2.

0 EARTH’S PROCESSES
2.1 Introduction:
The earth is unstable and numerous types of stresses are operating within its body. This causes
the earth’s crust rocks to deform to varying degrees depending on the intensity of the forces as
well as the rigidity (inflexibility) of the rocks.

The regional deformations formed may be in vertical, horizontal and inclined directions. The
crustal deformations or movements are known as Diastrophic Movements and this phenomenon
is known as Diastrophism. The general term diastrophism is sometimes applied to the bending,
folding, warping and fracturing of the crust.

The diastrophic movements are of two types:-

 Epeirogenic Movements
 Orogenic Movements

2.2 Epeirogenic Movements (Continent Movement)

Epeirogenic movements are those involving forces acting along a radius from the Earth's centre
to the surface, and are characterized by large-scale uplift or submergence of land areas. The
movements involved are often so slow and widespread that no obvious folding or fracturing is
produced in the rocks. These are comparatively sudden movements, commonly accompanying
some catastrophic phenomenon like earthquakes and faulting etc.

2.3 Orogenic Movements (Mountain Movement)

These are the Movements which result in the formation of Mountains. These movements occur
in a direction tangential to the earth’s surface and are very slow as compared to epeirogenic
movements.

3.0 Earth’s Internal Processes

Comprises of Evolution of Earth’s crust, Earthquakes, Earth’s interior and Volcanoes

3.1 Evolution of Earth’s crust

The evolution of the earth’s crust can be explained by continental drift hypothesis, Seafloor
Spreading hypothesis, Theory of Plate tectonics and what dives the plates

a) Continental Drift Hypothesis

In 1915, Alfred Wegener proposed a hypothesis that suggested that Earth’s continents once were
part of a large super continent called Pangea. Then, about 200 million years ago, the super
continent broke into pieces that drifted over the surface of earth like rafts on water.

This is the movement of the Continents relative to one another. The present day set up of the
continents and oceans shows a Northern group of continents which is known as Laurasia and a
Southern group called Gondwana land

Wegener’s argued that you could match rock types, fossils, erosion features and mountain
ranges. If you found similar formations and structures on each continent then the continents
could have been joined together in that place
Figure 1: This illustration is an artist’s conception of what Pangea may have looked like in
200 million years ago

Evidences supporting or favoring continental drift theory includes:-

(i) Matching Coastlines (shorelines) of continent- The most apparent match of continents is
the Eastern coastline of South America with the Western coastline of Africa. The coastline of
northwestern Africa fits nicely with that of the eastern united states

Figure 2: Weathering of the continental edges does not affect the continental shelves (light
blue)

(ii) Matching Fossils (Palaeontological evidence)- Large land animals provide better evidence
because they could not have crossed oceans. eg Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus animals
supported a contiguous landmass found in south America, sourthen Africa, India, Antarctica
and Australia. Glossopteris a large fern with large heavy spores found in south America,
southern Africa, India, Antarctica and Australia also supported the idea of Pangea
 Figure 3: Wegener choose fossils of animals that could not swim or fly to prove Pangea’s
existence

(iii)Matching rocks and Mountains- Wegener’s show that continents that were joined shared
unique rocks and rocks minerals. eg Cape fold belt in south Africa and South America,
Appalachians North America and North west Africa, Great Britain, Norway and Greenland.

Figure 4: Wegener’s hypothesis showed mountains on several continents were one part of the
same range

b) Seafloor Spreading/Divergence Hypothesis

Dr Harry Hess revived Wegener’s ideas. He suggested that seafloor was created and spread apart
at the Mid- Ocean ridge (MOR). He used sonar equipment-equipment on a ship or submarine
that uses sound waves to find out the position of objects under the water.

Also he suggested that magma from the mantle is forced upward because of its low density. This
causes the crust to crack (fault) and move apart. The faulting causes twin mountain ranges with a
down-dropped rift valley between. This continuous process allows new rock to form as magma
fills in from below.

After extensive drilling into the seafloor found that near the continents the oldest sediments and
rocks are at the bottom and young sediments and rocks are at the top. MOR sediments and rocks
are all of recent ages. When the ages of rocks are measured, the continental rocks are billions of
years old, while seafloor rocks are less than 200 million years of age. Rocks of the oceanic crust
increase in age as their location extends from the MOR, and at the MOR they are new.

