomusicological
leanings and needs to be read carefully and thoughtfully.
The Music of Bright Sheng: Expressions of Cross-Cultural Experience
by Peter Chang. http://brightsheng.com/articles/essayfilesaboutbs/Peter%20
Chang-Music%20of%20BS.pdf This is a 39-page article on the music of
Bright Sheng, award-winning Chinese-American composition professor at the
University of Michigan. In setting the stage for a thorough analysis of Sheng’s
music, this author provides a history of influences on composers from other
countries than their own.
Interdisciplinarity (Chapter 11)
Recent Montana State University graduate to present at World Congress on
Undergraduate Research in Qatar. www.montana.edu/news/16320/recent-msu-
graduate-to-present-at-world-congress-on-undergraduate-research-in-qatar
“Impressions of Haiti” was composed by Anthony Gaglia. Full description in
Chapter 11.
University of Surrey – Music Composition as Interdisciplinary Practice.
www.surrey.ac.uk/department-music-media/research/music-composition-inter-
disciplinary-practice This article is one of many composition, performance, and
sound art research pages of the University of Surrey website. Other work on the
website ranges from the inherently interdisciplinary, e.g., sonic art, data sonifi-
cation, to hybrid practices such as physical music and cross-art collaborations.
Composer Jonathan Wright’s website. www.jonathanwrightmusic.com The
website of Jonathan Wright, film composer, has lots of original music to listen
to, including music for video games and film samples.
Preparing Students for Successful Undergraduate Research in the Fine
Arts. https://mtprof.msun.edu/Fall2012/research.html This article by Gregory
Young and Douglas Bartholomew gives a detailed look at the many ways stu-
dents can incorporate creative activity such as composition into a capstone
course, and compares this with similar activities in other disciplines.
Listening Critically (Chapter 12)

www.quora.com/How-does-music-listening-help-you-to-develop-your-
originality-in-composing. By Ethan Hein, music technology and music education
professor. This is a question-and-answer page, and if you check out the related
questions, there is a lot of information about composing, originality, etc.
Active Listening, Music Education, and Society by Dan Mamiok. https://
doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.186 Mamiok describes “hear-
ing as a passive action of perceiving sounds, whereas listening involves paying
active attention to various layers and elements of what one is hearing.”
What Happens in the Brain While Composing Music? By Marko Ahti-
saari. http://syncproject.co/blog/2016/2/24/what-happens-in-the-brain-while-
composing-music This article really combines neuroscience and music, look-
ing at brain function with medical imaging, discussing how original music is
born in the brain, and exploring other questions in the area of creativity.
How We Listen, by Aaron Copland. www.beaufort.k12.nc.us/apps/
downloads/downloads/schools/washington-high-school/teachers/mila-marsh/
ap/6-copland-how-we-listen.pdf This is actually an analysis of Copland’s
essay, in which he describes the sensory, expressive, and musical experience
of listening.
Diverse Perspectives on Composition (Chapter 13)

See the endnotes of this chapter for a wealth of information.
Subjectivity, Sensitivity, and Professor-Student Mentorship

(Chapter 14)
How to (Not) Teach Composition, by Kyle Gann. www.artsjournal.com/
postclassic/2007/05/how_to_not_teach_composition.html This is an article
on the ArtsJournal blog by a composer, theorist, and historian filled with lots
of information about composing and about teaching composition. From the
perspective of a veteran writer and performer, we found it quite interesting.
Handouts from Professor James Mobberley, University of Missouri, Kan-
sas City. https://jamesmobberleymusic.files.wordpress.com/2015/10/modes-of-
teaching-handout.docx These handouts give insight into the student-mentor
relationship, including determining intent, teaching to the piece, leading group
composition lessons, etc.
Rethinking How We Teach Composition, Part 1, by Mara Gibson. https://
nmbx.newmusicusa.org/rethinking-how-we-teach-composition-part-1/ Com-
poser Mara Gibson writes about how to manage small picture with big pic-
ture and student-teacher relationships. “The strategy includes the teacher’s
understanding of the creative process, the student’s reflection on that process,
and a design of individually tailored tasks for the student – a set of activities
mutually agreed upon. Constant shifting between the big picture and the small
steps is critical.”
Rethinking How We Teach Composition, Part 2, by Mara Gibson. https://
nmbx.newmusicusa.org/rethinking-how-we-teach-composition-part-2 “The
strategy includes the teacher’s understanding of the creative process, the
student’s reflection on that process, and a design of individually tailored

tasks for the student – a set of activities mutually agreed upon. Constant
shifting between the big picture and the small steps is critical.”
“How Composers Approach Teaching Composition” by Clint Randles
and Mark Sullivan. https://nationalconference.nafme.org/wp-content/files/
sites/4/2017/10/RandlesComposition.pdf This explores “the process of help-
ing students compose on the basis of personal experience composing and
teaching young composers, via the work of leading scholars in music educa-
tion and by using narrative excerpts and musical examples. Key strategies are
identified that contribute to the successful teaching of composition, particu-
larly at the beginning, middle, and the end of musical compositions.”
Getting Successful Performances (Chapter 15)

