MODULE-II

FRICTION & WEAR

 CONTENTS
• Friction:
 Origin,
 Friction theories,
 Measurement methods,
 Friction of metals and non-metals.
• Wear:
 Classification and mechanisms of wear,
 Delamination theory,
 Debris analysis,
 Testing methods and standards.
 Related case studies.
 What is friction?

Friction or force of friction is a force which comes into existence when two
bodies in contact have relative motion or tending to have relative with respect to
each other and oppose the motion.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF FRICTION
 Force of friction is always opposites to the force causing the relative motion

between the surface.

 Force of friction always acts at the points of contacts of the two surface.

 As the force causing motion increases the frictional force increases up to certain

maximum value and that maximum value of the force of friction is called

limiting friction.

 The frictional force is independent of the area of contacts.

 The frictional force is independent as nature of surface in contact.

 The frictional force depends on the nature of materials of surface in contact.

 Frictional force depends on lubrication.

 ORIGIN OF FRICTION
Earlier it was assumed that the force of friction
between two surfaces in contact comes into
existence due to roughness of the surfaces.

When the two surface seems to be in contact actually there is no surface to surface contact. It is
due to the fact that irrespective of smoothness of the surface, it contains hills & dales (Projections
and depressions). This unevenness of the surface can be observed under a microscope. These
surface irregularities have the effect of interlocking the surfaces thereby opposing the relative
motion of the two surfaces with respect to each other. This opposition contributes to frictional
force in a small extent.
A major contribution to the frictional force can be explained on the basis of molecular theory.
Due to hills and dales, there is no surface to surface contact but there is point contact. Due to
point contact there exist a very high pressure at contact points. Due to high pressure, the
molecules of the two surfaces at the point of contact get cold-welded and thus the bonding exists
between the two surfaces in contact.
When the two surfaces in contact tend to have relative motion with respect to each other these
bonds or cold-welded and joints do not allow them to so. To create relative motion additional
force is required to break these cold welded joints. This additional force explain the origin of
friction and is called a force of friction.
 Five laws of friction
1. When an object is moving, the friction is proportional and
perpendicular to the normal force (N).

2. Friction is independent of the area of contact as long as there is

an area of contact.

3. The coefficient of static friction is slightly greater than the

coefficient of kinetic friction.

4. Within large limits, kinetic friction is independent of velocity.

5. Friction depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact

 Different types of Friction
1. Static friction: When a force is applied to an object but it
does not cause it to move. Ex. Pushing on a wall

2. Dynamic friction:
1. Sliding friction: Occurs when solid surfaces lied over each other.
Ex. Falling on the pavement

2. Rolling friction: Occurs when solid surface slide over each other.
Ex. falling on the pavement.

3. Fluid friction: Occurs when a object moves through a fluid,

meaning either a liquid or gas. Ex. Skydiving, swimming.
 Methods of Reducing Friction
1. Use of Lubricants: The parts of machines which are moving over one another must
be properly lubricated by using oils and lubricants of suitable viscosity.

2. Use of Grease: Proper greasing between the sliding parts of machine reduces the
friction.

3. Use of Ball Bearing: In machines where possible, sliding friction can be replaced by
rolling friction by using ball bearings.

4. Design Modification: Friction can be reduced by changing the design of fast moving
objects. The front of vehicles and airplanes made oblong to minimize friction.

• Polishing: Polishing the surface, reduce the irregularities and hence friction will
reduce.

• Streamlining: Fast cars, boats, planes etc., have a streamlined body. This is to allow
air (water in case aof boats) to easily flow by, without offering much resistance.
 Methods of increasing friction:
Friction is simply the resistant force between two objects moving
while in contact with one another. But many people do not understand
friction completely and are unaware that there are ways to increase the
frictional force between two objects

Some ways to increase the friction

1. Make the surfaces rough.

2. Increase the contact area.

3. Adding weight to one object can significantly increase the frictional

force between tow moving objects.