Magnetic reversals preserved in the seafloor rocks are symmetrically distributed on either side of
the MOR

Figure 5: Discovery of a mid-ocean ridge led Hess to hypothesize seafloor spreading

c) Theory of Plate Tectonics

Earth’s rigid, outermost layers are composed of a dozen or so major plates and many smaller
ones.

i. Divergent Plate Boundaries-In MOR represents divergence that has resulted in the
production of major ocean basins. In some locations on earth today exists as rift
valleys, where no mature ocean basins exist yet eg in east Africa.
ii. Convergent plate Boundaries-Where plates collide, they come together to form
convergent boundaries. In some cases, less-dense, thick continental lithosphere moves
toward denser, thin oceanic lithosphere. This results in the oceanic side bending and
being forced downward beneath the continental slab in a process called Subduction.
Heat along a subduction zone partially melts rock at depth and produces magma,
which rises toward the surface.

iii. Transform Plate Boundaries- Some boundaries among plates exist as large faults or
cracks along which mostly horizontal movement is taking place.
 iv. What drives the Plates?
 Frictional heating between a plate and mantle below the plate is a major cause of
plate motion.
 Internal convection of mantle material caused by thermal energy is the driving force
for all mechanism of plate motion. The main source of thermal energy that keeps
Earth materials converting comes from the decay of radioactive elements in Earth.
 Conversion of secondary earthquake waves in the outer core is another source of
energy.

3.2 Global Earthquakes Distribution

Scientists have known that earthquakes are not distributed randomly, but rather, they occur in
well defined zones. These zones coincide with the edges of lithospheric plates. In fact, seismic
data originating from earthquakes helped to decipher the structure of Earth’s ocean floor and to
infer the structure and motion of earth’s plates.

Most earthquakes occur along the edges of plates or along fractures (called faults) which receive
stresses in the crustal rocks. Stress accumulates locally from various causes until it exceeds the
strength of the rocks, when failure and slip along fractures occur, followed usually by a smaller
rebound. The resulting vibrations are set out in all directions from the place of origin. Wherever
the vibrations traverse an earthquake is said to have taken place.

It describes the shaking and passage of vibrations in the earth’s crust. The movement can be
either horizontal or vertical, and sometimes the mixture of the two. The shaking can be violent
and destructive or mild. Earthquake usually occurs in faulted and volcanic areas figure

Figure 6: Most earthquakes occur along the edges of plates

The study of earthquake is termed as SEISMOLOGY. The vibrations are more intense nearer
the centre of disturbance from which as the distance increases they become feeble and ultimately
die out Strong vibrations can be easily felt while weaker ones can be perceived only by the
recording instruments called SEISMOGRAPH. The record of vibrations taken by the instrument
is called SEISMOGRAM.

3.2.1Causes of Earthquakes
An earthquake is any seismic vibration of earth caused by the rapid release of energy.
Earthquake events can be either natural or human caused. Passing trains or large trucks and
explorations can cause earth to vibrate. Sudden, virtually unpredictable, natural earthquakes that
result in major destruction are greatly feared.
a) Deformation-Earth’s crust is composed of rigid, rock material. Engineers would describe it
as brittle. When a stress is applied to a brittle material it shows little sign of strain, or
deformation, until it suddenly breaks. A strain is the manner of deformation in response to a
stress. Stress is the force per unit area that acts on a material. Stresses can be of four types
i. Compressive stress in which mass is squeezed or shortened
ii. A Tension stress, in which the mass is stretched or lengthened
iii. A shear stress, in which different parts of a mass are moved in opposite
directions along a plane
iv. Torsion stress, in which a mass is subjected to twisting

b) Elastic and Plastic Deformation-Elastic deformation occurs when a material deforms as a

stress is applied but snaps back to its origin shape when the stress is removed. Plastic
deformation occurs when a material deforms, or changes shapes, as a stress is applied and
remains in the new shape when the stress is released. eg Modeling Clay behaves plastically.
You would expect all rocks to show brittle deformation, which means breaking in response
to stress. BUT rocks at depth, where temperature are high enough display plastic behavior.

c) Energy Release- Strain energy builds up cracks in response to stress. When this strain
energy released suddenly, it causes rocks to lurch to a new position and form a Fault. A
fault is a crack along which a movement has taken place. If no movement is takes place is a
Fracture.
Earthquake-producing faults occur in broad zones in which rock is deformed in a brittle
manner during the faults movements. These zones can be tens of meters wide. The sudden
energy release that goes with faults movements is called elastic rebound. Elastic rebound
causes seismic vibrations or earthquakes, like when you drag a table across the floor and the
legs catch and release making a rumbling sound.