How to get Your Music Played, by Colin Eatock. www.colineatock.com/
eatock-daily-blog/how-to-get-your-music-performed This is a short blog by
composer, music critic, author, and editor Dr. Colin Eatock. Eatock’s choral
works, songs, chamber music, and orchestral compositions have been per-
formed and broadcast in Canada, the United States, and Europe.
Advice for the emerging composer: publishing, with guest blogger John
Mackey. https://ericwhitacre.com/blog/advice-for-the-emerging-composer-
publishing-with-guest-blogger-john-mackey John Mackey writes about com-
posers getting their music published and whether it is better to not get their
music published due to the ins and outs of the financial side of the music
business.
GLOSSARY
Aleatory Music: music characterized by chance elements that are often con-
trolled by specific parameters such as a choice of notated paths or impro-
vised sections with more general guidelines.
Antecedent Phrase: the first phrase of a period which ends with a weak
cadence.
Aria: a work for solo voice, usually accompanied by orchestra; often found in
operas, cantatas, oratorios, and other vocal works. In opera, an aria serves
to convey the thoughts or emotions of a character. It is usually lyrical and
melodic.
Coda: literally the “tail,” the section following the final cadence that extends
the tonic key area and concludes the piece.
Collage Music: a relatively simple and repetitive original background punctu-
ated by quotations of music by other (often earlier) composers.
Consequent Phrase: the last phrase of a period, which answers the antecedent
phrase(s) and ends with a strong cadence.
Dodecaphony: a system of composition in which all 12 tones of the chromatic
scale are used in a specific order with none repeated until all have been
stated.
Extended Techniques: non-traditional means of creating sound on traditional
instruments.
Free Polyphony: independent melodies in two or more voices often occurring
in sequence. Often used freely as a contrast to a strict fugal exposition.
Fugue: a contrapuntal form in which usually three or more voices enter at
separate times in imitation and continue to appear throughout the work.
Fusion: a combination of two different styles or historical genres of music.
Filigree: ornamental, decorative groups of notes without significant thematic
importance.
Harmonic Language: the types of harmonies, both chordal and melodic, that
a composer uses.
Harmonic Rhythm: the rate of chord change in a musical composition.
Homophonic: a texture in which there is a clear melody with accompaniment.
Imitative Polyphony: a melody in one voice repeated in one or more other
voices in succession.
114 GLOSSARY
Inversion: as applied to contrapuntal forms and to atonal and 12-tone music,

the reversal in direction of the intervals of a passage.
Libretto: the text of an opera or operetta.
Matrix: in 12-tone or dodecaphonic music, a 12 by 12 arrangement of pitch
classes such that the 12-tone row is read from left to right, its inversion
from top to bottom, its retrograde from right to left, and its retrograde
inversion from bottom to top.
Minimalism: short figures or melodic fragments are repeated over larger time
spans with gradual changes.
Mode: a group of pitches with a specific intervallic relationship, often forming
a scale, used both melodically and harmonically.
Multiphonic: on wind instruments, a technique that produces multiple pitches.
Palindrome: a segment that reads the same forward and backward; a segment
immediately followed by a repetition in retrograde.
Period:a group of two or more phrases; usually the first phrase or group of
phrases ends with a weak cadence and the last with a strong cadence.
Phrygian Cadence:a half cadence in a minor key in which the bass descends
by a semitone from iv6 to V.
Pitch Class: all pitches having the same note name regardless of register.
Pitch-Class Set: the basic melodic or harmonic unit of atonal and serial music
usually comprising groups of three to nine members.
Prosody: the particular ways in which the rhythm and stresses of words are
set to music.
Recitative: music for solo voice in operas, cantatas, oratorios, and other vocal
works. Usually preceding an aria, recitative is syllabic, follows the rhythms
naturally occurring in speech and, in opera, serves to move the plot for-
ward.
Retrograde Inversion: as applied to contrapuntal forms and to atonal and
12-tone music, the reversal in direction of the intervals of a passage while
also reversing the order of pitches, moving from the last pitch to the first
pitch.
Retrograde: as applied to contrapuntal forms and to atonal and 12-tone
music, the reversal in the order of pitches in a passage, moving from the
last pitch to the first pitch.
Rondo: a piece in which the A section alternates with one or more contrasting
sections resulting in a form such as A-B-A-C-A-(D-A).
Serial: in 20th and 21st century music, a consistent ordering of all 12 pitches
of the chromatic scale used both melodically and harmonically and some-
times also applied to other parameters such as rhythm, dynamics, and
register.
Sonata Form: in a primarily homophonic texture, a form in which themes are
presented in tonic and then dominant (or mediant) key areas, subsequently
developed, and then returned to in a final section.
GLOSSARY 115
Sonata-Rondo Form: a hybrid form in which a rondo contains elements of