4. Remove lubricant between sliding parts.

 Theories of friction
The generation and causes of friction have been explained by many theories,
some of which are as follows:

1. Adhesion theory :

Adhesion is a surface interaction phenomenon and it is the ability of

contacting bodies to withstand tensile forces after being pressed together.
When the two very clean surfaces are pressed together, strong adhesive
junctions are formed. No inter-diffusion or recrystallization of metal atoms
takes place at the junctions is more like “cold welding” situation. The fig
shows one typical adhesive joint/junction.
Fig. A typical adhesion junction joint Fig. A 2-adhesive junction joint
 2. Asperity interlocking theory
• Mr. Coulomb (1736-1803) was probably the first to tell that friction was due to interlocking of
asperities. As it is almost impossible to get a perfectly smooth surface, all surfaces are made
of asperities (mountains and valleys) and mountains of one surface may go and interact with
the valleys of another surface. In course of sliding, the plastic deformation of softer asperities
has to occur by the applied force. This causes friction resistance.

• However, this theory is not accepted very well as it is observed that μ increases when the
surfaces becomes very smooth whereas, vide asperity interlocking theory, μ should decreases
as the mountains and valleys would be very small and should need very small force for their
plastic deformation. This theory is again contrary to the assumptions that, for very smooth
surface, real contact area becomes more and friction increases.

Fig. Asperity interlocking

3. Molecular attraction theory
Mr. W B Hardy (around 1928) was, probably the first to tell that friction is due to
the molecular attraction operating across an interface. The basis of this theory is
the partial irreversibility of the bonding force between atoms. Such molecular
attraction operates over short distances and, therefore, differentiates between real
area of contact and apparent area of contact.
However, this theory may be considered, to some extent, the “adhesion theory”.
Stick – slip theory: This may also be considered as another version of the adhesion
theory. This again assumes that one surface is resting over another on a junction.
When one surface starts sliding over another, a rise in temperature occurs at these
junctions and causes local welding at the points of contact (junctions). This causes
resistance to motion i.e., friction. Sliding occurs on account of applied force, by
tearing apart theses welds (often plucking some metal). Immediately, after this
sliding, local welding takes place on another set of junctions which are again torn to
enable sliding and such sticking and slipping (sliding) continues.
 Measurement methods

There are different methods of measuring frictional force

1. Wight ratio
2. Spring balance
3. Tilted plane
4. Clamping
5. Pendulum
6. Motorized tribometer
Weight ratio: The sketch shown originates from Leonardo da Vinci (ca 15..). He
studied friction by measuring the load handing on a cord, at which the block begins to
slide. The coefficient of friction is found by the quotient of the dead weight of the
mass handing on the cord and the mass of the block i.e.
µ=F / w = m dead weight / m block
Spring Balance: Pull a spring balance connected to the block and slowly increase the
force until the block begins to slide. Make sure the spring balance is parallel to the surface.
The reading on the spring balance scale when the load begins to slide is a measure for the
static friction, while the reading when the block continues to slide is a measure of dynamic
friction. The coefficient of friction is simply
µ=Fspring / Fnormal =Fspring / (mblock *g) g = 9.81 m/s2
Tilted Plane: Place a block on a tilted plane and increase the angle of tilt until
the block begins to slide. The tangent of the tilting angle just found is the so
called ‘friction angle’. This angle is related to the coefficient of friction
µ = BC/AB = mgSinθ/mgCosθ = Tanθ
INCLINED PLANE RIG
Clamping: To measure the static coefficient of friction under conditions of
high contact pressure the object may be clamped between two surfaces. The
force necessary to put the object in motion must be halved to obtain the
friction force because of the two contacting surfaces.
Pendulum: The pendulum is suitable to analyze the static and dynamic
friction under reciprocal motion by monitoring the bearing torque. This
however requires a torque sensor.
The energy loss of combined static and dynamic friction can be analyzed
by considering the reduction of the amplitude of motion in time. This only
requires a simple rotary potentiometer or pulse rotation sensors to
visualize the amplitude reduction in time.
Motorized Tribometer: in the measuring methods discussed, coefficient is
measured in fresh contacts; not after running in. the coefficient of friction may
change significantly during first half hour of sliding.
The time necessary to obtain a stable value of the coefficient of friction can be
observed in a motorized tribometer by monitoring the friction over time.
This method is common for measuring the specific wear rate and the contact
temperature during operation.
A simple tribometer is described by a hanging mass and a mass resting on a
horizontal surface, connected to each other via a string and pulley. The coefficient
of friction, µ, when the system is stationary, is determined by increasing the
hanging mass until the moment that the resting mass begins to slide. Then using
the general equation for friction force:
Where N, the normal force, is equal to the weight (mass x gravity) of the sitting mass (mT) and F,
the loading force, is equal to the weight (mass x gravity) of the hanging mass (mH).
To determine the kinetic coefficient of friction the hanging mass is increased or decreased until
the mass system moves at a constant speed.
In both cases, the coefficient of friction is simplified to the ratio of the two masses:
In most test applications using tribometer, wear is measured by comparing the mass or surfaces of
test specimens before and after testing. Equipment and methods used to examine the worn
surfaces include optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes, optical interferometer and
mechanical roughness testers.
PIN-ON-DISK RIG
 Friction of Metals and Non-Metals
Friction of Metals