3.2.2 Earthquakes Waves-

Earthquakes waves travel out in all directions from a point where strain energy is released. The
point of origin of an earthquake is called Focus (Seismic center). The point on earth’s surface
directly above the focus is the Epicenter
In common practice, the focus is considered
i. Shallow when at depth of 0-50Km
ii. Intermediate when at depth of 50-250Km
iii. Deep when at depth of greater than 250Km
3.2.3 Types of Seismic Waves
There are two types of seismic (or earthquake) waves. The two waves obeys the laws of
reflection and refraction as they pass through earth’s materials of varying density

a) Body waves -These are the waves which travel within the crust and are of two types as
follows:-
(i) P-waves (primary waves) – These are longitudinal or compressional in nature like sound
waves. The particles vibrate in the direction of propagation of the wave, with a push and
pull effect. They are the fastest waves and therefore are the first to be recorded at the
recording stations. They are also capable of passing through solids as well as liquids.
(ii) S-waves (Secondary waves) – These are transverse (distortional/shear) in nature like light
waves. The particles vibrate at right angles to the direction of propagation. These travel
slower than the P-wave and are second to be recorded. Also, they can pass through the
solids, but are incapable of passing through liquids.

b) Surface waves- These are the waves which travel along the earth’s surface following a
circumferential path i.e they follow the periphery of the earth. They are also of two types,
namely
(i) LQ-waves (Love waves)-These are the waves which cause the surface rocks to move
side to side at right angles to the direction of propagation
(ii) LR-waves (Rayleigh waves) -They are the waves which cause the surface rock to have a
vertical circular movements i.e of rotary type in the vertical plane. Surface waves are of
long period and are the slowest but have large amplitude and do the greatest damage at
the surface.

3.2.4 Earthquake Measurement

Two measurement schemes that have been used to characterize earthquakes are The Modified
Mercalli intensity scale and the Richter magnitude scale. Intensity is a measure of ground
shaking and the damage that it causes.

i. MERCALLI SCALE- The modified Mercalli ranks earthquakes in a range from I-XII,
XII being the worst, and uses eyewitness observations and post earthquake assessments
to assign an intensity value.

Table 1Mercalli Scale of Earthquake Intensity

Intensity Accelerations Produced Name of the shock and its Effect
2
(mm/s )
I <10 Instrumental-recorded only by seismographs
Feeble-Felt only by some very sensitive
II >10
people. Suspended objects may swing
Slight-Felt noticeably indoors-vibration like
III >25
the passing of a truck
Moderate-Felt indoors by many, outdoors by
IV >50
some, windows and doors rattle.
 Fairly Strong-Felt by nearly every one. Some
windows broken, pendulum clocks stop.
V >100
Considerable amount of vibration which wakes
up people at sleep and causes ringing of belts.
Strong-Felt by all, many frightened, some
heavy furniture moved, some fallen plaster,
VI >250
minor damage to the building particularly to
their overhanging and projecting parts
Very Strong-Every one runs outdoors,
VII >500 damage to poorly constructed buildings eg
cracks, week chimneys fall.
Destructive-Much damage to buildings,
except those specially designed. Tall
VIII >1000
chimneys, columns fall, sand and mud flow
from cracks in ground.
Ruinous-Considerable (Severe) damage in
IX >2500 substantial buildings involving overthrowing
ground cracked, buried pipes broken.
Disastrous –Framed buildings destroyed, rails
X >5000
bent, small landslides
Very Disastrous-Few structures left standing,
XI >7500 wide features opened in ground with slumps
and landslides
Catastrophic-Large scale to complete
destruction (total damage of buildings, ground
XII >9800
warped, waves seen moving through ground,
objects thrown upwards.

ii. RICHTER SCALE

Richter scale uses the amplitude of the largest earthquake assessment wave. Richter magnitude is
intended to give a measure of the energy released during the earthquake. The released energy
travels around in the form of earthquake waves causing displacement of the ground surface. The
displacement is directly proportional to the amount of energy released during an earthquake.
M = Log10 a+C
where a = the maximum displacement
The Scale of Magnitude due of Richter scale is based on the maximum amplitudes shown on
records made with a standard SEISMOMETER.
The Scale is logarithmic and is related to the Elastic wave Energy (E) measured in Joules (J).
Log (E) = 4.8 + 1.5M
Table 2 shows the global frequency of different magnitude earthquakes