sonata form usually with the C section of the rondo form serving as the
development section.
Sonorité: sound for sound’s sake.
Stretto: in a fugue, overlapping entrances of the fugue subject.
Tessitura: the general area within a given range in which the majority of
pitches of a composition lie.
Texture: the result of the combination of voices and lines, their independence
or lack thereof and their presence or absence, density, or sparseness in a
musical composition.
Timbre: the quality or color of the sound created by different instruments or
combinations of instruments.
Tone Row: a linear progression of all 12 tones. The tone row is the basis of
12-tone compositions.
Total Serialism: all elements of a composition (pitch, dynamics, rhythm, reg-
ister, articulation, etc.) are dictated by the intervallic relationships between
the pitches of a 12-tone row.
INDEX
20th century 8, 51, 52, 56, 63, 65, 67, Debussy, Claude 29, 50–51, 54, 81, 83,
109 94–95, 109
Dello Joio, Norman 85
Adler, Samuel 80, 106 dodecaphony 52
aleatory music 64 dovetailing 34
antecedent phrase 13 D’Rivera, Paquito 67
aria 41
atonal 13, 56–57, 60, 65 Eatock, Colin 100, 112
electro-acoustic music 63–65, 75,
Babbitt, Milton 52, 63 109–110
Bach, Johann Sebastian 5, 10, 14, extended techniques 63, 67
e24–25, 27–28, 46–48, 50, 57, 61,
80–82, 94 filigree 28, 51
baroque period 27, 47, 50–52; neo- film music 70, 73–76, 78, 86, 108, 110
baroque 52 form 7, 11, 14, 16, 28, 39, 46, 48–52,
Bartok, Béla 29–30, 66–68 55, 56–57, 72–73, 85, 90, 96–97,
Beethoven, Ludwig van 4, 10, 14, 20, 105, 109
25, 28, 32, 46, 50, 102 fugue 46, 48–50
Berg, Alban 52, 56, 63, 77, 103 Funk, Eric 2, 42–44, 72, 80, 93, 103
Bernstein, Leonard 2, 108 fusion 69
Boulanger, Nadia 9, 13, 17, 94, 106
Brahms, Johannes 20, 51 Gaglia, Anthony 66–67, 110
Brantingham, Jon 3, 105 gallant style 51
Gann, Kyle 94, 111
Cage, John 9, 25, 64, 95, 107 Gershwin, George 44, 94
Carson, Athena 61, 89 Gibson, Mara 90, 111
Casseus, Frantz 66–67 Gilligan, Heather 22, 72
chorale 5, 14, 48, 50, 80–82, 109 Graef, Sara 101
classical period 27–28, 47, 51–52, Grant, Liam 36
85–87; neo-classical 52, 56, 63 Gubaidulina, Sofia 80
Coleridge-Taylor, Samuel 87
collage music 64–65 harmonic language 46, 50
concerto 2, 13, 25, 49–51, 87, 99 harmonic rhythm 59
consequent phrase 13 Hensel, Fanny Mendelssohn 83–84
counterpoint 9, 32, 47, 49–51, 56–60, Hest, Rowy van 7, 106
80, 82, 92 Higdon, Jennifer 86
Craft, Robert 102 Hildegard von Bingen 84–85
Hindemith, Paul 52, 85
Dahn, Luke 57, 96 hit point 76
Davidovsky, Mario 63 homophonic 47, 49, 51, 108–109
INDEX 117
imitative polyphony 48 romantic period 27, 51–52, 73