The coefficient of friction of particular materials depends on 3 factors:

1. Mating materials 2. Surface roughness and 3. Operating conditions

 When the metal surfaces are cleaned in high vacuum and placed in contact, strong adhesion is observed and
consequently high friction is observed

 In vacuum typically 2 to 10 or even more

 With no interfacial contamination, the extent of junction growth is limited by ductility of material

 Gold is ductile but it does not forms oxide layers in the air, thus considerable amount of junction growth in gold
contact leads to high friction

 Most metals forms oxide layer in air and the layer will be in the range of 1 to 10nm. These films play important
role in frictional characteristics

 Variation of coefficient of friction with normal load for copper sliding on copper In air

 At low normal loads, the oxide films separate the two metals

 Coefficient of friction is low because the oxide has low shear strength

 At higher loads the surface films deforms and metallic contact occurs leading to high frictions
Note: for chromium very thin but strong oxide layer is formed and no metallic contact occurs for a wide range of
normal loads leading to a low constant friction
Friction of metals is affected by number of parameters like,
1. Sliding velocity
2. Contact Pressure
3. Temperature
4. Relative Humidity
5. Environmental conditions
Variation of coefficient of friction as a function of temperature for cobalt sliding
on stainless steel
Cobalt exhibits phase transformation from Hexagonal close packed structure to
Cubic Packed structure at 4170c
This is fully ductile
This phase transformation leads to peak friction atm5000c
The decrease in friction after 550 degree Celsius is because of oxide film
thickness and changes in oxides species from CoO to Co3O4
Friction as function of Fracture Toughness
This is for sharp diamond tip on (SiN4), (SiC), (Al2O3), (ZrO2) disks produced under
various hot pressing conditions
 Fracture is readily produced in concentrated contacts
At low loads, friction is low and no fracture occurs with plastic grooving
Variation of coefficient of friction with normal load for 600 diamond cone sliding over the
face of a silicon carbide
With increase in load the friction increases and fracture occurs
The role of normal load, sliding speed, temperature and test duration of friction of ceramics
may be interpreted based on the tribo-chemical changes in the surface film and also extent of
fracture in the contact zone
Load and speed affects the temperature at the interface
Variation of coefficient of friction with sliding speed for
reaction bonded silicon carbide and hot pressed silicon nitride samples
This is for self mated silicon carbide and silicon nitride
This similar phenomenon is observed in alumina and zerconia
With sliding speed interface temperature increases and this enhances the film formation in
the sliding surface which decreases the friction
Variation of coefficient of friction as a function of temperature for alumina and zerconia
This is sliding of self mated pair in air
The removal of adsorbed water results in initial rise of friction
Friction of Polymers

Polymer includes Elastomers and plastics.