Richter Magnitude Range Description Index Estimated Occurrence per year

<2.0 Recorded, but not generally felt 600,000
2.0-2.9 Potentially felt 300,000
3.0-3.9 Felt by some 49,000
4.0-4.9 Felt by most 6200
5.0-5.9 Damaging 800
6.0-6.9 Destructive in densely populated 266
areas
7.0-7.9 Potential to inflict major damage 18
8.0 and above Potential to destroy communities 1.4
near epicenter

3.2.4 Earthquake in relation to engineering

In view of the great havoc and disaster in respect of life and property, we need to have the
knowledge of earthquake in an area and provide necessary resistance to the building and other
structures so as to withstand the vigorous any future shocks

(i) Construction in seismic Areas

The shallow earthquakes (those originating within the depth up to 350 are more dangerous than
others. Also those with magnitude 5 and above need engineering considerations.
The destruction is essentially due to the velocity of the shock wave (L-wave). As the waves
propagate, the ground and the objects on the surface are set in motion. The forward movement is
instantly followed by an equal backward movement. This to and fro movement shakes the
structure.
A compact and strong structure build on a rigid foundation may just oscillate back and forth
(forward) along with the ground vibration and survive even a strong shock.
If at all there is any damage, it may involve only some cracks, fall of chimney and breaking of
window panes etc.
Poorly build structures on weak and soft ground foundation are badly destroyed.

While constructing structures in seismic regions special care has thus to be taken regarding.
i. Nature of the ground for foundation
ii. Design of the structure
iii. Selection of the materials

During an earthquake, it is the horizontal shaking or base shear force which tends to toppled the
buildings and other structures. A structure should therefore be such that it can resist the lateral
force.
(ii) Buildings
A building structure should be so designed and constructed that it can acts as a single unit and
moves in unison (uniform) with the ground during the earthquake vibrations.
Also it should be compact and rigid with adequate lateral strength to resist the lateral force.
In order to archive these conditions, in addition to the basic design for the entire lay out, the
following points are to be taken care of:-
 Good quality construction material as per specification should be used eg light materials
like paper, bamboo and matting
 The foundation should not be on loose ground, rather it should be on the hard rock
 Depth of foundation should be uniform; Its height also be kept uniform which adds to its
stability
 Foundation outline approximating a square gives more stability
 The walls should be continuous in nature with few doors and windows. Too many doors
and windows and discontinuous walls lower stability
 Doors and windows should not be in vertical rows. Preferably along the diagonals
 Roof should be flat and reinforced cement concrete to add to the lateral stiffness
 All the parts of a building (particularly the edges and corners) should be well tied so that
it moves as a single unit during an earthquake vibration
 Construction of chimneys (vents), arches, domes cantilevers and other extra projections
should be avoided.

(iii)Dams and Reservoirs

 The effects of ground acceleration (earthquake) can be accommodated by making
necessary provisions in the design of the dam structure.
 It is very necessary that foundation and the abutment (adjoin) rocks are strong and stable
and do not give way causing failure.
 When the reservoirs is full of water is a more serious case: It starts oscillating during an
earthquake; apart from the waves generated exerting enormous pressure on the dam
structure, the water of the oscillating reservoir tends to overtop the dam wall. To
overcome this risk, it is very essential to provide additional free board to the dam
 In the case of earth fill dams, the effect of the earthquake vibrations is much more severe
because the material used is loose and weak in nature. It is very essential to provide the
clay core within the structure which makes a impermeable, strong and stable.

3.3 The Earth’s Interior

The radius of the Earth at the equator is 6367km, and the polar radius is shorter by 22km. The
Earth’s surface area is 5.1 x 108 km2 of which 29% is land (Continent). The surface relief is very
varied mountains rise several Kilometers above sea level with maximum of 8.9km at Everest
Mountain. In the case of ocean floor the Mariana Trench in N.W Pacific reaches the greatest
known depth of 11.04km.