impressionism 28, 51, 56, 71 rondo 37, 50, 72
inspiration 1, 3–5, 14, 16, 20, 27,
51–52, 55, 71, 72–74, 78, 87, 95, Saint-Georges, Joseph Bologne le Cheva-
105–106 lier de 87
interval cycles 64 Schnittke, Alfred 86
invention 48, 50, 57–60 Schoenberg, Arnold 20, 52, 56, 60–61,
inversion 10, 14, 20, 24, 26, 61, 65 63, 109
Ives, Charles 63 Second Viennese School 52, 63
serialism 14, 52, 64, 109; tonal serialism
Kodaly, Zoltan 66 63
Sheng, Bright 67, 110
Leach, Ryan 4, 105, 107 Shields, Alice 63
Lee, Scott 64 Shostakovich, Dmitri 80, 87
Shuler, Philip 71
MacDonald, Andrew 12 Simeonov, Blago 12
Manier, Jeremy 2, 105 sonata 4, 10, 49, 51, 64
Maslanka, David 81 sonata form 49, 51
matrix 61, 63, 65 sonorité 28, 51
minimalism 9, 64–65 Stravinsky, Igor 28, 34, 50, 52, 102
minuet and trio 49 Summers, Jerome 102
Mobberley, James 90, 111 Svoboda, Thomas 80
mode 20, 56, 70 Swed, Mark 27
monophonic 47, 109 syllabic 41–43, 114
Montgomery, Jessie 85–86
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 28, 41, 86, Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilyich 1, 25, 51
95, 99 tessitura 39–40, 45, 100
texture 11, 13, 21, 46–48, 51, 55,
O’Bannon, Ricky 27, 108 79–80, 82
orchestration 32, 73–75, 89, 92 Theofanidis, Christopher 85
Thomas, Augusta Read 3, 105
palindrome 25 timbre 1, 4, 51, 73, 75, 90
pandiatonicism 63–64 tone row 14, 50, 61–65
phrygian cadence 79
Piazzolla, Astor 67 underscoring 75–76
pitch class 64 Ussachevsky, Vladimir 63
polyphony 47–48, 109; free polyphony
48 Varèse, Edgar 63
polytonality 63–64 Vaughan-Williams, Ralph 67, 102
Prestini, Paola 86
prosody 15, 44 Wagner, Richard 29, 74, 80, 109
Purcell, Henry 52–53 Webern, Anton 52, 56, 63, 86
whole-tone scale 51, 54
Ravel, Maurice 50–51, 94–95
Reid, Ellen 86 Yost, Laurel 16, 72
retrograde 14, 20, 23–24, 26, 61, 65 Young, Gregory 67, 71–72, 110
Roens, Steven 61 Young, Nina C. 86

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INSIGHTS INTO MUSIC

Insights into Music Composition is a guide and source of inspiration for

• methods for harnessing inspiration and creativity

Combining content from class scenarios with discussion questions, practical

Gregory Young is Professor of Music at Montana State University, where he

Steve Roens is Professor Emeritus in Composition at the University of Utah,

Gregory Young and Steve Roens

1 Inspiration and Creativity 1

This collection started with a meeting of professors at Montana State Univer-

recording, as there are important considerations for most composers regard-

Scott Lee, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA

Sara Graef, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Ryan Leach, film composer, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Mara Gibson, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA

Luke Dahn, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, USA

Linda Antas, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA

Kyle Gann, Composer, Author, from Dallas, Texas, TX, USA

Jon Brantingham, film composer, Los Angeles, CA, USA

Jerome Summers, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada

Jason Bolte, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA

James Mobberley, University of Missouri, Kansas City, MO, USA

Ingrid Stolzel, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

Heather Gilligan, Keene State University, NH, USA

Eric Funk, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA

Elizabeth Croy, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA

Athena Carson, composer, Bozeman, MT, USA

Andrew MacDonald, Bishop’s University, Lennoxville, PQ, Canada

“Inspiration is a guest that does not willingly visit the lazy.”1

Thinking about this chapter’s opening quote, there is a striking similarity

From Human Motivation, 3rd ed., by Robert E. Franken2:

• Creativity is defined as the tendency to generate or recognize ideas,

David Sands, a plant pathologist at Montana State University, has taught

• How composers get this inspiration is as varied as the musical products

many sources of potential inspiration as possible. I read about music

From Ryan Leach, LA-based film composer on 11 ways to find immediate

Questions for Discussion

Finally, choose your favorite continuation of either Example 1.1 or Exam-

Things to Know from Chapter 1

One of the primary goals when creating an original composition is to create

no passion unplayable no direction boring no shape

plagiarized too long too short not cohesive poor melodies

too simple predictable jumbled, chaotic too complex, background,

Dos and Don’ts

a. Use contrary motion if possible. Although similar motion can sound

b. Do not be afraid to use dissonances. Some people think dissonances

measures. Read a newspaper. Again, write four measures. And so on

Questions for Discussion

Example 2.2 is the beginning of the third movement of Beethoven’s

Things to Know from Chapter 2

Starting With a Concept

Starting With a Melody

Starting With a Chord Progression

Starting With a Form

Starting With a Rhythm

Starting With a Tone Row

Starting With Lyrics

Efective Work Habits

Whether you work on your music in a practice room or in a quiet room

Questions for Discussion