The coefficient of friction for polymers ranges from 0.15-0.6 in general

With the exception of PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) which have very low

coefficient of friction 0.05

Thus in general polymers exhibit low coefficient of friction comparative to

metals and ceramics

Mostly used in the applications are self lubricating solids # PTFE, HDFE (High

density polyethylene), polyphenylene sulphide (PPS), pluamide (Nylon),

polyimide, acetal etc. are commonly used plastics # commonly used elastomers are

natural and synthetic rubber, styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), silicon rubber etc.
These self lubricated solids readily flow at moderate temperatures and pressures

Since polymers lack in rigidity and strength, polymer composites are used to provide

combination of mechanical strength with low friction and wear. Carbon, graphite and

glass are commonly used filler materials to make polymer composites

When plastic slide against hard metal surfaces, transfer film of plastic is formed on the

mating surface and this governs the friction and wear

Sliding tend to occur at the interface of bulk polymer and transfer film leading to low

wear rates

The coefficient of friction for initial hard materials is 0.2-0.3

As the sliding continues the coefficient of friction drops to much lower values
WEAR DEBRIS ANALYSIS
 Wear testing methods

Fig. Sliding wear tests arrangements

 Fig. Schematic representation of erosive wear test arrangements:
(a) jet impingement method (b) re-circulating loop (c) centrifugal accelerator (d) whirling arm rig
An abrasive wear tester

Fig. Abrasive wear tester

A rolling sliding wear tester

a) Wheel –on-wheel b) Block-on-wheel

Fig 2. Sample arrangement in a rolling sliding wear test
Pin-on-disc-machine b) arrangement of samples c) geometry of pin

Fig. : Schematic of a pin-on-disc wear test and the arrangement of samples

 Wear of metals
Clean metals and alloys exhibit high adhesion in a solid contact, consequently high
friction and wear. The wear rate in high vacuum can be very high. Due to contamination,
chemical films are formed; adhesion is reduced resulting in reduction of friction and
wear.
In metal-to-metal wear tests, high stresses can results in galling and seizure even after a
single cycle. To determine galling stress, button and block galling test is performed
where new specimens are tested at progressively higher stress levels until galling just
starts. Galling usually appears as a groove or a score mark and galling stress acts as a
good measure for wear resistance of a given material pair.
 Wear of Polymers

Polymers can be classified as “Plastics” and “rubbers”

a) Plastics:
wear of plastics takes place in following three stages
I. Break –in period
II. Steady – wear period
III. Sever wear period

b) Rubber
 Wear of Ceramics Materials:

Ceramics, which are inert nonmetallic solids, and a variation of ceramics called cermets,
which are metallic bonded ceramics have been used for tribological purposes for decades.
Although high manufacturing costs have limited their applicability, they have been used
in special applications, such as high- temperature or highly corrosive environments, and
in situations that require resistance to wear.

Ceramics are used for bearings operating at high temperature and in very aggressive
environments. They are also used as substitute for conventional metal alloys in some
applications. Examples: Bearings, Mechanical seals High-speed machine tools, Guides
and Rollers, Wear plates, Advanced Heat Engines, Medical prostheses, Ceramic dies.
Ceramics can wear by chipping because of their brittleness. Surface and sub surface
cracks form, join, and release small chips of material. A fine powder is produced as this
wear debris is ground up in the wear process. Therefore, ceramics are sensitive to high
contact stresses or to any contact condition leading to a state of stress that contains tensile
components. Metals and plastics can deform plastically to relieve high contact stresses
before fracture occurs. Ceramics can deform plastically under the hydrostatic stress
associated with concentrated contact, but the plastic deformation involved is very small,
when compared with metals and polymers.
Because of repeated stress application, involving repeated pass sliding and repeated
impacts etc., the fatigue mode of wear is predominant. In ceramics materials, while
ductile gain boundaries, the fatigue mechanism are similar to the low cyclic fatigue
mechanisms of metals. Because of brittle behavior, wear of ceramics occur by the damage
mechanism formed by sharp static indenter. For materials with brittle grain boundaries,
fracture occurs in fewer cycles and cracks propagate quickly because of high residual and
induced stress.