The hard and massive body of the earth is known as LITHOSPHERE. The water present in
various forms such as oceans, lakes, rivers constitutes what is known as HYDROSPHERE. The
whole of the earth’s surface is surrounded by a gaseous envelope referred to as the
ATMOSPHERE.
Earthquake generated seismic waves provide information about the Earth’s deep interior.
Earthquake observations show that:-
i. Earth’s interior has a layered structure
ii. Earth’s layers become denser with depth
iii. Changes in density occur at layer boundaries called discontinuities
Observations show that, from a given epicenter, P-waves and S-waves travel through earth for
105 degrees of arc in all directions. Between 105 and 140 degrees from epicenter, nothing is
recorded. This zone is termed shadow zone. From 140 degrees to 180 degrees directly opposite
the epicenter, only P-waves are recorded. Composition of Earth closely resembles the
composition of meteorites

3.3.1Composition of Earth’s layers

The earth consists of three main concentric layers, namely the Crust, the Mantle and the Core.
The layers are made of materials of increasing density towards the centre (Average density being
5.527g/cc). Temperature increases downwards at an average rate of 30 Centigrade per km depth.
This rate is higher near a source of heat (e.g on active volcanic centre).

The pressure is also increasing with depth; and due to greater temperature at deeper depths most
rocks would begin to melt. But due to the high pressure prevailing at such depths and the ability
of crustal rock to conduct heat away to the surface of the earth, the rock materials remain in a
relatively solid condition as shown in figure 1.

a) The Crust: This is the outer layer of the earth. It consists of the Sial and Sima. It is also
known as a Lithosphere.
i. Sial- This the Outer layer of the earth’s crust which is composed of Granite rocks that
form the continent. It consists mainly of Silica and Aluminium and its average density is
2.7gm/cc
ii. Sima-This is the layer below the SIAL and is composed of Basalt rocks. This is the layer
which forms the Ocean floor and consists mainly of SILICA and Magnesium and its
average density is 3.0gm/cc. In Continental areas the average thickness of the Crust is
about 30km where as in the Oceanic areas it is about 10km.

b) The Mantle
The layer found between the Core and the Crust. It is also referred t as MESOSPHERE and is
divided into two, The Upper Mantle and Lower Mantle. This layer is made up of very
dense Igneous rocks of Iron, Silicon, Aluminium, Oxygen, Calcium and Magnesium. It is
about 2900km thick and has an average density of 3.1-5.0gm/cc

c) The Core
Is the innermost part of the erath which is also referred to as BARYSPHERE and is divided
into two i.e Inner (or solid) Core and Outer (or Fluid) Core. This layer is of high density and
comprise mainly of Nickel and Iron and its thickness is about 3470km
Figure 2 below shows,
 The thick Grinitic mass(Continent)
 Thin Basaltic layer (Oceanic floor)
  The mantle (Ultra Basic rock)-Type of black rock which is produced by Volcanoes.

3.4 Vulcanism (Vulcanicity)

The interior of the earth is hot, partly because of the amount of original heat left behind
during volcanism and partly because of the heat generated by the radioactive elements
present. Thus the rock matter under the crust is in a molten state and is known as magma.
The intense pressure inside keeps the magma in a viscous state. But whenever this pressure is
released because of the presence of fractures (fissures) and other weak planes in the crust, the
viscous hot matter melts and injects along these weak surfaces.

When the cracks extend to the surface and the magmatic matter starts erupting over the ground,
when it is termed as Lava after its extrusion. This process of Lava injections and eruptions is
known as Volcanicity (Volcanic Activity).

Volcanicity-This is the extrusive volcanic activity in which the material is forced out onto the
earth’s surface

Vulcanism:-These are the range of processes by which molten material and gases are either
intruded (injected) into the earth’s crust or extruded (ejected) onto the surface.
Vulcanism is responsible for the flow of magma to form intrusive rocks within the earth’s crust
or extrusive rocks on the earth’s surface. It is usually associated with earth movements.
When folding or faulting occurs magma may force its way into the cracks in the earth and collect
them to form intrusive features. Magma may reach the earth’s surface quickly if the lava is very
fluid and the gas content is small, but commonly they are discharged with explosive violence.

3.4.1Magma and Lava: When the molten materials are still inside the crust, are referred to as
Magma but on reaching the earth’s surfaces are referred to as Lava. These materials may be
either acidic or basic.

Acidic Magma/Lava
 Contain much silica
 Have high melting point
 Highly viscous
 Solidify very rapidly
 Erupt violently
 The lavas being highly viscous are sluggish and thus tend to accumulate in heaps

Basic Magma/Lava
 Contain much iron and magnesium (poor in silica)
 Have lower melting point
 Less viscous (highly viscous)- because of its low viscosity and slow solidification the
lava spreads rapidly over large area
 Dark in colour (Basalts)
 They erupt quietly and solidify slowly
3.4.2Types of Volcanic Eruption
(i) Fissure eruption
(ii) Central eruption

(i) Fissure Eruption The lavas erupt from long fissures extending over a considerable part
of the earth. In this case the eruption is normally quiet and on a very large scale expelling
enormous quantities of lava mostly basic nature indicating its supply from a major deep seated
magma body.

(ii) Central Eruptions: In this case the eruptions are extremely violent and on a
comparatively low scale, expelling mostly acidic lavas possibly supplied by small shallow
magma pockets. This builds a volcano that has a cone with a summit crater connected to the
volcanic pipe i.e the lavas erupt from centrally located vents.

In the upper part of magma chamber beneath; the volcano gases accumulate and build up
pressure in the pipe of the volcano. As it erupts the expanding gases burst the lava into fragments
of dust, ash or pumice which ultimately fall around the vent or are blown to a distance by wind.
Larger fragments i.e Lapill and still larger Lumps of magma i.e Bombs may also be ejected
together with the fragments and blocks of rock torn by the force of the eruption from the walls of
the volcanic vent

3.4.3 Volcanic Products: The magmatic material extruding during the volcanic activity makes
its way thus bringing a variation in its composition from time to time. The various complex
chemical composition involved on the way generate numerous gaseous substances in addition to
those initially present in the magma.
The ground water adds the water content to that already there, erupting as steam. The volcanic
products can be conveniently grouped as:-
(i) Solids products
(ii) Liquid products
(iii)Gaseous products

(a) Solid Products i.e Pyroclasts-These are the fragmentary products of volcanic activity and
can be distinguished according to their size and shape.
(i) Volcanic blocks- The large sized angular fragments
(ii) Volcanic bombs-The lumps of lava congealing (solidify) in the air, forming rounded
bomb shaped bodies.
(iii)Lapilli(Cinder)-The small sized fragments
(iv) Volcanic sands-The sand sized fractions
(v) Volcanic(Volcanic dust)-finer fragments
(vi) Tuff-A rock formed from the consolidation of volcanic ash and dust along the volcano
slopes.
(vii) Volcanic breccias(conglomerates)-This is the consolidation of mixed mass of pyroclastic
products
(b) Liquid Products-The hot magmatic material (or lava) having temperature of the order 1200
centigrade flows out during the volcanic action.
(i) Part of it which penetrates the crust, but being unable to reach the surface solidifies
gradually forming igneous bodies of different types
(ii) The part which erupts over ground starts spreading and solidify (the viscosity of this melt
controls its spread).
 The acidic lava shows higher viscosity and thus forms raised accumulations known as
Block Lava.
 The basic Lavas has a low viscosity and a greater spread, thus consolidating evenly with
smooth surfaces and twisting flow lines known as Ropy Lava

(c) Gaseous products-The main gaseous product of volcanic activity is the steam, which is
given out in enormous large quantities. The condensation of the steam towards the end of
eruption brings a heavy rain, which is a common feature during volcanic activity bringing
about, at times devastating Mudflows.
Besides steam, other gases are Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Carbondioxide, Carbonmonoxide,
Sulphur dioxide, Flouride dioxide and Hydrogen Sulphide and also vapor of Sulphur,
phosphorous, boric acid, hydrochloric acid, hydro carbons, arsenic, ammonium and sodium.
The gaseous ingredients impart the violent action to the volcanic outbursts. Also they lower
the viscosity and melting point of the lava

Vesicular Lava-formed in rapidly cooling lava with the escaping of gaseous product leaving
behind numerous cavities or vesicles

Pumice-formed when the hot lava comes in contact with water ( as in the case of freshly
erupted lavas along a sea coast, spilled into the sea water), the cooling is instantaneous and
thus the quick expulsion of gases leaves behind a finely porous, light-weighted product

3.4.4 Resulting Features: These are features formed during volcanic processes, and they are of
two types namely, Intrusive and Extrusive volcanic features.

A. Intrusive Vulcanic Features: These features are divided into two, namely
a) Hypabyssal features –Features which are formed inside but near the surface of the earth’s
crust.
b) Plutonic features- Features which formed deep down the earth crust examples of these
features are Concordant Bodies:-These are features formed when the magmatic material is
guided by the bedding planes.

i. Sill-This is a rock sheet formed magma solidifies horizontally along the bedding plane. It
can be of any thickness and can extend for many kilometers. They can appear as
escarpments after the place have been eroded (denuded). This sills are the cause of many
water falls in the river valleys
 ii. Laccolith- This is a dome shaped(cake like) mass of rock with flat bottom formed of
viscous magma which on accumulating forces the overlying rock strata to bend up(arch
up). It looks like a mushroom

iii. Lopollith-This is a saucer shaped mass of rock formed in the geosynclines. The saucer
like shape may be due to the increased weight of the deposits.

iv. Phacolith-This is a lens shaped strip of igneous rock formed when magma solidifies
along the anticlines (crest) and synclines (troughs) of the folds.

Discordant Bodies:-These are features formed when the magma cuts across the bedding
planes of the surrounding rocks (i.e they don’t follow the nature of the rock strata)

i. Dyke- This is a wall of rock, which cuts across the bedding planes of the country rock. It is
formed when magma solidifies along the vertical or slanting fissure (fault)

ii. Ring Dyke- These are magmatic materials fills cylindrical cracks making dyke which is
ring shaped (cross – section)

iii. Cone - Sheet – Magma accumulated along cone – shaped fractures.

iv. Volcanic Necks- As the volcanic eruption ceases, the lava filling the vent may solidify.
Later on with erosion, the softer and loose volcanic mountain mass may be eroded away
while the hard and compact mass of lava congealed (become thick and sticky solid) in the
vent may stand out as a projecting mass, called a “Volcanic neck”

v. Batholith- This is large mass of solidified rock which is formed when magma cools
plutonically in the heart of the mountain ranges. It is situated deep and granite is the best
example of rock which forms batholiths. It can be exposed to the surface through
denudation.

B. Extrusive Volcanic Features. These are divided into two – Central Eruption Volcanic and
Fissure Eruption Volcanic Features

1) Central Eruption Volcanic features: Are the ones which are formed when lava comes
out through a vent (hide). It can be associated with either violent eruption or peaceful
eruption.

a) Central Features Due To Violent Eruption

i) Ash and Cinder Cone (Scoria Cone): This is cone shaped accumulation of rick fragment
(Pyroclasts) around the vent. The slopes of the cone are always concave due to the
spreading tendency of lava at the base of the cone.

ii) Composite Cone (Strata Volcano): This type of cone is formed of alternate layers of
Pyroclasts (Fragments) i.e “ash and cinder” on one hand and “Lava” on the other hand:
The cone has steep slopes and is the most common volcano. Each eruption starts with
 great violence forming layers of lava on top of the ash. Composite cone may have
subsidiary cone sides of the main cone (Cone lets).

iii) Volcanic Plug ( Plug dome volcano)

This is a rigid cylindrical plug formed when very viscous lava is forced out by very
explosive eruptions. The plug is extruded amid clouds of hot blowing ash and cinders.

NB: Crater – This is a circular depression formed on the summit of the cone after the
plug has been blown off the top of the cone. The size of the Crater grows with the size of
the Volcano. When the eruption is over the lavas congeal, plugging the vent also.

Caldera- This is a large crater (large rounded depression) formed when the upper part of
the volcano is either bombarded away by violent eruptions or subsides into the crust or in
the volcano cone (which is quite possible because of the expulsion of the lava)

Therefore depending upon the process involved, a caldera may be on Explosion Caldera
or a Subsidence Caldera. A crater may be forming part of a caldera, but the two are
different, involving different processes in their formation.

The hot rock fluid passing through the vent of a volcano may also permeate along other
cracks extending to the sides, emerging on the main slopes of the volcano forming
Secondary Cones (Secondary Volcanoes). Secondary Volcanoes may make their own
craters.

b) Central Volcanic Features Due To Quite Eruptions

The lava coming out through the vent can be acidic and thus viscous or it can be basic
and hence less viscous.

i. Acid Lava Cone ( Cumulo Done Volcano)

This is a dome shaped volcano with convex slopes formed when acidic lava solidifies
around the vent. Lava does not flow away rather it piles near the vent since it is very
viscous due to high content of silica an its high melting point. (example: The Ntumbo
dome- 30km East of Mbeya)

ii. Shield Volcano

This is an extensive Cone with gently sloping sides, formed when basic (eg basalt) lava is
poured on the surface and spread to occupy a large area. Lava tends to come through a
vent; sometimes this feature can be formed when lava comes out through as single fissure
or many fissures.

2) Fissure Eruption Volcanic Features

Fissures eruption involves lava coming out through cracks of faults. The “Lava Plateau”
(Lava Plain) is one of the features formed when lava comes out through fissures. When the
lava plateau is being formed, the thin and mobile lavas comes through several fissures
accumulating on the surface and spread over a large area producing an upland with generally
level summit (i.e vast flat-topped hillock)
C) Minor Volcanic Features: These are normally taking place when volcanic eruption is
approaching the end:

i. Mud Volcano: This is a conical mound made of mud. They may rise up to 90m height.
There is a central vent from which mud with saline water and hydrocarbons and
sometimes petroleum is emitted. The clay builds up a conical mountain around the vent
or hole. Mud volcanoes are seen in areas with oil fields

ii. Fumerole: This is a volcano which emits steam (vapours), mud and several other gases.
(N2, H2, CO2, CO,O2, NH3, HCL, hydrofluoric acid and boric acid)
 They are emitted through holes and fissure:
 A dormant volcano may be emitting only gaseous products.
 The fomeroles which expel sulphurous vapours are termed as “Solfataras” (e.g
Valley kibo – Kilimanjaro Tz.)
 Those emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) gas are termed as “maffettes” and
 Those emitting boric vapours are termed as “soffion”.

iii. Hot Water Spring: This is an outflow of super heated water from the grounds. It is a
common occurrence in the regions of volcanic activity. The underground water gets
heated by the internal heat of the magmatic bodies

Some water content and other ingredients are also contributed by the inside magma mass,
such waters act as good solvent and dissolve several other substances on their way
towards the surface. These dissolved ingredients may precipitate out later on.

Water rich in CO2 dissolves lot of carbonates and deposits them on the surface around its
mouth forming “calcareous deposits” called “tufa” (travertine”)

The alkaline water dissolves silica on its way and deposits it forming “siliceous”deposits.
Called “siliceous Sinters” Hot water springs also form deposits of arsenic, borax,
sulphur, alum etc

iv. Geyser: This is a special type of hot spring emitting hot water with force from the ground
to high levels in the atmosphere at regular intervals.

The working of a geyser is due to the presence of a wavy vent with a constriction at a
certain depth. The hot water rises up in the vent while the steam accumulating below
gathers pressure as the Pressure becomes adequate, it throws out the overlying column of
water. This process keeps on repeating. The height to which water rises varies from a few
to several meters Examples: The “Old Faithful”Greyser in the yellow stone park of U.S.A
Water gashes at 65 minutes intervals rising up to heights of the order 45m.
3.4.5 Classification of Volcanoes-According to Activity:

i. Active Volcano: This is a Volcano which erupts frequently (e.g oldonyo Lengai – TZ
and Cameroon – W. African)

ii. Dormant Volcano: This is the one which has stopped erupting but not extinct; and is
expected to erupt at any time (some rare eruption expected)

iii. Extinct Volcano: This is the one which has stopped erupting for a very long time in
history and not expected to erupt again.
Note: Volcanic features also undergo evolution and hence pass through three stages in
their life cycle. These stages are:

i. Active Volcano;
ii. Dormant Volcano
iii. Extinct Volcano.
Like other landforms, a volcano can be attached by denudation processes like weathering,
erosion and end up being modified or removed.

4.4.6 Influences of Volcanic Eruption to Man and Environment:

(a) Destructive Influences:
i. Some Volcanic eruptions cause great loss of life (due to outpouring of poisonous
gases)
ii. They cause great damage to property (e.g. houses crops etc)
iii. Gases emitted cause air pollution, which in turn cause soil pollution and thus effects
on human being
iv. Hot molten material ejected on the surface can destroy vegetation leading to
deforestation or loss of biodiversity.

(b) Constructive Influences:

i. Some lava on weathering lead to the formation of very fertile soil
ii. Volcanicity can lead to the formation of mineral deposits
iii. Some hot springs are utilized for heating and supplying hot water to building in cold
countries
iv. Geothermal power can be attained from volcanic eruptions , which can be utilized
electric generation ( e.g Kenya & Ethiopia)
v. Volcanic eruptions can attract tourists and lead to the development of tourist industry
in the country (getting foreign currency)
vi. The volcanic cones formed have been the sources of many rivers. Also these
highlands helping rainfall formation through or graphic effect.